Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy

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The Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, also later commonly referred to in the West as the Cartoon Riots, began after editorial cartoons depicting the Islamic prophet Muhammad were published in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten on September 30, 2005. Danish Muslim organizations staged protests in response. As the controversy has grown, some or all of the cartoons have been reprinted in newspapers in more than fifty other countries, which led to violent protests, particularly in the Islamic world.

Critics argue that the cartoons are culturally insulting, Islamophobic, blasphemous, and intended to humiliate a marginalized Danish minority. Supporters of the cartoons claim they illustrate an important issue and their publication exercises the right of free speech. They also claim that there are similar cartoons about other religions, arguing that Islam and its followers have not been targeted in a discriminatory way.

Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen has described the controversy as Denmark's worst international crisis since World War II.

Overview

Flemming Rose, the cultural editor of the conservative daily newspaper Jyllands-Posten, contacted approximately 40 cartoonists and asked them to draw the prophet as they saw him. This was meant to highlight the difficulty experienced by Danish writer Kåre Bluitgen in finding artists to illustrate his children's book about Muhammad. Artists previously approached by Bluitgen were reportedly unwilling to work with him for fear of violent attacks by extremist Muslims. Rose eventually received twelve cartoons from different cartoonists for the project and published the cartoons accompanied by an article on self-censorship and freedom of speech.

Several death threats and rewards for murdering those responsible for the cartoons have been issued, reportedly resulting in the cartoonists going into hiding.

The foreign ministries of eleven Islamic countries demanded action from the Danish government, and several Arab countries eventually closed their embassies in Denmark in protest after the government initially refused to intervene or apologize. PM Rasmussen said, "The government refuses to apologize because the government does not control the media or a newspaper outlet; that would be in violation of the freedom of speech".

A group of Danish Imams lobbied decision-makers in the Middle East. A large consumer boycott was organised in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Middle East countries. Rumours spread via SMS and word-of-mouth. The foreign ministers of seventeen Islamic countries renewed calls for the Danish government to punish those responsible for the cartoons, and to ensure that such cartoons would not be published again. The Organization of the Islamic Conference and the Arab League have demanded that the United Nations impose international sanctions upon Denmark and that the EU introduce blasphemy laws. For weeks, numerous protests against the cartoons have taken place worldwide, some of them violent. On February 4 2006, the buildings containing the Danish and Norwegian embassies in Syria were set ablaze, although no one was hurt. In Beirut the Danish Embassy office was set on fire, resulting in the death of one protester inside.

Four ministers have resigned due to events related to the cartoons controversy, among them Roberto Calderoli and Laila Freivalds.

Descriptions of the drawings

The twelve drawings are shown in the picture at the top of this article. Clockwise from top:

• The Islamic star and crescent merged with the face of Muhammad; his right eye is the star, the crescent surrounds his beard and face.
• Muhammad with a bomb in his turban, with a lit fuse and the Islamic creed written on the bomb.
• Muhammad standing in a gentle pose, dressed in a tunic and loose pants (salwar kameez). A glowing crescent around his turban suggests both a halo and a pair of horns.
• A schematic stick drawing of five almost identical figures. Each of them resembles a headscarf seen from the side and has a Star of David and a crescent where the face should be. A poem on oppression of women is attached to the cartoon: "Profet! Med kuk og knald i låget som holder kvinder under åget!", which could be translated as: "Prophet, you crazy bloke! Keeping women under yoke!"
• Muhammad with a walking stick seemingly on a desert trek, with the sun on the left, low on the horizon. He has a concerned expression on his face. There is a donkey in the background, carrying a burden.
• A nervous caricaturist at work, sweating profusely, looks over his shoulder and partially hides what he's doing with his left arm as he shakily draws the portrait of a bearded keffiyeh-wearing man, labelled "MOHAMMED". There is but one light on in the room he is in and it only shines from directly above his head covering only the drawing he works on.
• Scene in an oriental palace. Two angry Muslims charge forward one holding a bomb and the other holding a scimitar, while their leader (presumably Muhammad) addresses them with: "Rolig, venner, når alt kommer til alt er det jo bare en tegning lavet af en vantro sønderjyde", referring to a drawing in his hand. In English, his words are: "Relax, friends, at the end of the day, it's just a drawing by a "South Jutlander" infidel.
• A 7th grade Middle-Eastern looking boy in front of a blackboard. Sticking out his tongue, he points to a Farsi passage written on the board with chalk, which translates into "The editorial team of Jyllands-Posten is a bunch of reactionary provocateurs". The boy is labelled "Mohammed, Valby school, 7.A", implying that he is a second-generation child of immigrants to Denmark rather than the founder of Islam. On his shirt is written "FREM" and then in a new line "-TIDEN". Fremtiden means the future, but Frem (forward) is also the name of a Valby football team whose uniforms resemble the boy's shirt. Valby is a district of Copenhagen known for having a concentrated population of immigrants.
• Muhammad wearing a turban (imamah) and prepared for battle, with a kilij in his hand and likely a scimitar tucked in a shoulder strap scabbard behind him. He is flanked by two women in niqabs, having only their wide open eyes visible through band shaped eye openings while an equivalently sized band shaped black bar censors his eyes as though it was cut from one of the niqabs. His face is quite obscured by a thick grey beard and bushy eyebrows.
• Muhammad, dressed like a mullah, stands on a cloud, greeting dead suicide bombers with "Stop Stop vi er løbet tør for Jomfruer!" Translated in English: "Stop, stop, we have run out of virgins!", an allusion to the reward of seventy two virgins promised to Islamic martyrs.
• A caricaturized version of journalist Kåre Bluitgen, wearing a turban with the proverbial orange dropping into it, with the inscription "Publicity stunt". In his hand is a child's stick drawing of Muhammad. The proverb "an orange in the turban" is a Danish expression meaning "a stroke of luck": here, the added publicity for the book.

And in the centre:

• A police line-up of seven people wearing turbans, with the witness saying: "Hm... jeg kan ikke lige genkende ham" ("Hm... I can't really recognise him"). Not all people in the line-up are immediately identifiable. They are: (1) A generic Hippie, (2) right-wing politician Pia Kjærsgaard, (3) possibly Jesus, (4) possibly Buddha, (5) possibly Muhammad, (6) generic Indian Guru, and (7) journalist Kåre Bluitgen, carrying a sign saying: "Kåres PR, ring og få et tilbud" ("Kåre's public relations, call and get an offer").

Timeline

Main article: Timeline of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy

Debate about self-censorship

On September 17 2005, the Danish newspaper Politiken ran an article under the headline "Dyb angst for kritik af islam" ("Profound fear of criticism of Islam"). The article discussed the difficulty encountered by the writer Kåre Bluitgen, who was initially unable to find an illustrator who was prepared to work with Bluitgen on his children's book Koranen og profeten Muhammeds liv ("The Qur'an and the prophet Muhammad's life"). Three artists declined Bluitgen's proposal before an artist agreed to assist anonymously. According to Bluitgen:

One [artist declined], with reference to the murder in Amsterdam of the film director Theo van Gogh, while another [declined, citing the attack on] the lecturer at the Carsten Niebuhr Institute in Copenhagen.

In October 2004, a lecturer at the Niebuhr institute at the University of Copenhagen was assaulted by five assailants who opposed the lecturer's reading of the Qur'an to non-Muslims during a lecture.

The refusal of the first three artists to participate was seen as evidence of self-censorship and led to much debate in Denmark, with other examples for similar reasons soon emerging. The comedian Frank Hvam declared that he would (hypothetically) dare to urinate on the Bible on television, but not on the Qur'an, while the translators of an essay collection critical of Islam also wished to remain anonymous due to concerns about violent reaction.

Publication of the drawings

On September 30 2005, the daily newspaper Jyllands-Posten ("The Jutland Post") published an article titled "Muhammeds ansigt" ("The face of Muhammad"). The article consisted of 12 cartoons (of which only some depicted Muhammad) and an explanatory text, in which Flemming Rose, Jyllands-Posten's culture editor, commented:

The modern, secular society is rejected by some Muslims. They demand a special position, insisting on special consideration of their own religious feelings. It is incompatible with contemporary democracy and freedom of speech, where you must be ready to put up with insults, mockery and ridicule. It is certainly not always attractive and nice to look at, and it does not mean that religious feelings should be made fun of at any price, but that is of minor importance in the present context. [...] we are on our way to a slippery slope where no-one can tell how the self-censorship will end. That is why Morgenavisen Jyllands-Posten has invited members of the Danish editorial cartoonists union to draw Muhammad as they see him. [...]

After an invitation from Jyllands-Posten to around forty different artists to give their interpretation of Muhammad, twelve caricaturists chose to respond with a drawing each. Some of these twelve drawings portray Muhammad in different fashions; many also comment on the surrounding self-censorship debate. Four of these twelve cartoons were illustrated by Jyllands-Posten's own staff, including the "bomb" and "niqaab" cartoons.

In the Washington Post, on February 19, Rose explained his intent further:

The cartoonists treated Islam the same way they treat Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and other religions. And by treating Muslims in Denmark as equals they made a point: We are integrating you into the Danish tradition of satire because you are part of our society, not strangers. The cartoons are including, rather than excluding, Muslims. [...] Angry voices claim the [bomb in the turban] cartoon is saying that the prophet is a terrorist or that every Muslim is a terrorist. I read it differently: Some individuals have taken the religion of Islam hostage by committing terrorist acts in the name of the prophet. They are the ones who have given the religion a bad name.

In October the Danish daily Politiken polled 31 of the 43 members of the Danish cartoonist association. 23 were willing to draw Muhammad. One had doubts, one refused because of fear for reprisals, 6 cartoonists refused to make the drawings because they respected the Muslim ban on depicting the prophet. 15 of the 31 cartoonists rejected Jyllands-Posten's project.

Jyllands-Posten response

In response to protests from Danish Muslim groups Jyllands-Posten published two open letters on its website, both in Danish and Arabic versions, and the second letter also in an English version. The second letter was dated 30 January 2006, and includes the following explanation and apology:

In our opinion, the 12 drawings were sober. They were not intended to be offensive, nor were they at variance with Danish law, but they have indisputably offended many Muslims for which we apologize.

On February 26, Jyllands-Posten published an interview with the cartoonist who had drawn the bomb in turban picture, the most controversial of the twelve. Asked about its message, he explained:

The cartoon is not about Islam as a whole, but the part that apparently can inspire violence, terrorism, death and destruction. And thereby the fundamentalist part of Islam. I wanted to point out that terrorists get their spiritual ammunition from Islam.

There are interpretations of it [the drawing] that are incorrect. The general impression among Muslims is that it is about Islam as a whole. It is not. It is about certain fundamentalist aspects, that of course are not shared by everyone. But the fuel for the terrorists’ acts stem from interpretations of Islam. I think there is no escaping that. That does not mean that all Muslims are responsible for terror. It is about showing a connection, from where the spiritual fuel comes. There are some interpretations of Islam, according to which you become a martyr if you die for Islam, and you can therefore with a calm mind kill the infidels, and you will be rewarded in the beyond.

If a religion develops into religious fanaticism we are faced with totalitarian tendencies, as we have been in the past, such as Fascism and Nazism. It is the same situation, where humans have to surrender and do as demanded by the rulers. I think we should fight against that, and the weapon of a cartoonist is this pen or pencil and then a certain degree of indignation.

Asked whether the cartoon displays appropriate respect for Islam, the cartoonist commented:

It does not respect the version of Islam that provides the spiritual fuel for terrorists. I have nothing against Islam or Muslims. They should have their freedom, but if parts of a religion develop in a totalitarian and aggressive direction, then I think you have to protest. We did so under the other 'isms. Under communism thousands of satirical drawings and other satire were made that revealed and spoke against it.

Meeting with Islamic Ambassadors refused by Danish Prime Minister

Having received petitions from Danish imams, eleven Islamic ambassadors asked for a meeting with Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen in 12 October 2005, in order to discuss what they perceived as an "on-going smearing campaign in Danish public circles and media against Islam and Muslims". The ambassadors mentioned not only the issue of the Muhammad cartoons, but also a recent indictment against Radio Holger and statements by MP Louise Frevert and the Minister of Culture Brian Mikkelsen. It concluded:

"We deplore these statements and publications and urge Your Excellency’s government to take all those responsible to task under law of the land in the interest of inter-faith harmony, better integration and Denmark's overall relations with the Muslim world".

The government answered the ambassadors' request for a meeting with Rasmussen with a letter only, because it apparently interpreted the letter as asking Rasmussen to take legal steps against the newspaper, and the government did not see this as an acceptable basis for a meeting: "The freedom of expression has a wide scope and the Danish governments has no means of influencing the press. However, Danish legislation prohibits acts or expressions of blasphemous or discriminatory nature. The offended party may bring such acts or expressions to court, and it is for the courts to decide in individual cases."

The ambassadors, on the other hand, maintained that they have never really asked that Jyllands-Posten should be prosecuted; possibly, the non-technical phrase of the letter, "to take NN to task under law", meant something like "to hold NN responsible within the limits of the law". . Rasmussen replied that this interpretation was irrelevant: "Even a non-judicial intervention against Jyllands-Posten would be impossible in our system".

The Egypt Minister of Foreign Affairs, Aboul Gheit, wrote several letters to the Prime Minister of Denmark and one letter to the secretary general of the UN in October and November explaining that they did not want the Prime Minister to prosecute Jyllands-Posten; they only wanted "an official Danish statement underlining the need for and the obligation of respecting all religions and desisting from offending their devotees to prevent an escalation which would have serious and far-reaching consequences". Subsequently, allegedly disappointed by not being heard by the Danish government, Egypt played a leading role in diffusing the knowledge of the Muhammad cartoons to the other regimes of the Middle East.

The refusal to meet the ambassadors is a major point of criticism towards the government from the opposition. It has also been criticized by 22 Danish ex-ambassadors and by Rasmussen's predecessor as the leader of the governing liberal party Venstre, ex-Minister of Foreign Affairs, Uffe Ellemann-Jensen.

Judicial investigation of Jyllands-Posten

On October 27, 2005, a number of Muslim organizations filed a complaint with the Danish police claiming that Jyllands-Posten had committed an offence under section 140 and 266b of the Danish Criminal Code.

Section 140 of the Criminal Code, known as the blasphemy law, prohibits disturbing public order by publicly ridiculing or insulting the dogmas of worship of any lawfully existing religious community in Denmark. It is punishable by either a jail sentence of no more than four months or, in some circumstances, a fine. Only one case has ever resulted in a sentence, a 1938 case involving an anti-Semitic group. The most recent case was in 1971 when a program director of Danmarks Radio was charged under section 140. He was found not guilty.

Section 266b criminalises insult, threat or degradation of natural persons, by publicly and with malice attacking their race, color of skin, national or ethnical roots, faith or sexual orientation. Danish police began their investigation of these complaints on 27 October 2005.

On 6 January 2006, the Regional Public Prosecutor in Viborg discontinued the investigation as he found no basis for concluding that the cartoons constituted a criminal offence. His reason is based on his finding that the article concerns a subject of public interest and, further, on Danish case law which extends editorial freedom to journalists when it comes to a subject of public interest. He stated that, in assessing what constitutes an offence, the right to freedom of speech must be taken into consideration. That while the right to freedom of speech must be exercised with the necessary respect for other human rights, including the right to protection against discrimination, insult and degradation, no apparent violation of the law had occurred. In a new hearing, the Director of Public Prosecutors in Denmark agreed.

Danish Imams tour the Middle East

Main article: Akkari-Laban dossier

A group of Danish imams, dissatisfied with the reaction of the Danish Government and Jyllands-Posten created a 43-page document entitled, "Dossier about championing the prophet Muhammad peace be upon him".

The dossier consists of several letters from Muslim organisations explaining their case, citing the Jyllands-Posten cartoons but also the following causes of "pain and torment" for the authors:

1. Pictures from another Danish newspaper, Weekendavisen, which they called "even more offending" (than the original 12 cartoons);
2. Hate-mail pictures and letters that the dossier's authors alleged were sent to Muslims in Denmark, which they claimed were indicative of the rejection of Muslims by the Danish;
3. A televised interview with Dutch member of parliament and Islam critic Hirsi Ali, who had just received the Freedom Prize “for her work to further freedom of speech and the rights of women” from the Danish Liberal Party represented by Anders Fogh Rasmussen.

Appended are multiple clippings from Jyllands-Posten, multiple clippings from Weekendavisen, some clippings from Arabic-language papers, and three additional images.

Pig-face - This picture of a French pig-squealing contestant, taken from the imams' dossier, was later identified as an old Associated Press picture with no reference to Islam.

The group of imams said that the three additional images were sent anonymously by mail to Muslims, who were participating in an online debate on Jyllands-posten. On February 1 BBC World incorrectly reported that one of them had been published in Jyllands-Posten. This image was later found to be a wire-service photo of a contestant at a French pig-squealing contest (the original wire service article can be seen here ), although the dossier's version also included the caption Here is the true face of Muhammad (in Danish, with an Arabic translation). According to the BBC, this image was reportedly circulated by Danish Muslims to illustrate the atmosphere of Islamophobia, which they lived under. One of the other two additional images (a photo) portrayed a Muslim being mounted by a dog while praying (pigs and dogs are considered unclean animals (Haraam) in Islam), and the other (a cartoon) portrayed Muhammad as a demonic pedophile (a likely reference to the Aisha controversy).

The group of Imams set out for a tour of the Middle East to present their case to many influential religious and political leaders, and to ask for support: The dossier contains statements such as:

• We urge you [recipient of the letter or dossier] to - on the behalf of thousands of believing Muslims - to give us the opportunity of having a constructive contact with the press and particularly with the relevant decision makers, not briefly, but with a scientific methodology and a planned and long-term programme seeking to make views approach each other and remove misunderstandings between the two parties involved. Since we do not wish for Muslims to be accused of being backward and narrow, likewise we do not wish for Danes to be accused of ideological arrogance either. When this relationship is back on its track, the result will bring satisfaction, an underpinning of security and the stable relations, and a flourishing Denmark for all that live here
• We call your [recipient of the letter or dossier] attention to this case, and place it in your hands, in such a way that we together may think and have an objective dialogue regarding how an appropriate exit can be found for these crises in a way which does not violate the freedom of speech, but which at the same time does not offend the feelings of Muslims either.

It also contains misinformation such as:

• The faithful in their religion (Muslims) suffer under a number of circumstances, first and foremost the lack of official recognition of the Islamic faith. This has led to a lot of problems, especially the lack of right to build mosques [...]
• Even though they [the Danes] belong to the Christian faith, the secularizations have overcome them, and if you say that they are all infidels, then you are not wrong.
• This [the publication of the 12 cartoons] happened in connection with the promotion of a book, which has recently been published, and which contains these inappropriate cartoons

and statements such as:

• We [Muslims] do not need lessons in democracy, but it is actually us, who through our deeds and speeches educate the whole world in democracy.
• This [Europe's] dictatorial way of using democracy is completely unacceptable.

The inclusion in the dossier of the cartoons from Weekendavisen was perhaps not due as much to willful misinformation as possibly a misunderstanding. They were more likely parodies on the pompousness of Jylland-Posten's cartoons than cartoons of the prophet in their own right, and consist of reproductions of works such as the Mona Lisa (caption: For centuries, a previously unknown society has known that this is a painting of the Prophet, and guarded this secret. The back page's anonymous artist is doing everything he can to reveal this secret in his contribution. He has since then been forced to go underground, fearing for the wrath of a crazy albino imam; an obvious parody of the Da Vinci Code), or Composition VIII by Russian abstract artist Kandinsky (caption: Bellowing Prophet by a Forest Lake; a pun on "Bellowing Deer by a Forest Lake", an image associated with very poor taste.)

At a 6 December 2005 summit of the OIC, with many heads of state in attendance, the dossier was handed around on the sidelines first, and eventually an official communiqué was issued.

Reprinting in other newspapers

El Fagr's Headline Page for October 17, 2005 - One of the controversial cartoons of Muhammad, as it appeared on the first page of the Egyptian newspaper El Fagr.

Further information: List of newspapers that reprinted Jyllands-Posten's Muhammad cartoons

Map shows a colored matrix of republication and violence

In 2005, the Muhammad cartoons controversy received only minor media attention outside of Denmark. Six of the cartoons were reprinted by the Egyptian newspaper El Fagr on October 17, 2005 along with an article strongly denouncing them, but publication did not provoke any reactions nor condemnations from either religious or government authorities. Some or all of the cartoons were reprinted between October 2005 and the end of January 2006 in major European newspapers from the Netherlands, Germany, Scandinavia, Belgium and France. Very soon after, as protests grew, there were further re-publications around the globe, but mostly in continental Europe.

Notable by their absence were re-publications from major newspapers in the USA and the United Kingdom, where editorials covered the story, but generally took a stance against re-publication of the Muhammad cartoons.

Several editors were fired for their decision, or even their intention, to re-publish the cartoons (most prominently Jacques Lefranc, managing director of France Soir, owned by Egyptian businessman Raymond Lakah). Some were stopped by their publishers or the courts.

Three of the cartoons were reprinted in the Jordanian weekly newspaper al-Shihan. The editor, Jihad Momani, was fired, and the publisher withdrew the newspaper from circulation. Jihad Momani issued a public apology, was arrested and charged with insulting religion. Several of the cartoons were reprinted in the Jordanian newspaper al-Mehwar. The editor Hisham Khalidi was also arrested and charged with insulting religion. Both charges were dropped two days later.

Al-Hurreya newspaper in Yemen was closed down after publishing some of the cartoons. The owner and editor of the paper, Abdul-Karim Sabra was arrested.

In Malaysia, Lester Melanyi, an editor of the Sarawak Tribune resigned from his post for allowing the reprinting of a cartoon. In East Malaysia non-Muslims are a majority in the otherwise predominantly Muslim state. The chief editor was summoned to the Internal Security Ministry. The Malaysian government has also shut down the newspaper indefinitely. Malaysia's third-largest Chinese-language daily, Guang Ming, was suspended from publication of its evening edition for carrying one of the cartoons in its February 3 edition. The suspension ran for two weeks from February 16 to March 1, 2006. The TV3 television station which aired some of the cartoons, however, has not been suspended.

Yemen detained three journalists on February 12, 2006 and is seeking a fourth after closing three publications that printed the cartoons. Al-Hurriya, Yemen Observer and al-Rai al-Aam were shut and their case sent to prosecutors. The officials said those detained are Mohammad al-Asaadi, the editor-in-chief of the English-language Yemen Observer, Akram Sabra, the managing editor of al-Hurriya weekly newspaper, and reporter Yehiya al-Abed of Hurriya. The prosecution has issued a warrant for Kamal al-Aalafi, the editor-in-chief of al-Rai al-Aam. The Yemeni journalists' association called for the release of the journalists and for the annulment of the closure decrees "because these measures were not ordered by a court".

On February 12, 2006, Algeria closed two newspapers and arrested their editors for printing the images of the cartoons of the prophet. Kahel Bousaad and Berkane Bouderbala, the respective editors of pro-Islamist weeklies Errisala and Iqraa, were detained last week and will appear before an investigating judge in Algiers on Monday, staff of the two Arabic newspapers said.

On February 4, 2006, the Cardiff University student newspaper gair rhydd (which is Welsh for free word) became the first organ in the United Kingdom to publish the images. The day after after publication, the decision was taken to pulp the edition and only approximately 200 copies were actually distributed. The editor along with two journalists were suspended for the decision to publish. Gair Rhydd resumed publication on 13 February, 2006, with an apology.

Danish Imams under investigation

A French TV documentary crew secretly filmed Ahmed Akkari, spokesman for the group of Danish Imams that toured the Middle East, in conversation with Sheikh Raed Hlayhel (head of the delegation), threatening to have Naser Khader -- a founder of Denmark's Democratic Muslims network and a member of the Danish parliament -- bombed. Akkari initially denied the remarks, then said he was only joking. Police started an investigation but Akkari wasn't charged. The same journalists also secretly filmed Ahmad Abu Laban, the most prominent of the Danish Imams involved in the controversy, talking about a man who wants "to wreak absolute havoc" and "wants to join the fray and turn it into a Martyr operation right now". Police investigated Abu Laban after he returned from Bahrein, where he attended an Islamic conference on the cartoon controversy. However, no charges were made against Abu Laban either.

Later chief criminal investigator Hans Jørgen Bonnichsen from the Danish police intelligence service made headlines when claiming that, to his knowledge, the Danish imams had been nothing but helpful in securing internal security during the crisis.

Conflicting traditions

Danish journalistic tradition

Freedom of speech in Denmark was obtained in a new constitution with democracy in 1849 and parliamentarism in 1901 together with other liberties, including freedom of religion. These freedoms have been defended vigorously ever since. Freedom of speech was abandoned temporarily only during the German occupation of Denmark during World War II.

Section 77 of the Constitutional Act of Denmark (1953) reads: “Any person shall be at liberty to publish his ideas in print, in writing, and in speech, subject to his being held responsible in a court of law. Censorship and other preventive measures shall never again be introduced.”

Under international law, freedom of expression in Denmark is also protected by among others the European Convention on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

The Danish freedom of expression is quite far-reaching, even by Western standards. Despite official German protests, Denmark has long been a safe haven for printing of neo-nazi propaganda. It has also been accused by Russia for "solidarity with terrorists" after hosting a Chechen congress. The organization Reporters Without Borders ranks Denmark at the top of its Worldwide Press Freedom Index for 2005 [1].

Jesus and other religious figures are often portrayed in Denmark in ways that many other societies would consider illegal blasphemy. In 1984 the artist Jens Jørgen Thorsen was commissioned by a local art club to paint the wall of a railway station. The work displayed a naked Jesus with an erect penis. In 1992 Thorsen directed the film Jesus vender tilbage which showed Jesus as sexually active and involved with a terrorist group. Although Thorsen’s work provoked much public debate and his painting was removed from the public building, he was not charged with any legal offence. While Jyllands-Posten has published satirical cartoons depicting Christian figures [2], it did, in 2003, reject unsolicited surreal cartoons depicting Jesus, opening them to accusations of a double standard.

Danish newspapers are privately owned and independent from the government. There are no restrictions on the political viewpoints that may be published. There are frequent caricatures of priests and politicians as well as of Queen Margrethe II.

Islamic traditions involving Muhammad and aniconism

Prohibition on Insulting Muhammad

Throughout the history of Muslim societies, to insult the Islamic prophet Muhammad has been seen as one of the most serious crimes anyone could commit. In many cases, such as those of the Martyrs of Córdoba, this led to the death penalty. Some interpretations of the Shariat, in particular the Salafi (Non-Maddhab), follow that any insult to Muhammad warrants death. Most Maddhabs view insulting the prophet (known as the Rasul Allah, or Messenger of God) as insulting the message he brought (i.e., the religion of Islam) and those who adhere to it (i.e., all Muslims). When even pronouncing the name Muhammad, Muslims typically follow this with "Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam" (abbreviated in written form to SAW), or "Peace be upon him" (abbrev. to PBUH).

Aniconistic traditions

File:Muhammad 2.jpg

Miniature of Muhammad re-dedicating the Black Stone at the Kaaba. From Jami Al-Tawarikh ("The Universal History" written by Rashid Al-Din), a manuscript in the Library of the University of Edinburgh; illustrated in Tabriz, Persia, c. 1315 during the rule of the Sunni Arab Muzaffarid dynasty.

Main article: [[:Aniconism and Depictions of Muhammad]]

The Qur'an, Islam's holiest book, condemns idolatry, but has no direct condemnations of pictorial art. Direct prohibitions of pictorial art are found in certain hadiths, e.g. "Ibn ‘Umar reported Allah’s Messenger (pbuh) having said: Those who paint pictures would be punished on the Day of Resurrection and it would be said to them: Breathe soul into what you have created." (Sahih Muslim, Book 24 Verse 5268). Certain hadiths suggest an exception for "prints on the cloth" (Sahih Muslim, Book 24 Verse 5252). Other hadiths suggest this prohibition may apply only to "statues" (Sahih Muslim, Book 24 Verse 5250).

Views regarding pictorial representations within Muslim communities have varied from group to group, and from time to time. The Shi'a Muslims have been generally tolerant of pictorial representations of human figures including the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Indeed, a fatwa exists given by Ali al-Sistani, the Shi'a marja of Iraq, stating that it is permissible to make pictures of Muhammad, if done with the highest respect. Contemporary Sunni Muslims, who represent anywhere from 85 to 90% of the world's Muslim community, generally consider any pictorial representation of Muhammad forbidden. However, during the Ottoman Empire Sunni Ottomans were open to pictorial representations and even patronized miniaturist art, some of which depicted Muhammad. These depictions usually show Muhammad's face covered with a veil or as a featureless void emanating light (depicted as flames). Pictorial surveys of Muhammad can be found on the internet.

A few contemporary interpretations of Islam, such as certain adherents to branches of Wahhabism and Salafism, are aniconistic and condemn pictorial representations of any kind. The Taliban, while in power in Afghanistan, banned television, photographs and images in newspapers and also destroyed paintings including frescoes found in the vicinity of the Buddhas of Bamiyan. Some Salafis (e.g., the House of Saud), approve of pictorial representations (though not of Muhammad).

The (Wahhabi) Council on American-Islamic Relations states in a press release:

Islam forbids visual depictions of the prophet and regards violations by Muslims as highly sinful and by non-Muslims as the ultimate insult.
The prohibition is in part an application of the Quran's strict opposition to idolatry, the worship of a physical object as a god, including any hint of such devotion toward the faith's revered human prophet.

Other Muslims however, have explained their anti-cartoon stance as not so much against pictures, but against disrespectful pictures. According to the BBC News:

It is the satirical intent of the cartoonists and the association of the Prophet with terrorism, that is so offensive to the vast majority of Muslims.

International reactions

File:Dm product.jpg

"To our dear customers: As a result of mockery towards The Prophet (Peace Be Upon Him), Al Tamimi Markets announces its boycott of all kinds of Danish Products"

Main article: International reactions to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy

What started with the problem of a Danish author trying to find an illustrator for his forthcoming book about Islam has become an international crisis. It has led to death, violence, arrests, international tensions, and a renewed debate about the scope of free speech and the place of Muslims in the West, and the West in Muslim countries. Many governments, organizations and individuals worldwide have issued statements, to let their stances be known.

Economic and human costs

Main articles:

• Economic and human costs of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
• Anti-Denmark Boycott
• Support Denmark Movement

As of March 2 2006, at least 139 people have been killed in the protests. Deaths have been mainly in Nigeria, Libya, Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Opinions

Main article: Opinions on the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy

Comparable references

On August 18, 1925 the Star (a now defunct London evening newspaper) printed a cartoon by David Low in which the Captain of the English Cricket team, Jack Hobbs, was depicted as the towering statue in a 'Gallery of the most important historical celebrities' and the one to whom the others looked up. Among the others was Mahomet. Colin Seymour-Ure and Jim Schoff's book David Low notes "Harmless enough at home, the depiction of Mahomet meant that in India the cartoon 'convulsed many Moslems in speechless rage', as the Calcutta correspondent of the Morning Post put it. Meetings were held and resolutions of protest were passed."

Numerous comparisons have been offered in public discussions comparing earlier controversies over propriety of speech and art with the recent controversy surrounding the Jyllands-Posten cartoons. Some examples include:

Main article: Freedom of speech versus blasphemy

• The Satanic Verses (novel, 1988, 2006, Global)
• The Life of Jesus (book, 2005, Greece)
• Jerry Springer - The Opera (musical, 2005, Britain)
• The Last Supper (billboard based on Leonardo da Vinci painting, 2005, Italy, France)
• Submission (short film, 2004, Netherlands)
• Snow White and The Madness of Truth (installation, 2004, Sweden)
• Bloody Mary (tv, 2000s, United States, New Zealand, and Australia)
• Ecce Homo (exhibition, 2000, Europe)
• Sensation (exhibition, 1999, London and New York)
• Great Lawgivers (frieze, 1997, Washington D.C.)
• Tatiana Soskin (drawing, 1997, Israel)
• Taslima Nasrin (newspaper, 1994, Bangladesh)
• Piss Christ (photo, 1989, United States)
• The Last Temptation of Christ (film, 1988, United States and Europe)
• Life of Brian (film, 1979, United States and Europe)
• Mohammad, Messenger of God (film, 1977, United States, Libya, UK and Lebanon)
• Anti-Semitic Cartoons

See also

• Censorship by organized religion
• Clash of Civilizations
• Dialogue Among Civilizations
• Controversial newspaper caricatures
• Freedom of the press
• Freedom of speech and freedom of the press in Denmark
• Freedom of speech versus blasphemy
• Hamshahri
• Islam in Denmark
• Separation of church and state
• Islamist Demonstration outside Danish Embassy in London
• Internet Censorship in Pakistan
• Rakyat Merdeka dingo cartoon controversy

External links

Official correspondence

• The letter to the Prime Minister from the Muslim ambassadors Template:PDFlink
• The response to the letters from the ambassadors Template:PDFlink
• First open letter in Arabic to the Muslims of Saudi Arabia from Jyllands-Posten Template:PDFlink
• Second open letter to the Muslims of Saudi Arabia from Jyllands-Posten
  • In Arabic Template:PDFlink
  • In English
• Photocopies of the Imams' dossier
• The Danish Foreign ministry, rebutting rumours that were spread via SMS and word-of-mouth
• The Danish Director of Public Prosecutions: Decision on possible criminal proceedings in the case of Jyllands-Posten's article Template:PDFlink

Islamic views

• Imran Anwar - Let's Make New Cartoons Of The Prophet
• Amr khaled - A message to the World
• IUMS Statement on Publishing Anti-Prophet Cartoons
• Danish cartoons and sacred imagery
• Drawings Against Drawings
• A Danish Trojan Horse: Law and the Muhammad Cartoons, JURIST
• Amr khaled - A message to the World
• Respect islam and other religions movement
• Tolerance on Trial: Why We Reprinted the Danish Cartoons (op-ed by the publisher of the English-language Yemen Observer newspaper), JURIST

News articles

• BBC, Q&A Depicting the Prophet Muhammad
• The Guardian special reports: cartoon protests
• World press review by BBC Monitoring
• New York Times: At Mecca Meeting, Cartoon Outrage Crystallized
• BBC Viewpoints
• Economist: The limits to free speech

Video

• London demonstration in front of the Danish embassy 3 Feb 2006
• Protesters Burn European Embassies, Consulates, Churches in Damascus and Beirut February 4-5 2006
• Interview with American Muslim Hamza Yusuf on Danish news show Deadline
• BBC HARDtalk: Ahmad Abu Laban and Fleming Rose, 8 February 2006

Images

• The page of Jylland-Posten that contains Muhammad cartoons
• Listing of the Muhammad drawings and responses to the controversy
• All the Mohammed drawings in full size
• Enlargeable images link
• Picture series - Burning of the Danish embassy in Syria
• News service photos of protesters worldwide
• Caricatures of Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen, published by the Danish newspaper Information
• The 12 Jyllands-Posten images and response in cartoons by the Arab-European League, published on Annoy.com
• More editorial cartoons, including some depicting Muhammed, mainly in response to the protests of the original drawings
• Picture series and editorial cartoon responses in a humorous format
• Animated cartoon satirizing Muslim reactions

Reconciliation

• It is Enough Now Letter for reconciliation in Arabic, Danish and English
• Forsoning nu! Danish petition for reconciliation
• A letter from Another Denmark Another Danish petition for reconciliation

Other Sources

• An online protest against cartoons of Prophet Muhammad A site that condemns the Jyllands Posten cartoons and invites others to protest by submitting their e-mail addresses. As of April 8, 2006 more than 145,000 individuals have entered their addresses.
• Cartoon Body Count: Death by Drawing An independent website tallying the total casualty count as a result of the controversy (based on verified news sources).
• Cartoons riots Google Maps mashup A mashup displaying places where protests, riots and fatalities occured during the Mohamed cartoons row
• JFK Jr. Forum cartoons controversy discussion at Harvard University by Shahab Ahmed, Jocelyne Cesari, Father J. Bryan Hehir, Dr. Joseph S. Nye Jr. (RealPlayer stream)
• Complexity and Social Networks Blog at Harvard University applies Social Network Theory
• The Mohammed-Cartoon Controversy, Israel, and the Jews: A Case Study by Manfred Gerstenfeld of the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs