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{{redirect|B-2||B2 (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Stealth Bomber|Stealth aircraft in general|Stealth aircraft}}
<!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. -->
{|{{Infobox Aircraft Begin
|name= B-2 Spirit
|image= File:B-2 Spirit original.jpg
|caption= A USAF B-2 Spirit in flight
}}{{Infobox Aircraft Type
|type= Stealth bomber
|national origin= United States
|manufacturer= [[Northrop|Northrop Corporation]] <br>[[Northrop Grumman]]
|first flight= 17 July 1989
|introduction= April 1997
|primary user= [[United States Air Force]]
|number built= 21<ref name="B-2A Fact Sheet">[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=2757 "Northrop B-2A Spirit fact sheet."] ''National Museum of the United States Air Force''. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref><ref name="USAF_Almanac">Mehuron, Tamar A., Assoc. Editor. [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Magazine%20Documents/2009/May%202009/0509facts_fig.pdf "2009 USAF Almanac, Fact and Figures."] ''Air Force Magazine'', May 2009. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>
|status= Active service: 20 aircraft
|program cost= US$44.75 billion (projected through 2004)<ref name="Gao"/>
|unit cost= $737 million (1997 cost for each aircraft only)<ref name="Gao"/><!-- This is the approximate flyaway cost, which is what is listed for military aircraft per [[WP:Air/PC]] guidelines. -->
|developed from=
|variants with their own articles=
}}
|}

The [[Northrop Grumman]] '''B-2 Spirit''' (also known as the ''Stealth Bomber'') is an [[United States|American]] [[heavy bomber]] with "low observable" [[stealth aircraft|stealth]] technology designed to [[penetration (warfare)|penetrate]] dense [[anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft defenses]] and deploy both [[conventional weapons|conventional]] and [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] weapons. Because of its considerable [[capital costs|capital]] and [[operating costs|operations costs]], the [[megaproject|project]] was controversial in Congress and among [[Joint Chiefs of Staff|Pentagon brass]]. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, [[United States Congress|Congress]] slashed initial plans to purchase 132 bombers to just 21.

The cost of each aircraft averaged US$737 million in 1997 dollars.<ref name="Gao">[http://www.fas.org/man/gao/nsiad97181.htm "B-2 Bomber: Cost and Operational Issues (Letter Report, 08/14/97, GAO/NSIAD-97-181."] ''United States General Accounting Office'' (GAO). Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> Total [[procurement]] costs averaged US$929 million per aircraft, which includes spare parts, equipment, retrofitting, and software support.<ref name="Gao"/> The total program cost, which includes development, engineering and testing, averaged US$2.1 billion per aircraft (in 1997 dollars).<ref name="Gao"/>
Twenty B-2s are operated by the [[United States Air Force]]. Though originally designed in the 1980s for [[Cold War]] operations scenarios, B-2s were first used in combat to drop [[bomb]]s on [[Serbia]] during the [[Kosovo War]] in 1999, and saw continued use during the ongoing [[Iraq War|wars in Iraq]] and [[War in Afghanistan (2001-present)|Afghanistan]].<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/> One aircraft was lost when it crashed on takeoff in 2008.<ref>Rolfsen, Bruce. [http://www.airforcetimes.com/news/2008/06/airforce_b2_crashreport_060508w/ "Moisture confused sensors in B-2 crash."] ''airforcetimes.com'', 9 June 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

The bomber has a crew of two and can drop up to 80 x {{convert|500|lb|kg|abbr=on}}-class [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]] [[GPS]]-guided bombs, or 16 x {{convert|2400|lb|kg|abbr=on}} [[B83 nuclear bomb]]s in a single pass through extremely dense [[anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft defenses]]. The B-2 is the only aircraft that can carry large air to surface standoff weapons in a stealth configuration. The program has been the subject of [[espionage]] and [[counter-espionage]] activity and the B-2 has been prominent public [[spectacle]]s at [[air show]]s since the 1990s.

==Development==
===ATB project===
The B-2 Spirit originated from the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) [[black project]] that began in 1979.<ref name="Pace p20-27">Pace 1999, pp. 20–27.</ref> The [[Cold War]] was well underway, and on the campaign trail in 1979 and 1980, candidate [[Ronald Reagan]] promised a [[1980 presidential election#Campaign_promises|restoration of American military strength]]. On 22 August 1980, the incumbent [[Carter administration]] publicly disclosed that the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] was working to develop stealth aircraft including the ATB.<ref name="goodall">Goodall 1992 </ref> In 2007, it was revealed publicly that [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] scientists helped assess the mission effectiveness of the aircraft under [[Classified information|classified]] contract during the 1980s.<ref>Griffin, John M. and James E. Kinnu. [http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA464771 "B-2 System Engineering Case Study"]. ''Air Force Center for Systems Engineering'', 31 May 2007. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

After the evaluations of the companies' proposals, the ATB competition was reduced to the [[Northrop]]/[[Boeing]] and [[Lockheed]]/[[Rockwell International|Rockwell]] teams with each receiving a study contract for further work.<ref name="Pace p20-27"/> The Northrop design was larger while the Lockheed design was smaller and included a small tail.<ref name="Rich">Rich, Ben, Leo Janos. ''Skunk Works''. Little, Brown & Company, 1994. ISBN 0-316-74300-3.</ref> The black project was funded under the code name "Aurora".<ref name="Rich"/> The Northrop/Boeing team's ATB design was selected over the Lockheed/Rockwell design on 20 October 1981.<ref name="Pace p20-27"/><ref name="Spick_p339"> Spick 2000, p. 339.</ref>

The Northrop design received the designation B-2 and the name "Spirit". The bomber's design was changed in the mid-1980s when the mission profile was changed from high-altitude to low-altitude, terrain-following. The redesign delayed the B-2's first flight by two years and added about US$1 billion to the program's cost.<ref name="goodall"/> An estimated US$23 billion was secretly spent for [[research and development]] on the B-2 by 1989.<ref>Van Voorst, Bruce. [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,958256,00.html?promoid=googlep "The Stealth Takes Wing."] ''Time'', 31 July 1989. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> At the program's peak, approximately 13,000 people were employed at a dedicated plant in [[Pico Rivera, California]] for the aircraft's engineering and portions of its manufacturing.<ref name="PicoPlant">[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/pico-rivera.htm "Pico Rivera."] ''GlobalSecurity.org'', 26 April 2005. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

The B-2 was first publicly displayed on 22 November 1988, at Air Force [[Plant 42]], [[Palmdale, California]], where it was assembled. Its first public flight was on 17 July 1989 from Palmdale.<ref name="Pace p29-36">Pace 1999, pp. 29–36.</ref>

===Procurement===
A procurement of 132 aircraft was planned in the mid-1980s, but was later reduced to 75.<ref name="Pace p75-76">Pace 1999, pp. 75–76.</ref> By the [[early 1990s]], the [[Soviet Union]] had disintegrated, which effectively rendered void the Spirit's primary [[Cold War]] mission. In light of budgetary pressures and congressional opposition, in his 1992 [[State of the Union Address]], President [[George H.W. Bush]] announced B-2 production would be limited to a total of 20 aircraft.<ref>[http://www.c-span.org/executive/transcript.asp?cat=current_event&code=bush_admin&year=1992 "President George H. Bush's State of the Union Address."] ''c-span.org'', 28 January 1992. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> In 1996, however, the Clinton administration, though originally committed to ending production of the bombers once the 20th aircraft was completed, authorized the conversion of a 21st bomber, a [[prototype]] test model, to Block 30 full operational status at a cost of nearly $500 million.<ref>Graham, Bradley. "US to add one B-2 plane to 20 plane fleet." ''Washington Post'', 22 March 1996, p. A20.</ref>

The bomber's high costs reflected the innovation of a [[paperless]] [[computer aided design]] (CAD) system, and a computerized manufacturing control system. The costs also reflect the inefficiencies of separating design teams into different parts of the country for both design intelligence [[Compartmentalization (intelligence)|compartmentalization]] as a counter-espionage measure, and by parceling out the supply chain with the requisite lucrative contracts to congressional districts as a political reward.

In 1995 Northrop made a proposal to the USAF to build 20 additional aircraft with a flyaway cost of $566M each.<ref name="Ency Mod Mil">Eden 2004, pp. 350–353.</ref>

===Espionage===
In 1984 a [[Northrop]] employee, [[Thomas Patrick Cavanaugh|Thomas Cavanaugh]], was arrested for trying to sell [[classified information]] to the [[Soviet Union]], which apparently was smuggled out of the [[Pico Rivera, California]] factory.<ref>AP. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE1DB1231F937A15755C0A961948260 "Stealth bomber classified documents missing."] ''New York Times'', 24 June 1987. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> Cavanaugh was eventually sentenced to life in prison and released under parole in 2001.

[[Noshir Gowadia]], a design engineer who worked on the B-2's propulsion system, was arrested in October 2005 for selling B-2 related classified information to foreign countries. His trial was initially scheduled for 12 February 2008, but he received a [[continuance]].<ref>[http://honolulu.fbi.gov/pressrel/2005/goodwin102605.htm FBI Honolulu Press Release]</ref><ref>[http://www.cicentre.com/Documents/DOC_Noshir_Gowadia_Case.htm "Gowadia case."] ''cicentre.com''. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

===Program costs===
[[File:B-2 spirit bombing.jpg|thumb|In a 1994 [[live fire exercise]] near [[Point Mugu, California]], a B-2 drops forty-seven {{convert|500|lb|kg|abbr=on}} class [[Mark 82 bomb|Mark 82]] bombs, which is more than half of a B-2's total ordnance payload]]

The program was the subject of public controversy for its costs to American taxpayers. In 1996 the [[General Accounting Office]] disclosed that the B-2 bomber "will be, by far, the most costly bombers to operate on a per aircraft basis" costing over three times as much as the [[B-1B]] (US$9.6 million annually) and over four times as much as the B-52H ($US6.8 million annually). In September 1997, each hour of B-2 flight necessitated 119 hours of maintenance in turn. Comparable maintenance needs for the B-52 and the B-1B are 53 and 60 hours respectively for each hour of flight. A key reason for this cost are the air-conditioned hangars large enough for the bomber's 172 ft (52.4 m) wingspan, which are needed to maintain the aircraft's stealthy properties, especially its "low-observable" stealthy skins.<ref>Capaccio, Tony. "The B-2's Stealthy Skins Need Tender, Lengthy Care." ''Defense Week'', 27 May 1997, p. 1.</ref><ref>[http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?NSIAD-96-192 "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192."] ''US General Accounting Office'', September 1996, pp. 53, 56. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

The total "military construction" cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6 million in 1997 dollars. The cost to procure each B-2 was US$737 million in 1997 dollars based only on a fleet cost of US$15.48 billion.<ref name="Gao"/> The [[procurement]] cost per aircraft as detailed in [[Government Accountability Office|General Accounting Office]] (GAO) reports, which include spare parts and software support, was $929 million per aircraft in 1997 dollars.<ref name="Gao"/>

The total program cost projected through 2004 was US$44.75 billion in 1997 dollars. This includes development, procurement, facilities, construction, and spare parts. The total program cost averaged US$2.13 billion per aircraft.<ref name="Gao"/>

===Opposition===
In its consideration of the fiscal year 1990 defense budget, the House Armed Services Committee trimmed $800 million from the B-2 [[research and development]] budget, while at the same time staving off a motion to kill the bomber. Opposition in committee and in Congress more largely was broad and bipartisan, with Congressman [[Ron Dellums]] (D-CA), [[John Kasich]] (R-OH), and [[John G. Rowland]] (R-CT) authorizing the motion to kill the bomber and others in the Senate such as [[Jim Exon]] (D-NE) and [[John McCain]] (R-AZ) also opposing the project.<ref name="Schmitt">Schmitt, Eric. [http://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/14/us/key-senate-backer-of-stealth-bomber-sees-it-in-jeopardy.html?pagewanted=1 "Key Senate Backer of Stealth Bomber Sees It in Jeopardy."] ''nytimes.com'', ''New York Times'', 14 September 1991. Retrieved: 23 July 2009.</ref>

The growing cost of the B-2 program, and evidence of flaws in the aircraft's ability to elude detection by radar,<ref name="Schmitt"/> were among factors which drove opposition. At the peak production period specified in 1989, the schedule called for spending US$7 billion to $8 billion per year in 1989 dollars, something Committee Chair [[Les Aspin]] (D-WI) said "won't fly financially."<ref name="Sorenson p.168">Sorenson 1995, p. 168.</ref>

In 1990, the US Department of Defense accused Northrop of using faulty components in the flight control system. Efforts have also been made to reduce the probability of bird ingestion, which could damage engine fan blades.<ref>"Moisture in sensors led to stealth bomber crash, Air Force report says." ''Kansas City Star'', 5 June 2008.</ref>

In time, a number of prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, to include former Democratic presidential nominee [[John Kerry]] who cast votes against the B-2 Stealth Bomber in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a United States Senator representing [[Massachusetts]]. By 1992, Republican President [[George H.W. Bush]] called for the cancellation of the B-2 and promised to cut military spending by 30% in the wake of the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>[http://www.factcheck.org/zell_millers_attack_on_kerry_a_little.html "Zell Miller's Attack on Kerry: A Little Out Of Date."] ''FactCheck.org'', 4 October 2004. Retrieved: 26 October 2004.</ref>

In May 1995, on the basis of its 1995 Heavy Bomber Force Study, the DOD determined that additional B-2 procurements would exacerbate efforts to develop and implement long term recapitalization plans for the [[USAF]] bomber force.

In October 1995, former [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force]], [[Michael E. Ryan|General Mike Ryan]], and Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General [[John Shalikashvili]], strongly recommended against Congressional action to fund the purchase of any additional B-2s, arguing that to do so would require unacceptable cuts in existing conventional and nuclear-capable aircraft to pay for the new bombers,<ref>Bender,Brian and John Robinson. "More Stealth Bombers Mean Less Combat Power". ''Defense Daily'', 5 August 1997, p. 206.</ref> and because the military had much higher priorities on which to spend its limited procurement dollars.<ref>[http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?NSIAD-96-192 "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192".] US General Accounting Office, September 1996, p. 70. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

Some B-2 advocates argued that procuring twenty additional B-2s would save money because B-2s would be able to deeply penetrate anti-aircraft defenses and use low-cost, short-range attack weapons rather than expensive standoff weapons. However, in 1995, the [[Congressional Budget Office]] (CBO), and its Director of National Security Analysis, found that additional B-2s would reduce the cost of weapons expended by the bomber force by less than US$2 billion in 1995 dollars during the first two weeks of a conflict, which is when the Air Force envisions bombers would make their greatest contribution. This is a small fraction of the US$26.8 billion (in 1995 dollars) life cycle cost that the CBO projected an additional 20 B-2s would cost.<ref>[http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?NSIAD-96-192 "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192".] ''US General Accounting Office'', September 1996, p. 72. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

In 1997, as [[Ranking Member]] of the [[U.S. House Committee on Armed Services|House Armed Services Committee]] and National Security Committee, Congressman Ron Dellums, a long-time opponent of the bomber, cited five independent studies and offered an amendment to that year's defense authorization bill to cap production of the bombers with the existing 21 aircraft. The amendment was narrowly defeated.<ref name=Amendment>[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/970623-b2.htm "Debate on Dellums Amendment to 1998 Defense Authorization Act"], 23 June 1997.</ref> Nonetheless, Congress has never approved funding for the purchase of any additional B-2 bombers to date.

===Upgrades===
In 2008, the US Congress funded upgrades to the B-2s weapon control systems for hitting moving targets.<ref>McKinney, Brooks. [http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/news_releases.html?d=135958 "Northrop Grumman Adding Mobile Targets to B-2 Bomber Capabilities."] ''Northrop Grumman'', 7 February 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

On 29 December 2008, Air Force officials awarded a production contract to Northrop Grumman to modernize the B-2 fleet's radar. The contract provides advanced state-of-the-art radar components, with the aim of sustained operational viability of the B-2 fleet into the future. The contract has a target value of approximately US$468 million.<ref>[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123129776 "B-2 radar modernization program contract awarded."] ''US Air Force'', 30 December 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> The award follows successful flight testing with the upgraded equipment. A modification to the radar was needed since the [[United States Department of Commerce|U.S. Department of Commerce]] required the B-2 to use a different radar frequency.<ref>Warwick, Graham. [http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/UPGR12308.xml&headline=USAF%20Awards%20B-2%20Radar%20Upgrade%20Production&channel=defense "USAF Awards B-2 Radar Upgrade Production."] ''Aviation Week'', 30 December 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> It was reported on 22 July 2009 that the B-2 had passed the second of the two USAF audit milestones associated with this upgraded [[AESA]] radar capability.<ref> Jennings, Gareth. [http://www.janes.com/news/defence/jdw/jdw090724_2_n.shtml "B-2 passes modernisation milestones."] ''janes.com'', 24 July 2009. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

On 28 April 2009, an Air Force/contractor team verified that the 30,000 pound [[Massive Ordnance Penetrator]] (MOP) would fit in the B-2's bomb bay.<ref>Mayer, Daryl. [http://www.defpro.com/news/details/8738/ Northrop Grumman and USAF Verify Proper Fit of 30,000lb Penetrator Weapon on B-2 Bomber] ''defpro.com'', 22 July 2009. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

==Design==
[[File:B2 Spirit closeup.JPEG|thumb|The B-2's engines are buried within its wing to conceal the induction fans and minimize their exhaust signature. The crew of two sit side-by-side in the cockpit]]

As with the [[B-52 Stratofortress]] and [[B-1 Lancer]], the B-2 provides the versatility inherent in manned bombers. Like other bombers, its assigned targets can be canceled or changed while in flight, the particular weapon assigned to a target can be changed, and the timing of attack, or the route to the target can be changed while in flight. In addition, its low-observable, or "[[Stealth aircraft|stealth]]", characteristics give it the ability to penetrate an enemy's most sophisticated anti-aircraft defenses to attack its most heavily defended targets.

The prime contractor, responsible for overall system design, integration and support, is [[Northrop Grumman]]. [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems|Boeing]], [[Raytheon]] (formerly [[Hughes Aircraft]]), [[General Electric Aircraft Engines|G.E.]] and [[Vought Aircraft Industries]], are [[subcontractors]].

The blending of low-observable technologies with high aerodynamic efficiency and large payload gives the B-2 significant advantages over previous bombers. The U.S. Air Force reports its range as approximately {{convert|6000|nmi|mi km|lk=in}}.<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/><ref name="Spick_p340"> Spick 2000, pp. 340–341.</ref> Also, its low-observation ability provides the B-2 greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus increasing its range and providing a better field of view for the aircraft's sensors. It combines GPS Aided Targeting System (GATS) with [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]-aided bombs such as [[Joint Direct Attack Munition]] (JDAM). This uses its [[passive electronically scanned array]] [[APQ-181 radar]] to correct GPS errors of targets and gain much better than laser-guided weapon accuracy when "dumb" gravity bombs are equipped with a GPS-aided "smart" guidance tail kit. It can bomb 16 targets in a single pass when equipped with 1,000 or 2,000-pound (450&nbsp;kg or 900&nbsp;kg) bombs, or as many as 80 when carrying {{convert|500|lb|kg|abbr=on|lk=off}} bombs.

The B-2's stealth comes from a combination of reduced acoustic, infrared, visual and radar signatures, making it difficult for opposition defenses to detect, track and engage the aircraft. Many specific aspects of the low-observability process remain classified.

[[File:B-2 Spirit 050404-F-1740G-001.jpg|thumb|left|A B-2 during [[aerial refueling]] which extends its range past 6,000 miles to support intercontinental sorties.]]

The B-2's low observability originates from [[stealth technology]] exploited for the [[F-117 Nighthawk|F-117]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Additionally, the B-2's composite materials, special coatings and [[flying wing]] design, which reduces the number of leading edges, contribute to its stealth characteristics.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3403300063.html "B-2."] ''Encyclopedia.com''. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> Each B-2 requires a climate-controlled hangar large enough for its {{convert|172|ft|m|adj=on}} wingspan to protect the operational integrity of its sophisticated radar absorbent material and coatings.<ref name="avweek_20070107_ag"> Fulghum, D.A. [http://www.aviationnow.com/search/AvnowSearchResult.do?reference=xml/awst_xml/2007/01/08/AW_01_08_2007_p50-51-01.xml "First F-22 large-scale, air combat exercise wins praise and triggers surprise" (online title), "Away Game".] ''[[Aviation Week & Space Technology]]'', 8 January 2007. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> The engines are buried within the wing to conceal the induction fans and hide their exhaust.<ref>[http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/bomber/b2/ "B-2."] ''Aerospaceweb.org''. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

The original B-2 design had tanks for a [[contrail]]-inhibiting chemical, but this was replaced in the final design with a contrail sensor from Ophir that alerts the pilot when he should change altitude<ref>Gosnell, Mariana. [http://www.airspacemag.com/flight-today/Flight_Lines.html : "Why contrails hang around."] ''Air & Space magazine'', 1 July 2007. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> and mission planning also considers altitudes where the probability of contrail formation is minimized.

The B-2 has a crew of two: a pilot in the left seat, and mission commander in the right.<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/> The B-2 has provisions for a third crew member if needed.<ref>[http://www.is.northropgrumman.com/systems/b2spirit.html "B-2 Spirit page."] ''Northrop Grumman''. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> For comparison, the B-1B has a crew of four and the B-52 has a crew of five.<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/> B-2 crews have been used to pioneer [[Sleep_deprivation#Scientific_study|sleep cycle research]] to improve crew performance on long [[sorties]]. The B-2 is highly automated, and, unlike two-seat fighters, one crew member can sleep, use a toilet or prepare a hot meal while the other monitors the aircraft.<ref>Tirpak, John A. [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/1996/April%201996/0496bomber.aspx "With the First B-2 Squadron."] ''Air Force Magazine: Journal of the Air Force Association'', Vol. 79, No. 4, April 1996.</ref>

==Operational history==
The first operational aircraft, christened ''Spirit of Missouri'', was delivered to [[Whiteman Air Force Base]], [[Missouri]], where the fleet is based, on 17 December 1993.<ref name="Pace p66">Pace 1999, p. 66.</ref> The B-2 reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 1 January 1997.<ref name="Pace p73">Pace 1999, p. 73.</ref> Depot maintenance for the B-2 is accomplished by [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] contractor support and managed at [[Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center]] at [[Tinker Air Force Base]].<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet">[http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=82 "B-2 Spirit Fact Sheet."] ''U.S. Air Force'', April 2008. Retrieved: 6 July 2008.</ref> Originally designed to deliver nuclear weapons, modern usage has shifted towards a flexible role with conventional and nuclear capability.

====Into combat====
[[File:B-2 Spirit 050413-F-1740G-001a.jpg|thumb|An Air Force maintenance crew services a B-2 at [[Andersen Air Force Base|Andersen AFB]], [[Guam]], 2004]]

The B-2 has seen service in three campaigns. Its combat debut was during the [[Kosovo War]] in 1999. It was responsible for destroying 33% of selected Serbian bombing [[Bullseye (target)|targets]] in the first eight weeks of U.S. involvement in the War.<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/> During this war, B-2s flew non-stop to Kosovo from their home base in Missouri and back.<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/> The B-2 was the first aircraft to deploy GPS satellite guided [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM "smart bombs"]] in combat use in Kosovo.<ref>[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123017613 "JDAM continues to be warfighter's weapon of choice."] ''US Air Force'', 17 March 2006. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

[[File:B-2 Spirit.ogv|thumb|left|thumbtime=2|B-2 Spirit [[United States Air Force]] video]]

The B-2 has been used to drop bombs on [[Afghanistan]] in support of the ongoing [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]]. With the support of aerial refueling, the B-2 flew one of its longest missions to date from Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri to Afghanistan and back.<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/>

During the ongoing [[War in Iraq]], B-2s have operated from [[Diego Garcia]] and an undisclosed "forward operating location". Other [[sortie]]s in Iraq have launched from Whiteman AFB.<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/> This resulted in missions lasting over 30 hours and one mission of over 50 hours. The designated "forward operating locations" have been previously designated as [[Guam]] and [[RAF Fairford]], where new climate controlled hangars have been constructed. B-2s have conducted 27 sorties from Whiteman AFB and 22 sorties from a forward operating location, releasing more than 1.5 million pounds of munitions,<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/> including 583 JDAM "smart bombs" in 2003.<ref>[http://pogoarchives.org/m/dp/dp-2003-B2.pdf "Air Force programs: B-2."]. ''Project On Government Oversight'' (POGO), 16 April 2004. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

The B-2's combat use preceded a U.S. Air Force declaration of "full operational capability" in December 2003.<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/> The Pentagon's Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report noted that the B-2's serviceability for Fiscal Year 2003 was still inadequate, mainly due to the maintainability of the B-2's low observable coatings. The evaluation also noted that the Defensive Avionics suite also had shortcomings with ''pop-up threats''.<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/>

All B-2s, nuclear-capable B-52s, and nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles have shifted to the new nuclear-focused [[Air Force Global Strike Command]] scheduled to be set up by September 2009.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7690447.stm "US plans separate nuclear command."] ''BBC News'', 25 October 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref><ref>Chavanne, Bettina H. [http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=defense&id=news/GSC102408.xml&headline=USAF%20Creates%20Global%20Strike%20Command "USAF Creates Global Strike Command."] ''Aviation Week'', 24 October 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref>

==Operators==
[[File:B2PlanView.jpg|thumb|The "Spirit of Indiana" sits on the [[Airport ramp|ramp]] at [[Andersen AFB]] in Guam on 23 June 2006]]
B-2s are operated exclusively by the [[United States Air Force]] active units.
*[[United States Air Force]]
**[[509th Bomb Wing]], [[Whiteman Air Force Base]] (currently has 19 B-2s)
***[[393d Bomb Squadron]]
***[[394th Combat Training Squadron]]
**[[131st Bomb Wing]], [[Whiteman Air Force Base]] (Missouri Air National Guard)<ref>[http://www.131bw.ang.af.mil/units/ "131st Bomb Wing."] ''131bw.ang.af.mil''. Retrieved: 13 September 2009. </ref>
***[[110th Fighter Squadron|110th Bomb Squadron]]
**[[412th Test Wing]], [[Edwards Air Force Base]] (currently has 1 B-2)
***[[419th Flight Test Squadron]]
**[[53d Wing]], [[Eglin Air Force Base]] (former)
***[[72d Test and Evaluation Squadron]], [[Whiteman Air Force Base]]
**[[57th Wing]], [[Nellis Air Force Base]] (former)
***[[325th Weapons Squadron]], [[Whiteman Air Force Base]]
***[[715th Weapons Squadron]] (inactivated)

==Accident==
{{Main|Andersen Air Force Base B-2 accident}}
On 23 February 2008, a B-2 crashed on the runway shortly after takeoff from [[Andersen Air Force Base]] in [[Guam]].<ref name="Av_Week crash">[http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=defense&id=news/b2crsh02238.xml "B-2 Crashes on Takeoff From Guam."] ''Aviation Week'', 23 February 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.</ref> The ''Spirit of Kansas'', ''89-0127'' had been operated by the [[393rd Bomb Squadron]], [[509th Bomb Wing]], [[Whiteman Air Force Base]], [[Missouri]], and had logged 5,176 flight hours. It was the first crash of a B-2. The two person crew ejected from the aircraft and survived the crash. The aircraft was completely destroyed, a [[Aviation accidents and incidents|hull loss]] valued at US$1.4 billion.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-06-05-371843035_x.htm "Air Force: Sensor moisture caused 1st B-2 crash."] ''USA Today'', 5 June 2008. Retrieved: 16 February 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ZB-iziY2Bw&feature=related "B-2 crash video."] ''Youtube.com''. Retrieved: 23 July 2009.</ref> After the accident, the Air Force took the B-2 fleet off operational status until clearing the fleet for flight status 53 days later on 15 April 2008.<ref>[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123095213 ]. US Air Force </ref>

==Aircraft on display==
[[File:B-2.jpg|thumb|[[Mockup]] of a B-2 Spirit on display at the [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]]]]

Because of its unparalleled cost, [[strategic bombing]] role, and the still-classified aspects of its low observable coatings, no production B-2 has ever been placed on permanent display. However, B-2s have made periodic appearances on ground display at various [[air show]]s.

In 2004, one of the test articles (s/n AT-1000) built without engines or instruments for static testing was placed on display at the [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]] near [[Dayton, Ohio]].<ref>The display airframe and nose wheel door was marked to resemble ''The Spirit of Ohio'', to include its ''Fire and Ice'' insignias.</ref> The test article passed all structural testing.<ref name="nat_museum">[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=422 "National Museum of the USAF B-2 fact page."]</ref> The Museum's restoration team spent over a year reassembling the fractured airframe.

From 1989 to 2004, the [[South Dakota Air and Space Museum]] located on the grounds of [[Ellsworth Air Force Base]] displayed the 10-short-ton (9-[[metric ton|metric-ton]]) "Honda Stealth", a 60% scale [[mockup]] of a stealthy bomber which had been built by North American [[Honda]] in 1988 for an [[advertising campaign]].<ref>[http://www.wfb4.com/HondaStealth.html "Honda Stealth"]</ref> Although not an actual replica of a B-2, the mock-up was close enough to the B-2's design to arouse suspicion that Honda had intercepted classified, [[top secret]] information, as the B-2 project was still officially classified in 1988. Honda donated the model to the museum in 1989, on condition that the model be destroyed if it was ever replaced with a different aircraft. In 2005, when the museum received a B-1 Lancer for display (Ellsworth being a B-1 base), the museum destroyed the mock-up.<ref>[http://www.rapidcityjournal.com/articles/2004/10/22/news/features/356features.txt Museum slices stealth display]</ref><ref>[http://www.rapidcityjournal.com/articles/2005/02/05/news/features/233features.txt B-1 to go on display in museum]</ref>

==Specifications (B-2A Block 30)==
[[File:NORTHROP B-2.png|right|550px|Orthographically projected diagram of the B-2 ''Spirit'']]

{{Aircraft specifications
|plane or copter?= plane
|jet or prop?= jet
|ref=USAF Fact Sheet,<ref name="B-2_AF_fact_sheet"/> Pace,<ref name="Pace appA">Pace 1999, Appendix A.</ref> Spick,<ref name="Spick_p340"/> Globalsecurity<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/b-2-specs.htm "B-2 specifications"]. GlobalSecurity.org.</ref>
|crew= 2
|length main= 69 ft
|length alt= 21.0 m
|span main= 172 ft
|span alt= 52.4 m
|height main= 17 ft
|height alt= 5.18 m
|area main= 5,140&nbsp;ft²
|area alt= 478&nbsp;m²
|empty weight main= 158,000 lb
|empty weight alt= 71,700 kg
|loaded weight main= 336,500 lb
|loaded weight alt= 152,200 kg
|max takeoff weight main= 376,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt= 170,600 kg
|more general=
|engine (jet)= [[General Electric F118|General Electric F118-GE-100]]
|type of jet= non-afterburning [[turbofan]]s
|number of jets= 4
|thrust main= 17,300 lbf
|thrust alt= 77 kN
|max speed main= Mach 0.95
|max speed alt= 525 knots, 604 mph, 972 km/h
|max speed more=
|cruise speed main= Mach 0.85<ref name="Spick_p340"/>
|cruise speed alt= 470 knots, 541 mph, 870 km/h
|cruise speed more=
|never exceed speed main=
|never exceed speed alt=
|range main= 6,000 nmi
|range alt= {{convert|11100|km|mi|abbr=on|lk=off}}
|range more=
|combat radius main=
|combat radius alt=
|combat radius more=
|ferry range main=
|ferry range alt=
|ferry range more=
|ceiling main= 50,000 ft
|ceiling alt= 15,200 m
|climb rate main= <!-- m/s-->
|climb rate alt= <!-- ft/min-->
|loading main= 67.3 lb/ft²
|loading alt= 329 kg/m²
|thrust/weight= 0.205
|more performance=
|armament=
*2 internal bays for {{convert|50000|lb|kg|abbr=on|lk=off}} of ordnance.<ref name="Spick_p340"/>
**80× 500 lb class bombs ([[Mark 82 bomb|Mk-82]]) mounted on Bomb Rack Assembly (BRA)
**36× 750 lb CBU class bombs on BRA
**16× 2000 lb class weapons ([[Mark 84 bomb|Mk-84]], JDAM-84, JDAM-102) mounted on Rotary Launcher Assembly (RLA)
**16× [[B61 nuclear bomb|B61]] or [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83]] nuclear weapons on RLA
}}

Later avionics and equipment improvements allow B-2A to carry [[JSOW]], [[GBU-28]], and [[GBU-57A/B]]s as well. The Spirit is also designated as a delivery aircraft for the [[AGM-158 JASSM]] when the missile enters service.

==List of B-2 bombers==
[[File:US Air Force B-2 Spirit.jpg|thumb|Side view of a B-2 Spirit]]
[[File:B-2 Spirit 060810-F-6701P-004.jpg|thumb|B-2 in flight over the [[Mississippi River]] ([[St. Louis, Missouri]]) with the [[Gateway Arch]] and [[Busch Stadium]] in the background]]
[[File:B2 silhouette.JPG|thumb|B-2 from below]]

{| class="wikitable"
!Air Vehicle No.!!Block No.<ref>All 21 copies brought to Block 30 standard.</ref>!!USAF s/n!!Formal name!!Status
|-
| AV-1 || align=center|Test/30 ||82-1066 || ''Spirit of America'' || 14 July 2000 — Active<ref>[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/man-ac-b2-000714.htm Air Force names final B-2 bomber "Spirit of America"<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
|-
| AV-2 || align=center|Test/30 ||82-1067 || ''Spirit of Arizona'' || 4 December 1997 — Active
|-
| AV-3 || align=center|Test/30 ||82-1068 || ''Spirit of New York'' || 10 October 1997 — Active, Flight Test
|-
| AV-4 || align=center|Test/30||82-1069 || ''Spirit of Indiana'' || 22 May 1999 — Active
|-
| AV-5 || align=center|Test/20 ||82-1070 || ''Spirit of Ohio'' || 18 July 1997 — Active
|-
| AV-6 || align=center|Test/30 ||82-1071 || ''Spirit of Mississippi'' || 23 May 1997 — Active
|-
| AV-7 || align=center|10 ||88-0328 || ''Spirit of Texas'' || 21 August 1994 — Active
|-
| AV-8 || align=center|10 ||88-0329 || ''Spirit of Missouri'' || 31 March 1994 — Active
|-
| AV-9 || align=center|10 ||88-0330 || ''Spirit of California'' || 17 August 1994 — Active
|-
| AV-10 || align=center|10 ||88-0331 || ''Spirit of South Carolina'' || 30 December 1994 — Active
|-
| AV-11 || align=center|10 ||88-0332 || ''Spirit of Washington'' || 29 October 1994 — Active
|-
| AV-12 || align=center|10 ||89-0127 || ''Spirit of Kansas'' || 17 February 1995 — 23 February 2008, Crashed<ref name="Av_Week crash"/>
|-
| AV-13 || align=center|10 ||89-0128 || ''Spirit of Nebraska'' || 28 June 1995 — Active
|-
| AV-14 || align=center|10 ||89-0129 || ''Spirit of Georgia'' || 14 November 1995 — Active
|-
| AV-15 || align=center|10 ||90-0040 || ''Spirit of Alaska'' || 24 January 1996 — Active
|-
| AV-16 || align=center|10 ||90-0041 || ''Spirit of Hawaii'' || 10 January 1996 — Active
|-
| AV-17 || align=center|20 ||92-0700 || ''Spirit of Florida'' || 3 July 1996 — Active
|-
| AV-18 || align=center|20 ||93-1085 || ''Spirit of Oklahoma'' || 15 May 1996 — Active
|-
| AV-19 || align=center|20 ||93-1086 || ''Spirit of Kitty Hawk'' || 30 August 1996 — Active
|-
| AV-20 || align=center|30 ||93-1087 || ''Spirit of Pennsylvania'' || 5 August 1997 — Active
|-
| AV-21 || align=center|30 ||93-1088 || ''Spirit of Louisiana'' || 10 November 1997 — Active
|-
|colspan="4"|AV-22/AV-165 canceled
|}
Sources: FAS.org,<ref>[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/b-2.htm B-2 page on fas.org]</ref> B-2 Spirit (Pace)<ref>Pace 1999, Appendix.</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|United States Air Force|Seal of the US Air Force.svg}}
{{aircontent
|see also=<!-- other related articles that have not already linked: -->
|related=<!-- designs which were developed into or from this aircraft: -->
|similar aircraft=<!-- aircraft that are of similar role, era, and capability this design: -->
|lists=<!-- relevant lists that this aircraft appears in: -->

*[[List of active United States military aircraft]]
*[[List of bomber aircraft]]
*[[List of flying wing aircraft]]
*[[List_of_megaprojects#Aerospace_projects|List of Aerospace megaprojects]]
}}

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist|2}}

;Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
*Donald, David, ed. ''Black Jets: The Development and Operation of America's Most Secret Warplanes''. Norwalk, Connecticut: AIRtime Publishing Inc., 2003. ISBN 1-880588-67-6.
*Eden, Paul. "Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit". ''Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft''. New York: Amber Books, 2004. ISBN 1-90468-784-9.
*Goodall, James C. "The Northrop B-2A Stealth Bomber." ''America's Stealth Fighters and Bombers: B-2, F-117, YF-22, and YF-23''. St. Paul, MN: MBI Publishing Company, 1992. ISBN 0-87938-609-6.
*Pace, Steve. ''B-2 Spirit: The Most Capable War Machine on the Planet''. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. ISBN 0-07-134433-0.
*Richardson, Doug. ''Northrop B-2 Spirit'' (Classic Warplanes). New York: Smithmark Publishers Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-8317-1404-2.
*Sorenson, David, S. ''The Politics of Strategic Aircraft Modernization''. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995 ISBN 978-0275952587.
*Spick, Mike. "B-2 Spirit", ''The Great Book of Modern Warplanes''. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4.
*Winchester, Jim, ed. "Northrop B-2 Spirit". ''Modern Military Aircraft'' (Aviation Factfile). Rochester, Kent, UK: Grange Books plc, 2004. ISBN 1-84013-640-5.
*''The World's Great Stealth and Reconnaissance Aircraft''. New York: Smithmark, 1991. ISBN 0-8317-9558-1.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons|B-2 Spirit}}

*[http://www.af.mil/information/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=82 B-2 Spirit fact sheet] and [http://www.af.mil/photos/mediagallery.asp?galleryID=14 gallery on U.S. Air Force site]
*[http://www.is.northropgrumman.com/systems/b2spirit.html B-2 Spirit page on Northrop Grumman site]
*[http://oea.larc.nasa.gov/PAIS/Partners/B_2.html B-2 page on NASA Langley site]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/b-2.htm B-2 Spirit page at GlobalSecurity.org]
*[http://www.cdi.org/issues/aviation/B296.html B-2 Bomber page on Center for Defense Information site]
*[http://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/b2/ B-2 Spirit Stealth bomber on airforce-technology.com]
*[http://portal.aircraft-info.net/article32.html B-2 Spirit (Stealth Bomber) page on aircraft-info.net]

<!--Navigation boxes, ones more specific to this aircraft at top -->
{{Northrop aircraft}}
{{USAF Global Strike Command}}
{{US bomber aircraft}}
{{Aviation lists}}
{{Dmy}}

[[Category:Active United States military aircraft|B-02 Spirit]]
[[Category:Flying wing aircraft]]
[[Category:Stealth aircraft]]
[[Category:United States bomber aircraft 1980-1989]]
[[Category:Northrop Grumman aircraft]]
[[Category:Black projects]]

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[[ko:B-2 스피릿]]
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[[he:B-2 ספיריט]]
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[[zh:B-2精神式战略轰炸机]]

Revision as of 18:50, 1 March 2010

"B-2" redirects here. For other uses, see B2 (disambiguation).
"Stealth Bomber" redirects here. For Stealth aircraft in general, see Stealth aircraft.
B-2 Spirit
A USAF B-2 Spirit in flight
Role Stealth bomber
National origin United States
Manufacturer Northrop Corporation
Northrop Grumman
First flight 17 July 1989
Introduction April 1997
Status Active service: 20 aircraft
Primary user United States Air Force
Number built 21[1][2]

The Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit (also known as the Stealth Bomber) is an American heavy bomber with "low observable" stealth technology designed to penetrate dense anti-aircraft defenses and deploy both conventional and nuclear weapons. Because of its considerable capital and operations costs, the project was controversial in Congress and among Pentagon brass. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Congress slashed initial plans to purchase 132 bombers to just 21.

The cost of each aircraft averaged US$737 million in 1997 dollars.[3] Total procurement costs averaged US$929 million per aircraft, which includes spare parts, equipment, retrofitting, and software support.[3] The total program cost, which includes development, engineering and testing, averaged US$2.1 billion per aircraft (in 1997 dollars).[3]

Twenty B-2s are operated by the United States Air Force. Though originally designed in the 1980s for Cold War operations scenarios, B-2s were first used in combat to drop bombs on Serbia during the Kosovo War in 1999, and saw continued use during the ongoing wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.[4] One aircraft was lost when it crashed on takeoff in 2008.[5]

The bomber has a crew of two and can drop up to 80 x 500 lb (230 kg)-class JDAM GPS-guided bombs, or 16 x 2,400 lb (1,100 kg) B83 nuclear bombs in a single pass through extremely dense anti-aircraft defenses. The B-2 is the only aircraft that can carry large air to surface standoff weapons in a stealth configuration. The program has been the subject of espionage and counter-espionage activity and the B-2 has been prominent public spectacles at air shows since the 1990s.

Development

ATB project

The B-2 Spirit originated from the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) black project that began in 1979.[6] The Cold War was well underway, and on the campaign trail in 1979 and 1980, candidate Ronald Reagan promised a restoration of American military strength. On 22 August 1980, the incumbent Carter administration publicly disclosed that the Department of Defense was working to develop stealth aircraft including the ATB.[7] In 2007, it was revealed publicly that MIT scientists helped assess the mission effectiveness of the aircraft under classified contract during the 1980s.[8]

After the evaluations of the companies' proposals, the ATB competition was reduced to the Northrop/Boeing and Lockheed/Rockwell teams with each receiving a study contract for further work.[6] The Northrop design was larger while the Lockheed design was smaller and included a small tail.[9] The black project was funded under the code name "Aurora".[9] The Northrop/Boeing team's ATB design was selected over the Lockheed/Rockwell design on 20 October 1981.[6][10]

The Northrop design received the designation B-2 and the name "Spirit". The bomber's design was changed in the mid-1980s when the mission profile was changed from high-altitude to low-altitude, terrain-following. The redesign delayed the B-2's first flight by two years and added about US$1 billion to the program's cost.[7] An estimated US$23 billion was secretly spent for research and development on the B-2 by 1989.[11] At the program's peak, approximately 13,000 people were employed at a dedicated plant in Pico Rivera, California for the aircraft's engineering and portions of its manufacturing.[12]

The B-2 was first publicly displayed on 22 November 1988, at Air Force Plant 42, Palmdale, California, where it was assembled. Its first public flight was on 17 July 1989 from Palmdale.[13]

Procurement

A procurement of 132 aircraft was planned in the mid-1980s, but was later reduced to 75.[14] By the early 1990s, the Soviet Union had disintegrated, which effectively rendered void the Spirit's primary Cold War mission. In light of budgetary pressures and congressional opposition, in his 1992 State of the Union Address, President George H.W. Bush announced B-2 production would be limited to a total of 20 aircraft.[15] In 1996, however, the Clinton administration, though originally committed to ending production of the bombers once the 20th aircraft was completed, authorized the conversion of a 21st bomber, a prototype test model, to Block 30 full operational status at a cost of nearly $500 million.[16]

The bomber's high costs reflected the innovation of a paperless computer aided design (CAD) system, and a computerized manufacturing control system. The costs also reflect the inefficiencies of separating design teams into different parts of the country for both design intelligence compartmentalization as a counter-espionage measure, and by parceling out the supply chain with the requisite lucrative contracts to congressional districts as a political reward.

In 1995 Northrop made a proposal to the USAF to build 20 additional aircraft with a flyaway cost of $566M each.[17]

Espionage

In 1984 a Northrop employee, Thomas Cavanaugh, was arrested for trying to sell classified information to the Soviet Union, which apparently was smuggled out of the Pico Rivera, California factory.[18] Cavanaugh was eventually sentenced to life in prison and released under parole in 2001.

Noshir Gowadia, a design engineer who worked on the B-2's propulsion system, was arrested in October 2005 for selling B-2 related classified information to foreign countries. His trial was initially scheduled for 12 February 2008, but he received a continuance.[19][20]

Program costs

In a 1994 live fire exercise near Point Mugu, California, a B-2 drops forty-seven 500 lb (230 kg) class Mark 82 bombs, which is more than half of a B-2's total ordnance payload

The program was the subject of public controversy for its costs to American taxpayers. In 1996 the General Accounting Office disclosed that the B-2 bomber "will be, by far, the most costly bombers to operate on a per aircraft basis" costing over three times as much as the B-1B (US$9.6 million annually) and over four times as much as the B-52H ($US6.8 million annually). In September 1997, each hour of B-2 flight necessitated 119 hours of maintenance in turn. Comparable maintenance needs for the B-52 and the B-1B are 53 and 60 hours respectively for each hour of flight. A key reason for this cost are the air-conditioned hangars large enough for the bomber's 172 ft (52.4 m) wingspan, which are needed to maintain the aircraft's stealthy properties, especially its "low-observable" stealthy skins.[21][22]

The total "military construction" cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6 million in 1997 dollars. The cost to procure each B-2 was US$737 million in 1997 dollars based only on a fleet cost of US$15.48 billion.[3] The procurement cost per aircraft as detailed in General Accounting Office (GAO) reports, which include spare parts and software support, was $929 million per aircraft in 1997 dollars.[3]

The total program cost projected through 2004 was US$44.75 billion in 1997 dollars. This includes development, procurement, facilities, construction, and spare parts. The total program cost averaged US$2.13 billion per aircraft.[3]

Opposition

In its consideration of the fiscal year 1990 defense budget, the House Armed Services Committee trimmed $800 million from the B-2 research and development budget, while at the same time staving off a motion to kill the bomber. Opposition in committee and in Congress more largely was broad and bipartisan, with Congressman Ron Dellums (D-CA), John Kasich (R-OH), and John G. Rowland (R-CT) authorizing the motion to kill the bomber and others in the Senate such as Jim Exon (D-NE) and John McCain (R-AZ) also opposing the project.[23]

The growing cost of the B-2 program, and evidence of flaws in the aircraft's ability to elude detection by radar,[23] were among factors which drove opposition. At the peak production period specified in 1989, the schedule called for spending US$7 billion to $8 billion per year in 1989 dollars, something Committee Chair Les Aspin (D-WI) said "won't fly financially."[24]

In 1990, the US Department of Defense accused Northrop of using faulty components in the flight control system. Efforts have also been made to reduce the probability of bird ingestion, which could damage engine fan blades.[25]

In time, a number of prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, to include former Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry who cast votes against the B-2 Stealth Bomber in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a United States Senator representing Massachusetts. By 1992, Republican President George H.W. Bush called for the cancellation of the B-2 and promised to cut military spending by 30% in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union.[26]

In May 1995, on the basis of its 1995 Heavy Bomber Force Study, the DOD determined that additional B-2 procurements would exacerbate efforts to develop and implement long term recapitalization plans for the USAF bomber force.

In October 1995, former Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, General Mike Ryan, and Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General John Shalikashvili, strongly recommended against Congressional action to fund the purchase of any additional B-2s, arguing that to do so would require unacceptable cuts in existing conventional and nuclear-capable aircraft to pay for the new bombers,[27] and because the military had much higher priorities on which to spend its limited procurement dollars.[28]

Some B-2 advocates argued that procuring twenty additional B-2s would save money because B-2s would be able to deeply penetrate anti-aircraft defenses and use low-cost, short-range attack weapons rather than expensive standoff weapons. However, in 1995, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), and its Director of National Security Analysis, found that additional B-2s would reduce the cost of weapons expended by the bomber force by less than US$2 billion in 1995 dollars during the first two weeks of a conflict, which is when the Air Force envisions bombers would make their greatest contribution. This is a small fraction of the US$26.8 billion (in 1995 dollars) life cycle cost that the CBO projected an additional 20 B-2s would cost.[29]

In 1997, as Ranking Member of the House Armed Services Committee and National Security Committee, Congressman Ron Dellums, a long-time opponent of the bomber, cited five independent studies and offered an amendment to that year's defense authorization bill to cap production of the bombers with the existing 21 aircraft. The amendment was narrowly defeated.[30] Nonetheless, Congress has never approved funding for the purchase of any additional B-2 bombers to date.

Upgrades

In 2008, the US Congress funded upgrades to the B-2s weapon control systems for hitting moving targets.[31]

On 29 December 2008, Air Force officials awarded a production contract to Northrop Grumman to modernize the B-2 fleet's radar. The contract provides advanced state-of-the-art radar components, with the aim of sustained operational viability of the B-2 fleet into the future. The contract has a target value of approximately US$468 million.[32] The award follows successful flight testing with the upgraded equipment. A modification to the radar was needed since the U.S. Department of Commerce required the B-2 to use a different radar frequency.[33] It was reported on 22 July 2009 that the B-2 had passed the second of the two USAF audit milestones associated with this upgraded AESA radar capability.[34]

On 28 April 2009, an Air Force/contractor team verified that the 30,000 pound Massive Ordnance Penetrator (MOP) would fit in the B-2's bomb bay.[35]

Design

The B-2's engines are buried within its wing to conceal the induction fans and minimize their exhaust signature. The crew of two sit side-by-side in the cockpit

As with the B-52 Stratofortress and B-1 Lancer, the B-2 provides the versatility inherent in manned bombers. Like other bombers, its assigned targets can be canceled or changed while in flight, the particular weapon assigned to a target can be changed, and the timing of attack, or the route to the target can be changed while in flight. In addition, its low-observable, or "stealth", characteristics give it the ability to penetrate an enemy's most sophisticated anti-aircraft defenses to attack its most heavily defended targets.

The prime contractor, responsible for overall system design, integration and support, is Northrop Grumman. Boeing, Raytheon (formerly Hughes Aircraft), G.E. and Vought Aircraft Industries, are subcontractors.

The blending of low-observable technologies with high aerodynamic efficiency and large payload gives the B-2 significant advantages over previous bombers. The U.S. Air Force reports its range as approximately 6,000 nautical miles (6,900 mi; 11,000 km).[4][36] Also, its low-observation ability provides the B-2 greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus increasing its range and providing a better field of view for the aircraft's sensors. It combines GPS Aided Targeting System (GATS) with GPS-aided bombs such as Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM). This uses its passive electronically scanned array APQ-181 radar to correct GPS errors of targets and gain much better than laser-guided weapon accuracy when "dumb" gravity bombs are equipped with a GPS-aided "smart" guidance tail kit. It can bomb 16 targets in a single pass when equipped with 1,000 or 2,000-pound (450 kg or 900 kg) bombs, or as many as 80 when carrying 500 lb (230 kg) bombs.

The B-2's stealth comes from a combination of reduced acoustic, infrared, visual and radar signatures, making it difficult for opposition defenses to detect, track and engage the aircraft. Many specific aspects of the low-observability process remain classified.

A B-2 during aerial refueling which extends its range past 6,000 miles to support intercontinental sorties.

The B-2's low observability originates from stealth technology exploited for the F-117.[citation needed] Additionally, the B-2's composite materials, special coatings and flying wing design, which reduces the number of leading edges, contribute to its stealth characteristics.[37] Each B-2 requires a climate-controlled hangar large enough for its 172-foot (52 m) wingspan to protect the operational integrity of its sophisticated radar absorbent material and coatings.[38] The engines are buried within the wing to conceal the induction fans and hide their exhaust.[39]

The original B-2 design had tanks for a contrail-inhibiting chemical, but this was replaced in the final design with a contrail sensor from Ophir that alerts the pilot when he should change altitude[40] and mission planning also considers altitudes where the probability of contrail formation is minimized.

The B-2 has a crew of two: a pilot in the left seat, and mission commander in the right.[4] The B-2 has provisions for a third crew member if needed.[41] For comparison, the B-1B has a crew of four and the B-52 has a crew of five.[4] B-2 crews have been used to pioneer sleep cycle research to improve crew performance on long sorties. The B-2 is highly automated, and, unlike two-seat fighters, one crew member can sleep, use a toilet or prepare a hot meal while the other monitors the aircraft.[42]

Operational history

The first operational aircraft, christened Spirit of Missouri, was delivered to Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, where the fleet is based, on 17 December 1993.[43] The B-2 reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 1 January 1997.[44] Depot maintenance for the B-2 is accomplished by U.S. Air Force contractor support and managed at Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center at Tinker Air Force Base.[4] Originally designed to deliver nuclear weapons, modern usage has shifted towards a flexible role with conventional and nuclear capability.

Into combat

An Air Force maintenance crew services a B-2 at Andersen AFB, Guam, 2004

The B-2 has seen service in three campaigns. Its combat debut was during the Kosovo War in 1999. It was responsible for destroying 33% of selected Serbian bombing targets in the first eight weeks of U.S. involvement in the War.[4] During this war, B-2s flew non-stop to Kosovo from their home base in Missouri and back.[4] The B-2 was the first aircraft to deploy GPS satellite guided JDAM "smart bombs" in combat use in Kosovo.[45]

B-2 Spirit United States Air Force video

The B-2 has been used to drop bombs on Afghanistan in support of the ongoing War in Afghanistan. With the support of aerial refueling, the B-2 flew one of its longest missions to date from Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri to Afghanistan and back.[4]

During the ongoing War in Iraq, B-2s have operated from Diego Garcia and an undisclosed "forward operating location". Other sorties in Iraq have launched from Whiteman AFB.[4] This resulted in missions lasting over 30 hours and one mission of over 50 hours. The designated "forward operating locations" have been previously designated as Guam and RAF Fairford, where new climate controlled hangars have been constructed. B-2s have conducted 27 sorties from Whiteman AFB and 22 sorties from a forward operating location, releasing more than 1.5 million pounds of munitions,[4] including 583 JDAM "smart bombs" in 2003.[46]

The B-2's combat use preceded a U.S. Air Force declaration of "full operational capability" in December 2003.[4] The Pentagon's Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report noted that the B-2's serviceability for Fiscal Year 2003 was still inadequate, mainly due to the maintainability of the B-2's low observable coatings. The evaluation also noted that the Defensive Avionics suite also had shortcomings with pop-up threats.[4]

All B-2s, nuclear-capable B-52s, and nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles have shifted to the new nuclear-focused Air Force Global Strike Command scheduled to be set up by September 2009.[47][48]

Operators

The "Spirit of Indiana" sits on the ramp at Andersen AFB in Guam on 23 June 2006

B-2s are operated exclusively by the United States Air Force active units.

Accident

Main article: Andersen Air Force Base B-2 accident

On 23 February 2008, a B-2 crashed on the runway shortly after takeoff from Andersen Air Force Base in Guam.[50] The Spirit of Kansas, 89-0127 had been operated by the 393rd Bomb Squadron, 509th Bomb Wing, Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, and had logged 5,176 flight hours. It was the first crash of a B-2. The two person crew ejected from the aircraft and survived the crash. The aircraft was completely destroyed, a hull loss valued at US$1.4 billion.[51][52] After the accident, the Air Force took the B-2 fleet off operational status until clearing the fleet for flight status 53 days later on 15 April 2008.[53]

Aircraft on display

Mockup of a B-2 Spirit on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force

Because of its unparalleled cost, strategic bombing role, and the still-classified aspects of its low observable coatings, no production B-2 has ever been placed on permanent display. However, B-2s have made periodic appearances on ground display at various air shows.

In 2004, one of the test articles (s/n AT-1000) built without engines or instruments for static testing was placed on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio.[54] The test article passed all structural testing.[55] The Museum's restoration team spent over a year reassembling the fractured airframe.

From 1989 to 2004, the South Dakota Air and Space Museum located on the grounds of Ellsworth Air Force Base displayed the 10-short-ton (9-metric-ton) "Honda Stealth", a 60% scale mockup of a stealthy bomber which had been built by North American Honda in 1988 for an advertising campaign.[56] Although not an actual replica of a B-2, the mock-up was close enough to the B-2's design to arouse suspicion that Honda had intercepted classified, top secret information, as the B-2 project was still officially classified in 1988. Honda donated the model to the museum in 1989, on condition that the model be destroyed if it was ever replaced with a different aircraft. In 2005, when the museum received a B-1 Lancer for display (Ellsworth being a B-1 base), the museum destroyed the mock-up.[57][58]

Specifications (B-2A Block 30)

Orthographically projected diagram of the B-2 Spirit
Orthographically projected diagram of the B-2 Spirit

Data from USAF Fact Sheet,[4] Pace,[59] Spick,[36] Globalsecurity[60]

General characteristics

  • Crew: 2

Performance

Armament

  • 2 internal bays for 50,000 lb (23,000 kg) of ordnance.[36]
    • 80× 500 lb class bombs (Mk-82) mounted on Bomb Rack Assembly (BRA)
    • 36× 750 lb CBU class bombs on BRA
    • 16× 2000 lb class weapons (Mk-84, JDAM-84, JDAM-102) mounted on Rotary Launcher Assembly (RLA)
    • 16× B61 or B83 nuclear weapons on RLA

Later avionics and equipment improvements allow B-2A to carry JSOW, GBU-28, and GBU-57A/Bs as well. The Spirit is also designated as a delivery aircraft for the AGM-158 JASSM when the missile enters service.

List of B-2 bombers

Side view of a B-2 Spirit
B-2 in flight over the Mississippi River (St. Louis, Missouri) with the Gateway Arch and Busch Stadium in the background
B-2 from below
Air Vehicle No. Block No.[61] USAF s/n Formal name Status
AV-1 Test/30 82-1066 Spirit of America 14 July 2000 — Active[62]
AV-2 Test/30 82-1067 Spirit of Arizona 4 December 1997 — Active
AV-3 Test/30 82-1068 Spirit of New York 10 October 1997 — Active, Flight Test
AV-4 Test/30 82-1069 Spirit of Indiana 22 May 1999 — Active
AV-5 Test/20 82-1070 Spirit of Ohio 18 July 1997 — Active
AV-6 Test/30 82-1071 Spirit of Mississippi 23 May 1997 — Active
AV-7 10 88-0328 Spirit of Texas 21 August 1994 — Active
AV-8 10 88-0329 Spirit of Missouri 31 March 1994 — Active
AV-9 10 88-0330 Spirit of California 17 August 1994 — Active
AV-10 10 88-0331 Spirit of South Carolina 30 December 1994 — Active
AV-11 10 88-0332 Spirit of Washington 29 October 1994 — Active
AV-12 10 89-0127 Spirit of Kansas 17 February 1995 — 23 February 2008, Crashed[50]
AV-13 10 89-0128 Spirit of Nebraska 28 June 1995 — Active
AV-14 10 89-0129 Spirit of Georgia 14 November 1995 — Active
AV-15 10 90-0040 Spirit of Alaska 24 January 1996 — Active
AV-16 10 90-0041 Spirit of Hawaii 10 January 1996 — Active
AV-17 20 92-0700 Spirit of Florida 3 July 1996 — Active
AV-18 20 93-1085 Spirit of Oklahoma 15 May 1996 — Active
AV-19 20 93-1086 Spirit of Kitty Hawk 30 August 1996 — Active
AV-20 30 93-1087 Spirit of Pennsylvania 5 August 1997 — Active
AV-21 30 93-1088 Spirit of Louisiana 10 November 1997 — Active
AV-22/AV-165 canceled

Sources: FAS.org,[63] B-2 Spirit (Pace)[64]

See also

Related lists

References

Notes
  1. ^ "Northrop B-2A Spirit fact sheet." National Museum of the United States Air Force. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  2. ^ Mehuron, Tamar A., Assoc. Editor. "2009 USAF Almanac, Fact and Figures." Air Force Magazine, May 2009. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  3. ^ a b c d e f "B-2 Bomber: Cost and Operational Issues (Letter Report, 08/14/97, GAO/NSIAD-97-181." United States General Accounting Office (GAO). Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "B-2 Spirit Fact Sheet." U.S. Air Force, April 2008. Retrieved: 6 July 2008.
  5. ^ Rolfsen, Bruce. "Moisture confused sensors in B-2 crash." airforcetimes.com, 9 June 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  6. ^ a b c Pace 1999, pp. 20–27.
  7. ^ a b Goodall 1992
  8. ^ Griffin, John M. and James E. Kinnu. "B-2 System Engineering Case Study". Air Force Center for Systems Engineering, 31 May 2007. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  9. ^ a b Rich, Ben, Leo Janos. Skunk Works. Little, Brown & Company, 1994. ISBN 0-316-74300-3.
  10. ^ Spick 2000, p. 339.
  11. ^ Van Voorst, Bruce. "The Stealth Takes Wing." Time, 31 July 1989. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  12. ^ "Pico Rivera." GlobalSecurity.org, 26 April 2005. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  13. ^ Pace 1999, pp. 29–36.
  14. ^ Pace 1999, pp. 75–76.
  15. ^ "President George H. Bush's State of the Union Address." c-span.org, 28 January 1992. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  16. ^ Graham, Bradley. "US to add one B-2 plane to 20 plane fleet." Washington Post, 22 March 1996, p. A20.
  17. ^ Eden 2004, pp. 350–353.
  18. ^ AP. "Stealth bomber classified documents missing." New York Times, 24 June 1987. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  19. ^ FBI Honolulu Press Release
  20. ^ "Gowadia case." cicentre.com. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  21. ^ Capaccio, Tony. "The B-2's Stealthy Skins Need Tender, Lengthy Care." Defense Week, 27 May 1997, p. 1.
  22. ^ "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192." US General Accounting Office, September 1996, pp. 53, 56. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  23. ^ a b Schmitt, Eric. "Key Senate Backer of Stealth Bomber Sees It in Jeopardy." nytimes.com, New York Times, 14 September 1991. Retrieved: 23 July 2009.
  24. ^ Sorenson 1995, p. 168.
  25. ^ "Moisture in sensors led to stealth bomber crash, Air Force report says." Kansas City Star, 5 June 2008.
  26. ^ "Zell Miller's Attack on Kerry: A Little Out Of Date." FactCheck.org, 4 October 2004. Retrieved: 26 October 2004.
  27. ^ Bender,Brian and John Robinson. "More Stealth Bombers Mean Less Combat Power". Defense Daily, 5 August 1997, p. 206.
  28. ^ "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192". US General Accounting Office, September 1996, p. 70. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  29. ^ "Air Force, Options to Retire of Restructure the Force would Reduce Planned Spending, NSIAD-96-192". US General Accounting Office, September 1996, p. 72. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  30. ^ "Debate on Dellums Amendment to 1998 Defense Authorization Act", 23 June 1997.
  31. ^ McKinney, Brooks. "Northrop Grumman Adding Mobile Targets to B-2 Bomber Capabilities." Northrop Grumman, 7 February 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  32. ^ "B-2 radar modernization program contract awarded." US Air Force, 30 December 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  33. ^ Warwick, Graham. "USAF Awards B-2 Radar Upgrade Production." Aviation Week, 30 December 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  34. ^ Jennings, Gareth. "B-2 passes modernisation milestones." janes.com, 24 July 2009. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  35. ^ Mayer, Daryl. Northrop Grumman and USAF Verify Proper Fit of 30,000lb Penetrator Weapon on B-2 Bomber defpro.com, 22 July 2009. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  36. ^ a b c d Spick 2000, pp. 340–341.
  37. ^ "B-2." Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  38. ^ Fulghum, D.A. "First F-22 large-scale, air combat exercise wins praise and triggers surprise" (online title), "Away Game". Aviation Week & Space Technology, 8 January 2007. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  39. ^ "B-2." Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  40. ^ Gosnell, Mariana. : "Why contrails hang around." Air & Space magazine, 1 July 2007. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  41. ^ "B-2 Spirit page." Northrop Grumman. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  42. ^ Tirpak, John A. "With the First B-2 Squadron." Air Force Magazine: Journal of the Air Force Association, Vol. 79, No. 4, April 1996.
  43. ^ Pace 1999, p. 66.
  44. ^ Pace 1999, p. 73.
  45. ^ "JDAM continues to be warfighter's weapon of choice." US Air Force, 17 March 2006. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  46. ^ "Air Force programs: B-2.". Project On Government Oversight (POGO), 16 April 2004. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  47. ^ "US plans separate nuclear command." BBC News, 25 October 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  48. ^ Chavanne, Bettina H. "USAF Creates Global Strike Command." Aviation Week, 24 October 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  49. ^ "131st Bomb Wing." 131bw.ang.af.mil. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  50. ^ a b "B-2 Crashes on Takeoff From Guam." Aviation Week, 23 February 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2009.
  51. ^ "Air Force: Sensor moisture caused 1st B-2 crash." USA Today, 5 June 2008. Retrieved: 16 February 2009.
  52. ^ "B-2 crash video." Youtube.com. Retrieved: 23 July 2009.
  53. ^ [1]. US Air Force
  54. ^ The display airframe and nose wheel door was marked to resemble The Spirit of Ohio, to include its Fire and Ice insignias.
  55. ^ "National Museum of the USAF B-2 fact page."
  56. ^ "Honda Stealth"
  57. ^ Museum slices stealth display
  58. ^ B-1 to go on display in museum
  59. ^ Pace 1999, Appendix A.
  60. ^ "B-2 specifications". GlobalSecurity.org.
  61. ^ All 21 copies brought to Block 30 standard.
  62. ^ Air Force names final B-2 bomber "Spirit of America"
  63. ^ B-2 page on fas.org
  64. ^ Pace 1999, Appendix.
Bibliography
  • Donald, David, ed. Black Jets: The Development and Operation of America's Most Secret Warplanes. Norwalk, Connecticut: AIRtime Publishing Inc., 2003. ISBN 1-880588-67-6.
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  • Goodall, James C. "The Northrop B-2A Stealth Bomber." America's Stealth Fighters and Bombers: B-2, F-117, YF-22, and YF-23. St. Paul, MN: MBI Publishing Company, 1992. ISBN 0-87938-609-6.
  • Pace, Steve. B-2 Spirit: The Most Capable War Machine on the Planet. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. ISBN 0-07-134433-0.
  • Richardson, Doug. Northrop B-2 Spirit (Classic Warplanes). New York: Smithmark Publishers Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-8317-1404-2.
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  • Spick, Mike. "B-2 Spirit", The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4.
  • Winchester, Jim, ed. "Northrop B-2 Spirit". Modern Military Aircraft (Aviation Factfile). Rochester, Kent, UK: Grange Books plc, 2004. ISBN 1-84013-640-5.
  • The World's Great Stealth and Reconnaissance Aircraft. New York: Smithmark, 1991. ISBN 0-8317-9558-1.
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