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Nordic model

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This article is about the social and economic model in northern Europe. For the socioeconomic model in continental Europe and Germany in particular, see Rhenish model. For the political ideology often associated with the Nordic model, see Social democracy.
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The Nordic model (or Nordic capitalism[1] or Nordic social democracy)[2][3] refers to the economic and social models of the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Faroe Islands and Sweden), which involves the combination of a free market economy with a welfare state.[4]

Although there are significant differences among the Nordic countries, they all share some common traits. These include support for a "universalist" welfare state (relative to other developed countries) which is aimed specifically at enhancing individual autonomy, promoting social mobility and ensuring the universal provision of basic human rights, as well as for stabilizing the economy, alongside a commitment to free trade. The Nordic model is distinguished from other types of welfare states by its emphasis on maximizing labor force participation, promoting gender equality, egalitarian and extensive benefit levels, the large magnitude of income redistribution, and liberal use of expansionary fiscal policy.[5]

The Nordic model is described as a system of competitive capitalism combined with a large public sector (roughly 30% of the work force).[6] In 2013, The Economist described its countries as "stout free-traders who resist the temptation to intervene even to protect iconic companies" while also looking for ways to temper capitalism’s harsher effects, and declared that the Nordic countries "are probably the best-governed in the world."[6][7] The Nordic combination of extensive public provision of welfare and a culture of individualism has been described by Lars Trägårdh, of Ersta Sköndal University College, as "statist individualism."[6] Some economists have referred to the Nordic economic model as a form of "cuddly" capitalism, with low levels of inequality, generous welfare states and reduced concentration of top incomes, and contrast it with the more "cut-throat" capitalism of the United States, which has high levels of inequality and a larger concentration of top incomes.[8][9]

The Nordic model, however, is not a single identical set of policies and rules in every country; each of the Nordic countries has its own economic and social models, sometimes with large differences from its neighbors.[10] While Sweden's neoliberal reforms[11][12] have reduced the role of the public sector over the last decades, and saw the fastest growth in inequality of any OECD economy,[13] Sweden's income inequality still remains lower than most other countries'.[14]

Overview

Flags of the Nordic countries

"The Nordic Model - Embracing globalization and sharing risks" characterizes the system as follows:[15]

  • An elaborate social safety net in addition to public services such as free education and universal healthcare.[15]
  • Strong property rights, contract enforcement, and overall ease of doing business.[16]
  • Public pension plans.[15]
  • Low barriers to free trade.[17] This is combined with collective risk sharing (social programs, labour market institutions) which has provided a form of protection against the risks associated with economic openness.[15]
  • Little product market regulation. Nordic countries rank very high in product market freedom according to OECD rankings.[15]
  • Low levels of corruption.[15] In Transparency International's 2014 Corruption Perceptions Index all five Nordic countries were ranked among the 12 least corrupt of 176 evaluated countries, and Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Norway all ranked within top 5.[18]
  • High percentage of workers belonging to a labour union. In 2010, labour union density was 69.9% in Finland, 68.3% in Sweden, and 54.8% in Norway. In comparison, labour union density was 12.9% in Mexico and 11.3% in the United States.[19] The lower union density in Norway is mainly explained by the absence of a Ghent system since 1938. In contrast, Denmark, Finland and Sweden all have union-run unemployment funds.[20]
  • A partnership between employers, trade unions and the government, whereby these social partners negotiate the terms to regulating the workplace among themselves, rather than the terms being imposed by law.[21] Sweden has decentralised wage co-ordination, while Finland is ranked the least flexible.[15] The changing economic conditions have given rise to fear among workers as well as resistance by trade unions in regards to reforms.[15] At the same time, reforms and favourable economic development seem to have reduced unemployment, which has traditionally been higher. Denmark's Social Democrats managed to push through reforms in 1994 and 1996 (see flexicurity).
  • Sweden at 56.6% of GDP, Denmark at 51.7%, and Finland at 48.6% reflects very high public spending.[17] One key reason for public spending is the large number of public employees. These employees work in various fields including education, healthcare, and for the government itself. They often have lifelong job security and make up around a third of the workforce (more than 38% in Denmark). Public spending in social transfers such as unemployment benefits and early-retirement programmes is high. In 2001, the wage-based unemployment benefits were around 90% of wage in Denmark and 80% in Sweden, compared to 75% in the Netherlands and 60% in Germany. The unemployed were also able to receive benefits several years before reductions, compared to quick benefit reduction in other countries.
  • Public expenditure for health and education is significantly higher in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway in comparison to the OECD average.[22]
  • Overall tax burdens (as a percentage of GDP) are among the world's highest; Sweden (51.1%), Denmark (46% in 2011),[23] and Finland (43.3%), compared to non-Nordic countries like Germany (34.7%), Canada (33.5%), and Ireland (30.5%).
  • The United Nations World Happiness Report 2013 shows that the happiest nations are concentrated in Northern Europe, with Denmark topping the list. The Nordics ranked highest on the metrics of real GDP per capita, healthy life expectancy, having someone to count on, perceived freedom to make life choices, generosity and freedom from corruption.[24]
  • The Nordic countries received the highest ranking for protecting workers rights on the International Trade Union Confederation's 2014 Global Rights Index, with Denmark being the only nation to receive a perfect score.[25]

Nordic welfare model

The Nordic welfare model refers to the welfare policies of the Nordic countries, which also tie into their labor market policies.

While there are differences among different Nordic countries, they all share a broad commitment to social cohesion, a universal nature of welfare provision in order to safeguard individualism by providing protection for vulnerable individuals and groups in society, and maximizing public participation in social decision-making. It is characterized by flexibility and openness to innovation in the provision of welfare. The Nordic welfare systems are mainly funded through taxation.[26]

Despite the common values, the Nordic countries take different approaches to the practical administration of the welfare state. Denmark features a high degree of private sector provision of public services and welfare, alongside an assimilation immigration policy. Iceland's welfare model is based on a "welfare-to-work" (see: workfare) model, while part of Finland's welfare state includes the voluntary sector playing a significant role in providing care for the elderly. Norway relies most extensively on public provision of welfare.[26]

Poverty reduction

The Nordic model has been successful at significantly ameliorating poverty.[27] In 2011 poverty rates, before taking into account the effects of taxes and transfers, stood at 24.7% in Denmark, 31.9% in Finland, 21.6% in Iceland, 25.6% in Norway, and 26.5% in Sweden. After accounting for taxes and transfers the poverty rates for the same year became 6%, 7.5%, 5.7%, 7.7%, and 9.7% respectively, for an average reduction of 18.7 p.p.[28] Compared to the US, which has a poverty level pre-tax of 28.3% and post-tax of 17.4% for a reduction of 10.9 p.p., the effects of tax and transfers on poverty in all the Nordic countries are substantially bigger.[29] In comparison to France (27 p.p. reduction) and Germany (24.2 p.p. reduction), however, the taxes and transfers in the Nordic countries are smaller on average.[30]

Foreign perspectives

Jerry Mander has likened the Nordic model to a kind of "hybrid" economics which features a blend of capitalist and socialist visions.[31] According to sociologist Lane Kenworthy, in the context of the Nordic model, "social democracy" refers to a set of policies intended to improve capitalism as opposed to a system to replace capitalism.[32] Kenworthy advocates for the U.S. to make a gradual transition to an economic system similar to those of the Nordic countries.[33] United States Senator Bernie Sanders (I-VT), a self-described democratic socialist, has been a strong proponent of the Nordic system.[34][35][36] Nobel Prize-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz has noted that there is higher social mobility in the Scandinavian countries than in the United States, and argues that Scandinavia is now the land of opportunity that the United States once was.[37]

According to Naomi Klein, former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev sought to move the USSR in a similar direction to the Nordic system, combining free markets with a social safety net - but still retaining public ownership of key sectors - ingredients that he believed would transform the USSR into "a socialist beacon for all mankind."[38][39]

See also

Lists

References

  1. ^ The Nordic Way, Klas Eklund, Henrik Berggren and Lars Trägårdh. 2011.
  2. ^ Nik Brandal, Øivind Bratberg, Dag Einar Thorsen. The Nordic Model of Social Democracy. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. ISBN 1137013265
  3. ^ Pontusson, Jonas (2011). Once Again A Model: Nordic Social Democracy in a Globalized World. pp 89-115 in What's Left of the Left: Democrats and Social Democrats in Challenging Times. Edited by James E. Cronin , George W. Ross, and James Shoch. Duke University Press. ISBN 0822350793.
  4. ^ "The surprising ingredients of Swedish success - free markets and social cohesion" (PDF). Institute of Economic Affairs. June 25, 2013. Retrieved January 15, 2014. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  5. ^ Esping-Andersen, G. (1991). The three worlds of welfare capitalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  6. ^ a b c "The Nordic countries: The next supermodel" The Economist. Retrieved 27 July 2013. Cite error: The named reference "Economist" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  7. ^ "The secret of their success". The Economist. 2013. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  8. ^ Jonathan Hopkin, Victor Lapuente and Lovisa Moller (25 January 2014). Lower levels of inequality are linked with greater innovation in economies. London School of Economics. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
  9. ^ Kenworthy, Lane (2014). Social Democratic America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199322511 p. 88-93.
  10. ^ Kenworthy, Lane (2014). Social Democratic America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199322511 p. 138.
  11. ^ Per-Åke Westerlund (22 March 2014). Is Sweden a Model to Follow? Socialist Alternative. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
  12. ^ Michal Rozworski (27 February 2015). Beyond the Swedish Model. Jacobin. 27 February 2015.
  13. ^ Swedish riots rage for fourth night. The Guardian. 23 May 2013.
  14. ^ Higgins, Andrew (26 May 2013). "In Sweden, Riots Put an Identity in Question." The New York Times. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h Torben M. Andersen, Bengt Holmström, Seppo Honkapohja, Sixten Korkman, Hans Tson Söderström, Juhana Vartiainen. The Nordic Model - Embracing globalization and sharing risks
  16. ^ http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings
  17. ^ a b Index of Economic Freedom
  18. ^ "CPI 2012 table". Transparency International. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
  19. ^ "Trade Union Density" OECD StatExtracts. 2010. Accessed: 3 May 2013.
  20. ^ Kjellberg, Anders "The Swedish unemployment insurance - will the Ghent system survive?", Transfer – European Review of Labour and Research no 1 2006, pp. 87-98, ISSN 1024-2589. Accessed: 19 January 2014.
  21. ^ http://www.nordiclabourjournal.org/i-fokus/in-focus-2001/the-nordic-model
  22. ^ OECD. Growing Unequal? Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. 2008. p. 232, p. 233
  23. ^ "Skattetrykket". Danish Ministry of Taxation. Retrieved 2012-06-24.
  24. ^ Carolyn Gregoire (10 September 2013). The Happiest Countries In The World (INFOGRAPHIC). The Huffington Post. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
  25. ^ David Wearing (22 May 2014). Where's the worst place to be a worker? Most of the world. The Guardian. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
  26. ^ a b The Nordic Council. "About the Nordic welfare model". Norden. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
  27. ^ Kevin Drum (26 September 2013). We Can Reduce Poverty If We Want To. We Just Have To Want To. Mother Jones. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
  28. ^ Income distribution and poverty - OECD. OECD
  29. ^ Income distribution and poverty - OECD. OECD
  30. ^ Income distribution and poverty - OECD. OECD
  31. ^ Jerry Mander (24 July 2013). "There Are Good Alternatives to US Capitalism, But No Way to Get There." Alternet. Retrieved 27 July 2013.
  32. ^ Lane Kenworthy (January 2014). "America's Social Democratic Future". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
  33. ^ Matthews, Dylan (January 2014). This sociologist has a plan to make America more like Sweden The Washington Post. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  34. ^ Sanders, Bernie (May 26, 2013). What Can We Learn From Denmark? The Huffington Post. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  35. ^ Issenberg, Sasha (January 9, 2010). "Sanders a growing force on the far, far left". Boston Globe. You go to Scandinavia, and you will find that people have a much higher standard of living, in terms of education, health care, and decent paying jobs.
  36. ^ Zeeshan Aleem (May 4, 2015). Bernie Sanders Says the U.S. Could Learn a Lot From Scandinavia. Here’s Why He's Right. Mic. Retrieved May 5, 2015.
  37. ^ 'Scandinavian Dream' is true fix for America's income inequality. CNN Money, June 3, 2014.
  38. ^ Klein, Naomi (2008). The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism. Picador. ISBN 0312427999 p. 276
  39. ^ Philip Whyman, Mark Baimbridge and Andrew Mullen (2012). The Political Economy of the European Social Model (Routledge Studies in the European Economy). Routledge. ISBN 0415476291 p. 108 "In short, Gorbachev aimed to lead the Soviet Union towards the Scandinavian social democratic model."

Further reading

  • Bucken-Knapp, Gregg (2009). Defending the Swedish Model: Social democrats, trade unions, and labor migration policy reform. Lexington Books.
  • Christiansen, Niels Finn et al. The Nordic Model of Welfare (2006)
  • Hilson, Mary. The Nordic model: Scandinavia since 1945 (2008)
  • Kenworthy, Lane. Social Democratic America. Oxford University Press USA (2014). ISBN 0199322511
  • Kvist, Jon, et al. Changing social equality: The Nordic welfare model in the 21st century (2011)
  • Nik Brandal, Øivind Bratberg, Dag Einar Thorsen. The Nordic Model of Social Democracy (2013) Pallgrave MacMillan. ISBN 1137013265
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