Jump to content

Wireless device radiation and health: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Added section on sperm count and sperm quality effects of mobile phones
Line 141: Line 141:
====Behavioural effects====
====Behavioural effects====
A study on mice offspring suggested that cell phone use during pregnancy may cause behavioural problems that resemble the effects of [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD.]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Cell Phone Use in Pregnancy May Cause Behavioral Disorders in Offspring, Mouse Study Suggests|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/03/120315110138.htm|publisher=Science Daily|accessdate=1 April 2012}}</ref>
A study on mice offspring suggested that cell phone use during pregnancy may cause behavioural problems that resemble the effects of [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD.]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Cell Phone Use in Pregnancy May Cause Behavioral Disorders in Offspring, Mouse Study Suggests|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/03/120315110138.htm|publisher=Science Daily|accessdate=1 April 2012}}</ref>

====Sperm count and sperm quality====
A number of studies have shown relationships between mobile telephone use and reduced sperm count and sperm quality. Peer reviewed studies have shown relationships using statistical questionnaire techniques <ref>Fejes I, Zavaczki Z, Szollosi J, Koloszar S, Daru J, Kovacs L, et al. 2005. Is there a relationship between cell phone use and semen quality? Arch Androl 51(5): 385-93.</ref><ref>Kilgallon SJ, Simmons LW. 2005. Image content influences men's semen quality. Biol Lett 1(3): 253-5.</ref><ref>Wdowiak A, Wdowiak L, Wiktor H. 2007. Evaluation of the effect of using mobile phones on male fertility. Ann Agric Environ Med 14(1): 169-72.</ref><ref>Agarwal A, Deepinder F, Sharma RK, Ranga G, Li J. 2008. Effect of cell phone usage on semen analysis in men attending infertility clinic: an observational study. Fertil Steril 89(1): 124-8.</ref><ref>Gutschi T, Mohamad Al-Ali B, Shamloul R, Pummer K, Trummer H. 2011. Impact of cell phone use on men's semen parameters. Andrologia: 43(5): 312-6.</ref>, controlled experiments on living humans <ref>Davoudi M, Brossner C, Kuber W. 2002. The influence of electromagnetic waves on sperm motility. Journal für Urologie und Urogynäkologie 19: 19-22.</ref>, and controlled experiments on sperm outside the body <ref>Erogul O, Oztas E, Yildirim I, Kir T, Aydur E, Komesli G, et al. 2006. Effects of electromagnetic radiation from a cellular phone on human sperm motility: an in vitro study. Arch Med Res 37(7): 840-3.</ref><ref>Agarwal A, Desai NR, Makker K, Varghese A, Mouradi R, Sabanegh E, et al. 2009. Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF-EMW) from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: an in vitro pilot study. Fertil Steril 92(4): 1318-25.</ref><ref>De Iuliis GN, Newey RJ, King BV, Aitken RJ. 2009. Mobile phone radiation induces reactive oxygen species production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PLoS One 4(7): e6446.</ref><ref>Falzone N, Huyser C, Becker P, Leszczynski D, Franken DR. 2011. The effect of pulsed 900-MHz GSM mobile phone radiation on the acrosome reaction, head morphometry and zona binding of human spermatozoa. Int J Androl 34(1): 20-6.</ref>.

The [[Environmental Working Group]] (EWG) has a web page entitled "Cell Phone Radiation Damages Sperm, Studies Show" published August 2013. The EWG page reviews and tabulates studies showing relationships between mobile phone use and low sperm count and sperm quality.<ref>http://www.ewg.org/cell-phone-radiation-damages-sperm-studies-find</ref>


==Health hazards of base stations==
==Health hazards of base stations==

Revision as of 06:22, 20 January 2014

A man speaking on a mobile telephone
Part of a series on
Antennas
Common types
Components
Systems
Safety and regulation
Radiation sources / regions
Characteristics
Techniques

The effect of mobile phone radiation on human health is the subject of recent interest and study, as a result of the enormous increase in mobile phone usage throughout the world. As of November 2011, there were more than 6 billion subscriptions worldwide.[1] Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range. Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks, produce similar radiation.

In 2011, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified mobile phone radiation as Group 2B - possibly carcinogenic. That means that there "could be some risk" of carcinogenicity, so additional research into the long-term, heavy use of mobile phones needs to be conducted.[2] The WHO added that "to date, no adverse health effects have been established as being caused by mobile phone use."[3] Some national radiation advisory authorities[4] have recommended measures to minimize exposure to their citizens as a precautionary approach.

Effects

Many scientific studies have investigated possible health symptoms of mobile phone radiation. These studies are occasionally reviewed by some scientific committees to assess overall risks. A 2007 assessment published by the European Commission Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR)[5] concludes that the three lines of evidence, viz. animal, in vitro, and epidemiological studies, indicate that "exposure to RF fields is unlikely to lead to an increase in cancer in humans".

Radiation absorption

Part of the radio waves emitted by a mobile telephone handset are absorbed by the body. The radio waves emitted by a GSM handset can AMPS|D-AMPS]], use lower output power, typically below a watt. [dubious – discuss] The maximum power output from a mobile phone is regulated by the mobile phone standard and by the regulatory agencies in each country. In most systems the cellphone and the base station check reception quality and signal strength and the power level is increased or decreased automatically, within a certain span, to accommodate different situations, such as inside or outside of buildings and vehicles.[6]

The rate at which energy is absorbed by the human body is measured by the Specific Absorption Rate (SAR), and its maximum levels for modern handsets have been set by governmental regulating agencies in many countries. In the USA, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has set a SAR limit of 1.6 W/kg, averaged over a volume of 1 gram of tissue, for the head. In Europe, the limit is 2 W/kg, averaged over a volume of 10 grams of tissue. SAR values are heavily dependent on the size of the averaging volume. Without information about the averaging volume used, comparisons between different measurements cannot be made. Thus, the European 10-gram ratings should be compared among themselves, and the American 1-gram ratings should only be compared among themselves. SAR data for specific mobile phones, along with other useful information, can be found directly on manufacturers' websites, as well as on third party web sites.[7] It is worth noting that thermal radiation is not comparable to ionizing radiation in that it only increases the temperature in normal matter, it does not break molecular bonds or release electrons from their atoms.

Thermal effects

One well-understood effect of microwave radiation is dielectric heating, in which any dielectric material (such as living tissue) is heated by rotations of polar molecules induced by the electromagnetic field. In the case of a person using a cell phone, most of the heating effect will occur at the surface of the head, causing its temperature to increase by a fraction of a degree. In this case, the level of temperature increase is an order of magnitude less than that obtained during the exposure of the head to direct sunlight. The brain's blood circulation is capable of disposing of excess heat by increasing local blood flow. However, the cornea of the eye does not have this temperature regulation mechanism and exposure of 2–3 hours duration has been reported to produce cataracts in rabbits' eyes at SAR values from 100-140W/kg, which produced lenticular temperatures of 41°C. There were no cataracts detected in the eyes of monkeys exposed under similar conditions.[8] Premature cataracts have not been linked with cell phone use, possibly because of the lower power output of mobile phones.

Non-thermal effects

The communications protocols used by mobile phones often result in low-frequency pulsing of the carrier signal. Whether these modulations have biological significance has been subject to debate.[9]

Some researchers have argued that so-called "non-thermal effects" could be reinterpreted as a normal cellular response to an increase in temperature. The German biophysicist Roland Glaser, for example,[10] has argued that there are several thermoreceptor molecules in cells, and that they activate a cascade of second and third messenger systems, gene expression mechanisms and production of heat shock proteins in order to defend the cell against metabolic cell stress caused by heat. The increases in temperature that cause these changes are too small to be detected by studies such as REFLEX, which base their whole argument on the apparent stability of thermal equilibrium in their cell cultures.

Other researchers believe the stress proteins are unrelated to thermal effects, since they occur for both extremely low frequencies (ELF) and radio frequencies (RF), which have very different energy levels.[11] Another preliminary study published in 2011 by The Journal of the American Medical Association conducted using fluorodeoxyglucose injections and positron emission tomography concluded that exposure to radiofrequency signal waves within parts of the brain closest to the cell phone antenna resulted in increased levels of glucose metabolism, but the clinical significance of this finding is unknown.[12][13]

Blood–brain barrier effects

Swedish researchers from Lund University (Salford, Brun, Persson, Eberhardt, and Malmgren) have studied the effects of microwave radiation on the rat brain. They found a leakage of albumin into the brain via a permeated blood–brain barrier.[14][15] This confirms earlier work on the blood–brain barrier by Allan Frey, Oscar and Hawkins, and Albert and Kerns.[16] Other groups have not confirmed these findings in vitro cell studies[17] or whole animal studies,[18] however Frey alleges that an editor determined that a researcher who claimed that his attempts to replicate Frey's research had not validated Frey's results had incorrectly interpreted his own results, and that his research had confirmed Frey's results.[16]: 102 

Prof Leszczynski of Finland's radiation and nuclear safety authority found that, at the maximum legal limit for mobile radiation, one protein in particular, HSP 27, was affected. HSP 27 played a critical role in the integrity of the blood-brain barrier.[19]

Cancer

In 2006 a large Danish group's study about the connection between mobile phone use and cancer incidence was published. It followed over 420,000 Danish citizens for 20 years and showed no increased risk of cancer.[20] The German Federal Office for Radiation Protection (Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz) considers this report inconclusive.[21]

The following studies of long time exposure have been published:

  • The 13 nation INTERPHONE project – the largest study of its kind ever undertaken – was published in 2011 and did not find a solid link between mobile phones and brain tumours.[22]

The International Journal of Epidemiology published[23] a combined data analysis from a multi national population-based case-control study of glioma and meningioma, the most common types of brain tumour.

The authors reported the following conclusion:

Overall, no increase in risk of glioma or meningioma was observed with use of mobile phones. There were suggestions of an increased risk of glioma at the highest exposure levels, but biases and error prevent a causal interpretation. The possible effects of long-term heavy use of mobile phones require further investigation.

In the press release[24] accompanying the release of the paper, Dr. Christopher Wild, Director of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) said:

An increased risk of brain cancer is not established from the data from Interphone. However, observations at the highest level of cumulative call time and the changing patterns of mobile phone use since the period studied by Interphone, particularly in young people, mean that further investigation of mobile phone use and brain cancer risk is merited.

A number of independent health and government authorities have commented on this important study including The Australian Centre for Radiofrequency Bioeffects Research (ACRBR) which said in a statement that:[25]

Until now there have been concerns that mobile phones were causing increases in brain tumours. Interphone is both large and rigorous enough to address this claim, and it has not provided any convincing scientific evidence of an association between mobile phone use and the development of glioma or meningioma. While the study demonstrates some weak evidence of an association with the highest tenth of cumulative call time (but only in those who started mobile phone use most recently), the authors conclude that biases and errors limit the strength of any conclusions in this group. It now seems clear that if there was an effect of mobile phone use on brain tumour risks in adults, this is likely to be too small to be detectable by even a large multinational study of the size of Interphone.

The Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) which said in a statement that:

On the basis of current understanding of the relationship between brain cancer and use of mobile phones, including the recently published data from the INTERPHONE study, ARPANSA:

concludes that currently available data do not warrant any general recommendation to limit use of mobile phones in the adult population,

continues to inform those concerned about potential health effects that they may limit their exposure by reducing call time, by making calls where reception is good, by using hands-free devices or speaker options, or by texting; and

recommends that, due to the lack of any data relating to children and long term use of mobile phones, parents encourage their children to limit their exposure by reducing call time, by making calls where reception is good, by using hands-free devices or speaker options, or by texting.

The Cancer Council Australia said in a statement that it cautiously welcomed the results of the largest international study to date into mobile phone use, which has found no evidence that normal use of mobile phones, for a period up to 12 years, can cause brain cancer.

Chief Executive Officer, Professor Ian Olver, said findings from the Interphone study, conducted across 13 countries including Australia, were consistent with other research that had failed to find a link between mobile phones and cancer.

This supports previous research showing mobile phones don’t damage cell DNA, meaning they can’t cause the type of genetic mutations that develop into cancer,” Professor Olver said.

However, it has been suggested that electromagnetic fields associated with mobile phones may play a role in speeding up the development of an existing cancer. The Interphone study found no evidence to support this theory.

  • A Danish study (2004) that took place over 10 years found no evidence to support a link. However, this study has been criticized for collecting data from subscriptions and not necessarily from actual users. It is known that some subscribers do not use the phones themselves but provide them for family members to use. That this happens is supported by the observation that only 61% of a small sample of the subscribers reported use of mobile phones when responding to a questionnaire.[20][26]
  • A Swedish study (2005) that draws the conclusion that "the data do not support the hypothesis that mobile phone use is related to an increased risk of glioma or meningioma."[27]
  • A British study (2005) that draws the conclusion that "The study suggests that there is no substantial risk of acoustic neuroma in the first decade after starting mobile phone use. However, an increase in risk after longer term use or after a longer lag period could not be ruled out."[28]
  • A German study (2006) that states "In conclusion, no overall increased risk of glioma or meningioma was observed among these cellular phone users; however, for long-term cellular phone users, results need to be confirmed before firm conclusions can be drawn."[29]
  • A joint study conducted in northern Europe that draws the conclusion that "Although our results overall do not indicate an increased risk of glioma in relation to mobile phone use, the possible risk in the most heavily exposed part of the brain with long-term use needs to be explored further before firm conclusions can be drawn."[30]

Other studies on cancer and mobile phones are:

  • A Swedish scientific team at the Karolinska Institute conducted an epidemiological study (2004) that suggested that regular use of a mobile phone over a decade or more was associated with an increased risk of acoustic neuroma, a type of benign brain tumor. The increase was not noted in those who had used phones for fewer than 10 years.[31]
  • The INTERPHONE study group from Japan published the results of a study of brain tumour risk and mobile phone use. They used a new approach: determining the SAR inside a tumour by calculating the radio frequency field absorption in the exact tumour location. Cases examined included glioma, meningioma, and pituitary adenoma. They reported that the overall odds ratio (OR) was not increased and that there was no significant trend towards an increasing OR in relation to exposure, as measured by SAR.[32]

In 2007, Dr. Lennart Hardell, from Örebro University in Sweden, reviewed published epidemiological papers (2 cohort studies and 16 case-control studies) and found that:[33]

  • Cell phone users had an increased risk of malignant gliomas.
  • Link between cell phone use and a higher rate of acoustic neuromas.
  • Tumors are more likely to occur on the side of the head that the cell handset is used.
  • One hour of cell phone use per day significantly increases tumor risk after ten years or more.

In a February 2008 update on the status of the INTERPHONE study IARC stated that the long term findings ‘…could either be causal or artifactual, related to differential recall between cases and controls.’[34]

Wikinews has related news:
  • A self-published and non-peer reviewed meta-study by Dr. Vini Khurana, an Australian neurosurgeon, presented what it termed "increasing body of evidence ... for a link between mobile phone usage and certain brain tumours" and that it "is anticipated that this danger has far broader public health ramifications than asbestos and smoking".[35] This was criticised as ‘… an unbalanced analysis of the literature, which is also selective in support of the author’s claims.’[36]

A publication titled "Public health implications of wireless technologies" cites that Lennart Hardell found age is a significant factor. The report repeated the finding that the use of cell phones before age 20 increased the risk of brain tumors by 5.2, compared to 1.4 for all ages.[37] A review by Hardell et al. concluded that current mobile phones are not safe for long-term exposure.[38]

In a time trends study in Europe, conducted by the Institute of Cancer Epidemiology in Copenhagen, no significant increase in brain tumors among cell phone users was found between the years of 1998 and 2003. "The lack of a trend change in incidence from 1998 to 2003 suggests that the induction period relating mobile phone use to brain tumors exceeds 5–10 years, the increased risk in this population is too small to be observed, the increased risk is restricted to subgroups of brain tumors or mobile phone users, or there is no increased risk."[39]

On 31 May 2011 the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). The IARC assessed and evaluated available literature and studies about the carcinogenicity of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF), and found the evidence to be "limited for carcinogenicity of RF-EMF, based on positive associations between glioma and acoustic neuroma and exposure". The conclusion of the IARC was mainly based on the INTERPHONE study, which found an increased risk for glioma in the highest category of heavy users (30 minutes per day over a 10‐year period), although no increased risk was found at lower exposure and other studies could not back up the findings. The evidence for other types of cancer was found to be "inadequate". Some members of the Working Group opposed the conclusions and considered the current evidence in humans still as “inadequate”, citing inconsistencies between the assessed studies.[2][40]

Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that while cell phone use increased substantially over the period 1992 to 2008 (from nearly zero to almost 100 percent of the population), the U.S. trends in glioma incidence did not mirror that increase.[41]

Cognitive effects

A 2009 study examined the effects of exposure to radiofrequency radiation (RFR) emitted by standard GSM cell phones on the cognitive functions of humans. The study confirmed longer (slower) response times to a spatial working memory task when exposed to RFR from a standard GSM cellular phone placed next to the head of male subjects, and showed that longer duration of exposure to RFR may increase the effects on performance. Right-handed subjects exposed to RFR on the left side of their head on average had significantly longer response times when compared to exposure to the right side and sham-exposure.[42]

Electromagnetic hypersensitivity

Main article: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity

Some users of mobile handsets have reported feeling several unspecific symptoms during and after its use; ranging from burning and tingling sensations in the skin of the head and extremities, fatigue, sleep disturbances, dizziness, loss of mental attention, reaction times and memory retentiveness, headaches, malaise, tachycardia (heart palpitations), to disturbances of the digestive system. Reports have noted that all of these symptoms can also be attributed to stress and that current research cannot separate the symptoms from nocebo effects.[43]

Genotoxic effects

A meta-analysis (2008) of 63 in vitro and in vivo studies from the years 1990–2005 concluded that RF radiation was genotoxic only in some conditions and that the studies reporting positive effects evidenced publication bias.[44]

A meta-study (2009) of 101 publications on genotoxicity of RF electromagnetic fields showed that 49 reported a genotoxic effect and 42 not. The authors found "ample evidence that RF-EMF can alter the genetic material of exposed cells in vivo and in vitro and in more than one way".[45]

In 1995, in the journal Bioelectromagnetics, Henry Lai and Narenda P. Singh reported damaged DNA after two hours of microwave radiation at levels deemed safe according to U.S. government standards.[46]

In December 2004, a pan-European study named REFLEX (Risk Evaluation of Potential Environmental Hazards from Low Energy Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Exposure Using Sensitive in vitro Methods), involving 12 collaborating laboratories in several countries showed some compelling evidence of DNA damage of cells in in-vitro cultures, when exposed between 0.3 to 2 watts/kg, whole-sample average. There were indications, but not rigorous evidence of other cell changes, including damage to chromosomes, alterations in the activity of certain genes and a boosted rate of cell division.[47]

Research published in 2004 by a team at the University of Athens had a reduction in reproductive capacity in fruit flies exposed to 6 minutes of 900 MHz pulsed radiation for five days.[48]

Subsequent research, again conducted on fruit flies, was published in 2007, with the same exposure pattern but conducted at both 900 MHz and 1800 MHz, and had similar changes in reproductive capacity with no significant difference between the two frequencies.[49]

Following additional tests published in a third article, the authors stated they thought their research suggested the changes were “…due to degeneration of large numbers of egg chambers after DNA fragmentation of their constituent cells …”.[50]

Australian research conducted in 2009 by subjecting in vitro samples of human spermatozoa to radio-frequency radiation at 1.8 GHz and specific absorption rates (SAR) of 0.4 to 27.5 W/kg showed a correlation between increasing SAR and decreased motility and vitality in sperm, increased oxidative stress and 8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine markers, stimulating DNA base adduct formation and increased DNA fragmentation.[51]

Sleep and EEG effects

Sleep, EEG and waking rCBF have been studied in relation to RF exposure for a decade now, and the majority of papers published to date have found some form of effect. While a Finnish study failed to find any effect on sleep or other cognitive function from pulsed RF exposure,[52] most other papers have found significant effects on sleep.[53][54][55][56][57][58] Two of these papers found the effect was only present when the exposure was pulsed (amplitude modulated), and one early paper actually found that sleep quality (measured by the amount of participants' broken sleep) actually improved.

While some papers were inconclusive or inconsistent,[59][60] a number of studies have now demonstrated reversible EEG and rCBF alterations from exposure to pulsed RF exposure.[61][62][63][64] German research from 2006 found that statistically significant EEG changes could be consistently found, but only in a relatively low proportion of study participants (12 - 30%).[65]

Brain glucose consumption

A team led by Dr. Nora Volkow, head of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, used advanced imaging technology to monitor glucose consumed in the brain. They found that even weak cell phone radiation alters brain activity near cell phone antenna. Environmental Working Group now recommends cell phone users limit their exposure to cell phone radiation by for example looking for cell phone models that emitts low radiation.[66]

Behavioural effects

A study on mice offspring suggested that cell phone use during pregnancy may cause behavioural problems that resemble the effects of ADHD.[67]

Sperm count and sperm quality

A number of studies have shown relationships between mobile telephone use and reduced sperm count and sperm quality. Peer reviewed studies have shown relationships using statistical questionnaire techniques [68][69][70][71][72], controlled experiments on living humans [73], and controlled experiments on sperm outside the body [74][75][76][77].

The Environmental Working Group (EWG) has a web page entitled "Cell Phone Radiation Damages Sperm, Studies Show" published August 2013. The EWG page reviews and tabulates studies showing relationships between mobile phone use and low sperm count and sperm quality.[78]

Health hazards of base stations

A Greenfield-type tower used in base stations for mobile telephony

Another area of concern is the radiation emitted by the fixed infrastructure used in mobile telephony, such as base stations and their antennas, which provide the link to and from mobile phones. This is because, in contrast to mobile handsets, it is emitted continuously and is more powerful at close quarters. On the other hand, field intensities drop rapidly with distance away from the base of transmitters because of the attenuation of power with the square of distance.[citation needed]

One popular design of mobile phone antenna is the sector antenna, whose coverage is 120 degrees horizontally and about +-5 degrees from the vertical.

Because base stations operate at less than 100 watts, the radiation at ground level is much weaker than a cell phone due to the power relationship appropriate for that design of antenna. Base station emissions must comply with safety guidelines (see Safety standards and licensing below). Some countries however (such as South Africa for example) have no health regulations governing the placement of base stations.

Several surveys have found a variety of self-reported symptoms for people who live close to base stations.[79][80][81][82][83] However, there are significant challenges in conducting studies of populations near base stations, especially in assessment of individual exposure.[84] Self-report studies can also be vulnerable to the nocebo effect.

Two double-blind placebo-controlled trials conducted at the University of Essex and another in Switzerland[85] concluded that mobile phone masts were unlikely to be causing these short term effects in a group of volunteers who complained of such symptoms.[86] The Essex study found that subjects were unable to tell whether they were being exposed to electromagnetic fields or not, and that sensitive subjects reported lower well-being independently of exposure. The principal investigator concluded "It is clear that sensitive individuals are suffering real symptoms and often have a poor quality of life. It is now important to determine what other factors could be causing these symptoms, so appropriate research studies and treatment strategies can be developed."

Experts consulted by France considered it was mandatory that main antenna axis not to be directly in front of a living place at a distance shorter than 100 metres.[87] This recommendation was modified in 2003[88] to say that antennas located within a 100-metre radius of primary schools or childcare facilities should be better integrated into the cityscape and was not included in a 2005 expert report.[89] The Agence française de sécurité sanitaire environnementale currently says that there is no demonstrated short term effect of electromagnetic fields on health, but that there are open questions for long term effects, and that it's easy to reduce exposure via technological improvements.[90]

Occupational health hazards

Telecommunication workers who spend time at a short distance from the active equipment, for the purposes of testing, maintenance, installation, etcetera, may be at risk of much greater exposure than the general population. Many times base stations are not turned off during maintenance, but the power being sent through to the antennas is cut off, so that the workers do not have to work near live antennas.

A variety of studies over the past 50 years have been done on workers exposed to high RF radiation levels; studies including radar laboratory workers, military radar workers, electrical workers, and amateur radio operators. Most of these studies found no increase in cancer rates over the general population or a control group. Many positive results could have been attributed to other work environment conditions, and many negative results (reduced cancer rates) also occurred.[91]

Safety standards and licensing

In order to protect the population living around base stations and users of mobile handsets, governments and regulatory bodies adopt safety standards, which translate to limits on exposure levels below a certain value. There are many proposed national and international standards, but that of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) is the most respected one, and has been adopted so far by more than 80 countries. For radio stations, ICNIRP proposes two safety levels: one for occupational exposure, another one for the general population. Currently there are efforts underway to harmonise the different standards in existence.[92]

Radio base licensing procedures have been established in the majority of urban spaces regulated either at municipal/county, provincial/state or national level. Mobile telephone service providers are, in many regions, required to obtain construction licenses, provide certification of antenna emission levels and assure compliance to ICNIRP standards and/or to other environmental legislation.

Many governmental bodies also require that competing telecommunication companies try to achieve sharing of towers so as to decrease environmental and cosmetic impact. This issue is an influential factor of rejection of installation of new antennas and towers in communities.

The safety standards in the U.S. are set by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The FCC has based its standards primarily on those standards established by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), specifically Subcommittee 4 of the "International Committee on Electromagnetic Safety".

Switzerland has set safety limits lower than the ICNIRP limits for certain "sensitive areas" (classrooms, for example).[93]

On 1 September 2012, India set electromagnetic frequency exposure limit for all mobile phone base stations to one tenth of the existing ICNIRP exposure level. Telecom Enforcement Resource & Monitoring (TERM) cells will audit the self-certification provided by the mobile network operators.[94]

Lawsuits

In the USA, a small number of personal injury lawsuits have been filed by individuals against cellphone manufacturers, such as Motorola,[95] NEC, Siemens and Nokia, on the basis of allegations of causation of brain cancer and death. In US federal court, expert testimony relating to science must be first evaluated by a judge, in a Daubert hearing, to be relevant and valid before it is admissible as evidence. In one case against Motorola, the plaintiffs alleged that the use of wireless handheld telephones could cause brain cancer, and that the use of Motorola phones caused one plaintiff’s cancer. The judge ruled that no sufficiently reliable and relevant scientific evidence in support of either general or specific causation was proffered by the plaintiffs; accepted a motion to exclude the testimony of the plaintiffs’ experts; and denied a motion to exclude the testimony of the defendants' experts.[96]

French High Court ruling against telecom company

In February 2009 the telecom company Bouygues Telecom was ordered to take down a mobile phone mast due to uncertainty about its effect on health. Residents in the commune Charbonnières in the Rhône department had sued the company claiming adverse health effects from the radiation emitted by the 19 meter tall antenna.[97] The milestone ruling by the Versailles Court of Appeal reversed the burden of proof which is usual in such cases by emphasizing the extreme divergence between different countries in assessing safe limits for such radiation. The court stated that, "Considering that, while the reality of the risk remains hypothetical, it becomes clear from reading the contributions and scientific publications produced in debate and the divergent legislative positions taken in various countries, that uncertainty over the harmlessness of exposure to the waves emitted by relay antennas persists and can be considered serious and reasonable".[98]

In October 2012 Italian high court (Corte suprema di cassazione) granted an Italian businessman, Innocente Marcoloni a pension for occupational disease, as they found a causal link to mobile phones and cordless phones, that the businessman had used for six hours a day during twelve years. As it takes time to develop cancer, the court disregarded short-term studies.[99] The court also disegarded studies that were even partially funded by the mobile phone industry such as the INTERPHONE (see above).[100][101]

Indian citizens against telecom company

A case was also filed against the mobile towers in residential areas, schools and hospitals in 2012.[102] In March 2013, based on the WHO notification dated May 31, 2011[103] wherein the mobile tower radiations have been classified as possibly carcinogenic and the research conducted by the scientists of IIT Kharagpur, India [104] a writ has been filed by Advocate Vikas Nagwan for the suspected death of one Late. Hemant Sharma[105][105] for removal of the mobile towers from residential areas.

Precaution

Precautionary principle

In 2000, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended that the precautionary principle could be voluntarily adopted in this case.[106] It follows the recommendations of the European Community for environmental risks. According to the WHO, the "precautionary principle" is "a risk management policy applied in circumstances with a high degree of scientific uncertainty, reflecting the need to take action for a potentially serious risk without awaiting the results of scientific research." Other less stringent recommended approaches are prudent avoidance principle and as low as reasonably practicable. Although all of these are problematic in application, due to the widespread use and economic importance of wireless telecommunication systems in modern civilization, there is an increased popularity of such measures in the general public, though also evidence that such approaches may increase concern.[107] They involve recommendations such as the minimization of cellphone usage, the limitation of use by at-risk population (such as children), the adoption of cellphones and microcells with as low as reasonably practicable levels of radiation, the wider use of hands-free and earphone technologies such as Bluetooth headsets, the adoption of maximal standards of exposure, RF field intensity and distance of base stations antennas from human habitations, and so forth.[citation needed]

Precautionary measures and health advisories

In May 2011, the World Health Organisation's International Agency for Research on Cancer announced it was classifying electromagnetic fields from mobile phones and other sources as "possibly carcinogenic to humans" and advised the public to adopt safety measures to reduce exposure, like use of hands-free devices or texting.

Some national radiation advisory authorities, including those of Austria,[4] France,[108] Germany,[109] and Sweden,[110] have recommended measures to minimize exposure to their citizens. Examples of the recommendations are:

  • Use hands-free to decrease the radiation to the head.
  • Keep the mobile phone away from the body.
  • Do not use telephone in a car without an external antenna.

The use of "hands-free" was not recommended by the British Consumers' Association in a statement in November 2000 as they believed that exposure was increased.[111] However, measurements for the (then) UK Department of Trade and Industry[112] and others for the French l’Agence française de sécurité sanitaire environnementale[113] showed substantial reductions. In 2005 Professor Lawrie Challis and others said clipping a ferrite bead onto hands-free kits stops the radio waves travelling up the wire and into the head.[114]

Several nations have advised moderate use of mobile phones for children.[115]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Market Data Summary (Q2 2009)". GSM Association. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
  2. ^ a b "IARC classifies radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as possibly carcinogenic to humans" (PDF). World Health Organization press release N° 208 (Press release). International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2011-05-31. Retrieved 2011-06-02.
  3. ^ http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs193/en/
  4. ^ a b "Information: Wie gefährlich sind Handystrahlen wirklich?" (in German). Marktgemeinde Pressbaum. Retrieved 2008-01-23.
  5. ^ "Conclusions on mobile phones and radio frequency fields". European Commission Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR). Retrieved 2008-12-08.
  6. ^ "Output Power-Control Loop Design for GSM Mobile Phones" (pdf). Retrieved 2013-02-12. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ For example, two listings using the European 10 g standard: of more current models at "Mobile Phones UK". Mobile Phones UK web site. Landmark Internet Ltd. Retrieved 2008-01-19.; of phones from 2005 and earlier at "The Complete SAR List For All Phones (Europe)". On-Line-Net - Web Design & Internet Services (as SARValues.com). Retrieved 2008-01-19. (a listing of US phones from 2005 and earlier, using the US 1 g standard, is also available at the SARValues site)
  8. ^ International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (1998). "Guidelines For Limiting Exposure To Time-Varying Electric, Magnetic, And Electromagnetic Fields (up to 300 GHz)" (PDF). Health Physics. 74 (4): 494–505. PMID 9525427. Retrieved 2010-03-28. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. ^ Foster, Kenneth R.; Repacholi, Michael H. (2004). "Biological Effects of Radiofrequency Fields: Does Modulation Matter?". Radiation Research. 162 (2): 219–25. doi:10.1667/RR3191. PMID 15387150.
  10. ^ Glaser, Roland (2005). "Are thermoreceptors responsible for "non-thermal" effects of RF fields?" (PDF). Edition Wissenschaft (21). Bonn, Germany: Forschungsgemeinschaft Funk. OCLC 179908725. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  11. ^ Blank, Martin; Goodman, Reba (2009). "Electromagnetic fields stress living cells". Pathophysiology. 16 (2–3): 71–8. doi:10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.01.006. PMID 19268550.
  12. ^ Volkow, Nora D.; Tomasi, Dardo; Wang, Gene-Jack; Vaska, Paul; Fowler, Joanna S.; Telang, Frank; Alexoff, Dave; Logan, Jean; Wong, Christopher (2011). "Effects of Cell Phone Radiofrequency Signal Exposure on Brain Glucose Metabolism". JAMA. 305 (8): 808–13. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.186. PMID 21343580.
  13. ^ Press, Canadian (February 23, 2011). "Cellphones linked to increased brain glucose metabolism". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Retrieved 26 February 2011.
  14. ^ Salford, Leif G. (2003). "Nerve Cell Damage in Mammalian Brain after Exposure to Microwaves from GSM Mobile Phones". Environmental Health Perspectives. 111 (7). United States: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences: 881–883. doi:10.1289/ehp.6039. PMC 1241519. PMID 12782486. Retrieved 2008-01-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laysummary=, |laydate=, |laysource=, and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ^ Salford, Leif G. (2008). "The Mammalian Brain in the Electromagnetic Fields Designed by Man with Special Reference to Blood-Brain Barrier Function, Neuronal Damage and Possible Physical Mechanisms". Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement. 173. Japan: Physical Society of Japan: 283–309. doi:10.1143/PTPS.173.283. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |quotes= and |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ a b Frey, Allan. "Headaches from Cellular Telephones: Are They Real and What Are the Implications?". Environmental Health Perspectives. PMC 1533043.
  17. ^ Franke; et al. (1800). "do not alter blood–brain barrier permeability to sucrose in models in vitro with high barrier tightness". Bioelectromagnetics. 26 (7): 529–535. doi:10.1002/bem.20123. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  18. ^ Kuribayashi; et al. "Lack of effects of 1439 MHz electromagnetic near field exposure on the blood–brain barrier in immature and young rats". Bioelectromagnetics. 26 (7): 578–588. doi:10.1002/bem.20138. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  19. ^ http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/jun/20/research.medicalscience
  20. ^ a b Schüz, J (2006). "Cellular Telephone Use and Cancer Risk: Update of a Nationwide Danish Cohort". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 98 (23): 1707–1713. doi:10.1093/jnci/djj464. PMID 17148772. Retrieved 2008-01-20. Among long-term subscribers of 10 years or more, cellular telephone use was not associated with increased risk for brain tumors ..., and there was no trend with time since first subscription. ...CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence for an association between tumor risk and cellular telephone use among either short-term or long-term users. Moreover, the narrow confidence intervals provide evidence that any large association of risk of cancer and cellular telephone use can be excluded. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) Cite error: The named reference "Schüzetal2006" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  21. ^ "Comments on the Danish cohort study on mobile phones" (in German). Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz [Federal Office for Radiation Protection]. 2007-02-22. Retrieved 2010-09-23.
  22. ^ Parker-Pope, Tara (2011-06-06). "Piercing the Fog Around Cellphones and Cancer". The New York Times.
  23. ^ Interphone Study Group (2010). "Brain tumour risk in relation to mobile telephone use: Results of the INTERPHONE international case-control study". International Journal of Epidemiology. 39 (3): 675–694. doi:10.1093/ije/dyq079. PMID 20483835.
  24. ^ "Interphone study reports on mobile phone use and brain cancer risk" (PDF) (Press release). International Agency for Research on Cancer. 17 May 2010. Retrieved June 6, 2011.
  25. ^ http://www.acrbr.org.au/FAQ/ACRBR%20Interphone%20Position%20Statement%20May2010.pdf
  26. ^ Ahlbom, Anders; Feychting, Maria; Cardis, Elisabeth; Elliott, Paul (2007). "Re: Cellular Telephone Use and Cancer Risk: Update of a Nationwide Danish Cohort Study". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 99 (8): 655–655. doi:10.1093/jnci/djk143. PMID 17440169.
  27. ^ Lönn, Stefan; Ahlbom, Anders; Hall, Per; Feychting, Maria; Swedish Interphone Study Group (2005). "Long-Term Mobile Phone Use and Brain Tumor Risk". American Journal of Epidemiology. 161 (6): 526–35. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi091. PMID 15746469.
  28. ^ Schoemaker, M J; Swerdlow, A J; Ahlbom, A; Auvinen, A; Blaasaas, K G; Cardis, E; Christensen, H Collatz; Feychting, M; Hepworth, S J (2005). "Mobile phone use and risk of acoustic neuroma: Results of the Interphone case–control study in five North European countries". British Journal of Cancer. 93 (7): 842–848. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6602764. PMC 2361634. PMID 16136046.
  29. ^ Schüz, Joachim; Böhler, Eva; Berg, Gabriele; Schlehofer, Brigitte; Hettinger, Iris; Schlaefer, Klaus; Wahrendorf, Jürgen; Kunna-Grass, Katharina; Blettner, Maria (2006). "Cellular Phones, Cordless Phones, and the Risks of Glioma and Meningioma (Interphone Study Group, Germany)". American Journal of Epidemiology. 163 (6): 512–20. doi:10.1093/aje/kwj068. PMID 16443797.
  30. ^ Lahkola, Anna; Auvinen, Anssi; Raitanen, Jani; Schoemaker, Minouk J.; Christensen, Helle C.; Feychting, Maria; Johansen, Christoffer; Klæboe, Lars; Lönn, Stefan (2007). "Mobile phone use and risk of glioma in 5 North European countries". International Journal of Cancer. 120 (8): 1769–75. doi:10.1002/ijc.22503. PMID 17230523.
  31. ^ Lönn, Stefan; Ahlbom, Anders; Hall, Per; Feychting, Maria (2004). "Mobile Phone Use and the Risk of Acoustic Neuroma". Epidemiology. 15 (6): 653–9. doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000142519.00772.bf. PMID 15475713.
  32. ^ Takebayashi, T (2008-02-05). "Mobile phone use, exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic field, and brain tumour: a case-control study". British Journal of Cancer. 98 (3). London: Nature Publishing Group: 652–659. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6604214. PMC 2243154. PMID 18256587. Retrieved 2008-03-12. 'Using our newly developed and more accurate techniques, we found no association between mobile phone use and cancer, providing more evidence to suggest they don't cause brain cancer,' Naohito Yamaguchi, who led the research, said. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)
  33. ^ Hardell, Lennart; Carlberg, Michael; Söderqvist, Fredrik; Mild, Kjell Hansson; Morgan, L. Lloyd (2007). "Long-term use of cellular phones and brain tumours: Increased risk associated with use for ≥10 years". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 64 (9): 626–32. doi:10.1136/oem.2006.029751. PMC 2092574. PMID 17409179.
  34. ^ INTERPHONE Study Results update – 7 February 2008
  35. ^ Khurana, Vini (2008-03-20). "Mobile Phone-Brain Tumour Public Health Advisory". self-pub. pp. 3–4. Retrieved 2008-04-05. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Lay news article Lean, Geoffrey (2008-03-30). "Mobile phones 'more dangerous than smoking'". The Independent. London: Independent News & Media. Retrieved 2008-04-05. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  36. ^ ACRBR - FAQs & Facts
  37. ^ Sage C, Carpenter DO (2009). "Public health implications of wireless technologies". Pathophysiology. 16 (2–3): 233–46. doi:10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.01.011. PMID 19285839. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  38. ^ Hardell L, Carlberg M, Hansson Mild K (2009). "Epidemiological evidence for an association between use of wireless phones and tumor diseases". Pathophysiology. 16 (2–3): 113–22. doi:10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.01.003. PMID 19268551. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Deltour, Isabelle; Johansen, Christoffer; Auvinen, Anssi; Feychting, Maria; Klaeboe, Lars; Schüz, Joachim (2009-12-16). "Time Trends in Brain Tumor Incidence Rates in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden, 1974–2003". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 101 (24): 1721–1724. doi:10.1093/jnci/djp415. PMID 19959779.
  40. ^ Baan, Robert (2011). "Carcinogenicity of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields". The Lancet Onkology. 12 (7): 624–626. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(11)70147-4. PMID 21845765. Retrieved 2011-06-26. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  41. ^ "U.S. population data show no increase in brain cancer rates during period of expanding cell phone use". Retrieved 2013-02-12. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ Luria, Roy; Eliyahu, Ilan; Hareuveny, Ronen; Margaliot, Menachem; Meiran, Nachshon (2009). "Cognitive effects of radiation emitted by cellular phones: The influence of exposure side and time". Bioelectromagnetics. 30 (3): 198–204. doi:10.1002/bem.20458. PMID 19194860.
  43. ^ Röösli, Martin (2008). "Radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure and non-specific symptoms of ill health: A systematic review". Environmental Research. 107 (2): 277–287. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.02.003. PMID 18359015. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  44. ^ Vijayalaxmi; et al. (2008). "Genetic Damage in Mammalian Somatic Cells Exposed to Radiofrequency Radiation: A Meta-analysis of Data from 63 Publications (1990–2005)". Radiation Research. 169 (5): 561–574. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  45. ^ Ruediger, HW (2009). "Genotoxic effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields". Pathophysiology. 16 (2–3). Elsevier: 67–69. doi:10.1016/j.pathophys.2009.02.002. PMID 19264462. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |label=, |laysummary=, |laydate=, |laysource=, |quotes=, and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  46. ^ Harrill, Rob (2005). "Wake-up Call". The University of Washington Alumni Magazine (March 2005). Retrieved 2008-05-31. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  47. ^ REFLEX - Risk Evaluation of Potential Environmental Hazards From Low Frequency Electromagnetic Field Exposure Using Sensitive in vitro Methods. Munich: VERUM Stiftung für Verhalten und Umwelt. 2004. Retrieved 2011-05-25.
  48. ^ Panagopoulos, DJ; Karabarbounis, A; Margaritis, LH (2004-12-01). "Effect of GSM 900 MHz mobile phone radiation on the reproductive capacity of Drosophila melanogaster". Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine. 23 (1). London, UK: Taylor & Francis: 29–43. doi:10.1081/JBC-120039350. ISSN 1536-8378. OCLC 87856304. Retrieved 2008-01-15. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |laysource=, |month=, |quotes=, and |laysummary= (help)
  49. ^ Panagopoulos, DJ; Chavdoula, ED; Karabarbounis, A; Margaritis, LH (January 1, 2007). "Comparison of bioactivity between GSM 900 MHz and DCS 1800 MHz Mobile Telephony Radiation". Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine. 26 (1). London, UK: Informa Healthcare: 33–44. doi:10.1080/15368370701205644. ISSN 1536-8378. OCLC 47815878. PMID 17454081. Retrieved 2008-01-14. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |laysource=, |month=, |laysummary=, and |quotes= (help)
  50. ^ Panagopoulos, DJ (January 10, 2007). "Cell death induced by GSM 900 MHz and DCS 1800 MHz mobile telephony radiation". Mutation Research. 626 (1–2). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier: 69–78. doi:10.1016/j.mrgentox.2006.08.008. ISSN 0027-5107. OCLC 109920000. PMID 17045516. Retrieved 2008-01-15. Our present results suggest that the decrease in oviposition previously reported, is due to degeneration of large numbers of egg chambers after DNA fragmentation of their constituent cells, induced by both types of mobile telephony radiation. Induced cell death is recorded for the first time, in all types of cells constituting an egg chamber… {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |laysource=, |laysummary=, |month=, and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  51. ^ De Iuliis, Geoffry N. (July 31, 2009). Zhang, Baohong (ed.). "Mobile Phone Radiation Induces Reactive Oxygen Species Production and DNA Damage in Human Spermatozoa In Vitro". PLoS ONE. 4(7) (e6446). Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia: e6446. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006446. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2714176. PMID 19649291. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  52. ^ Haarala, C (2007). "Pulsed and continuous wave mobile phone exposure over left versus right hemisphere: effects on human cognitive function". Bioelectromagnetics. 28 (4). Wiley-Liss, Inc: 289–95. doi:10.1002/bem.20287. PMID 17203481. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |label= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  53. ^ Borbély, AA (1999-11-19). "Pulsed high-frequency electromagnetic field affects human sleep and sleep electroencephalogram". Neuroscience Letters. 275 (3). East Park, Ireland: Elsevier Science Ireland: 207–10. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(99)00770-3. PMID 10580711. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |label= ignored (help)
  54. ^ Huber, R (2000-10-20). "Exposure to pulsed high-frequency electromagnetic field during waking affects human sleep EEG". NeuroReport. 11 (15). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc: 3321–5. doi:10.1097/00001756-200010200-00012. PMID 11059895. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ Huber, R (2002). "Electromagnetic fields, such as those from mobile phones, alter regional cerebral blood flow and sleep and waking EEG". Journal of sleep research. 11 (4). Wiley-Liss, Inc: 289–95. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2869.2002.00314.x. PMID 12464096. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  56. ^ Huber, R (2005). "Exposure to pulse-modulated radio frequency electromagnetic fields affects regional cerebral blood flow". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 21 (4). Wiley-Liss, Inc: 1000–6. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.03929.x. PMID 15787706. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  57. ^ Hung, CS (2007-06-21). "Mobile phone 'talk-mode' signal delays EEG-determined sleep onset". Neuroscience Letters. 421 (1). East Park, Ireland: Elsevier Science Ireland: 82–6. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.05.027. ISSN 0304-3940. OCLC 144640846. PMID 17548154. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  58. ^ Andrzejak, R (2008). "The influence of the call with a mobile phone on heart rate variability parameters in healthy volunteers". Industrial health. 46 (4). National Institute of Industrial Health: 409–17. doi:10.2486/indhealth.46.409. PMID 18716391. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  59. ^ Krause, CM (2007). "Effects of pulsed and continuous wave 902 MHz mobile phone exposure on brain oscillatory activity during cognitive processing". Bioelectromagnetics. 28 (4). Wiley-Liss, Inc: 296–308. doi:10.1002/bem.20300. PMID 17203478. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  60. ^ Papageorgiou, CC (2006-04-10). "Acute mobile phone effects on pre-attentive operation". Neuroscience Letters. 397 (1–2). East Park, Ireland: Elsevier Science Ireland: 99–103. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.12.001. PMID 16406308. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  61. ^ Kramarenko, AV (2003). "Effects of high-frequency electromagnetic fields on human EEG: a brain mapping study". The International journal of neuroscience. 113 (7). Taylor and Francis: 1007–19. doi:10.1080/00207450390220330. PMID 12881192. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  62. ^ D'Costa, H (2003). "Human brain wave activity during exposure to radiofrequency field emissions from mobile phones". Australas Phys Eng Sci Med. 26 (4). Australasian College Of Physical Scientists In Medicine: 162–7. doi:10.1007/BF03179176. ISSN 0158-9938. PMID 14995060. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  63. ^ Krause, CM (2006). "Mobile phone effects on children's event-related oscillatory EEG during an auditory memory task". International journal of radiation biology. 82 (6). Taylor and Francis: 443–50. doi:10.1080/09553000600840922. PMID 16846979. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  64. ^ Aalto, S (2006). "Mobile phone affects cerebral blood flow in humans". J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 26 (7). Nature Publishing Group: 885–90. doi:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600279. PMID 16495939. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  65. ^ Bachmann, M (2006). "Integration of differences in EEG analysis reveals changes in human EEG caused by microwave". Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 1. IEEE Service Center: 1597–600. doi:10.1109/IEMBS.2006.259234. PMID 17946053. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE DATA: doi= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  66. ^ http://www.ewg.org/cell-phone-radiation-affects-brain-function
  67. ^ "Cell Phone Use in Pregnancy May Cause Behavioral Disorders in Offspring, Mouse Study Suggests". Science Daily. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
  68. ^ Fejes I, Zavaczki Z, Szollosi J, Koloszar S, Daru J, Kovacs L, et al. 2005. Is there a relationship between cell phone use and semen quality? Arch Androl 51(5): 385-93.
  69. ^ Kilgallon SJ, Simmons LW. 2005. Image content influences men's semen quality. Biol Lett 1(3): 253-5.
  70. ^ Wdowiak A, Wdowiak L, Wiktor H. 2007. Evaluation of the effect of using mobile phones on male fertility. Ann Agric Environ Med 14(1): 169-72.
  71. ^ Agarwal A, Deepinder F, Sharma RK, Ranga G, Li J. 2008. Effect of cell phone usage on semen analysis in men attending infertility clinic: an observational study. Fertil Steril 89(1): 124-8.
  72. ^ Gutschi T, Mohamad Al-Ali B, Shamloul R, Pummer K, Trummer H. 2011. Impact of cell phone use on men's semen parameters. Andrologia: 43(5): 312-6.
  73. ^ Davoudi M, Brossner C, Kuber W. 2002. The influence of electromagnetic waves on sperm motility. Journal für Urologie und Urogynäkologie 19: 19-22.
  74. ^ Erogul O, Oztas E, Yildirim I, Kir T, Aydur E, Komesli G, et al. 2006. Effects of electromagnetic radiation from a cellular phone on human sperm motility: an in vitro study. Arch Med Res 37(7): 840-3.
  75. ^ Agarwal A, Desai NR, Makker K, Varghese A, Mouradi R, Sabanegh E, et al. 2009. Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF-EMW) from cellular phones on human ejaculated semen: an in vitro pilot study. Fertil Steril 92(4): 1318-25.
  76. ^ De Iuliis GN, Newey RJ, King BV, Aitken RJ. 2009. Mobile phone radiation induces reactive oxygen species production and DNA damage in human spermatozoa in vitro. PLoS One 4(7): e6446.
  77. ^ Falzone N, Huyser C, Becker P, Leszczynski D, Franken DR. 2011. The effect of pulsed 900-MHz GSM mobile phone radiation on the acrosome reaction, head morphometry and zona binding of human spermatozoa. Int J Androl 34(1): 20-6.
  78. ^ http://www.ewg.org/cell-phone-radiation-damages-sperm-studies-find
  79. ^ Santini, R (2003). "Survey Study of People Living in the Vicinity of Cellular Phone Base Stations". Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine. 22 (1). London: Informa Healthcare: 41–49. doi:10.1081/JBC-120020353. OCLC 88891277. Retrieved 2008-02-09. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laysummary= and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  80. ^ Navarro, Enrique A (2003). "The Microwave Syndrome: A Preliminary Study in Spain". Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine. 22 (2). London: Informa Healthcare: 161–169. doi:10.1081/JBC-120024625. OCLC 89106315. Retrieved 2008-02-09. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laysummary= and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    Oberfeld, Gerd (2004). "The Microwave Syndrome: Further Aspects of a Spanish Study". In Kostarakis, P (ed.). Biological effects of EMFs : Proceedings, Kos, Greece, 4–8 October 2004, 3rd International Workshop. Ioannina, Greece: Electronics, Telecom & Applications Laboratory, Physics Dept., University of Ioannina : Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, N.C.S.R. “Demokritos”. ISBN 960-233-152-6. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  81. ^ Abdel-Rassoul, G (2007). "Neurobehavioral effects among inhabitants around mobile phone base stations" (PDF). NeuroToxicology. 28 (2). New York, NY: Elsevier Science: 434–40. doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2006.07.012. OCLC 138574974. PMID 16962663. Retrieved 2008-02-10. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laysummary=, |laydate=, |laysource=, and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  82. ^ Bortkiewicz, A (2004). "Subjective symptoms reported by people living in the vicinity of cellular phone base stations: review". Medycyna pracy (in Polish). 55 (4). Warsaw: Państwowy Zakład Wydawnictw Lekarskich: 345–352. ISSN 0465-5893. OCLC 108011911. PMID 15620045. BL Shelfmark: 5536.020000. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laysummary=, |laydate=, |laysource=, |month=, and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  83. ^ Hutter, H-P (May 1, 2006). "Subjective symptoms, sleeping problems, and cognitive performance in subjects living near mobile phone base stations". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 63 (5). London, UK: the BMJ Publishing Group: 307–313. doi:10.1136/oem.2005.020784. OCLC 41236398. PMC 2092490. PMID 16621850. Retrieved 2008-01-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |laysource=, |quotes=, and |laysummary= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  84. ^ Neubauer; et al. (2007). "Feasibility of future epidemiological studies on possible health effects of mobile phone base stations". Bioelectromagnetics. 28 (3): 224–230. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  85. ^ UMTS Base Station-Like Exposure, Well Being and Cognitive Performance Regel et al., Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(8) August 2006 at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1552030/
  86. ^ Eltiti, S (2007). "Does short-term exposure to mobile phone base station signals increase symptoms in individuals who report sensitivity to electromagnetic fields? A double-blind randomized provocation study". Environ Health Perspect. 115 (11): 1603–1608. doi:10.1289/ehp.10286. OCLC 183843559. PMC 2072835. PMID 18007992. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  87. ^ http://www.afsset.fr/index.php?pageid=712&parentid=424 page 37
  88. ^ Téléphonie mobile et santé, Rapport à l'Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire Environnementale, 21 March 2003 at http://www.afsset.fr/index.php?pageid=712&parentid=424
  89. ^ Téléphonie mobile et santé, Rapport du groupe d’experts, l'Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire Environnementale, April 2005 at http://www.afsset.fr/index.php?pageid=712&parentid=424
  90. ^ "Radiofréquences : actualisation de l'expertise (2009)", l'Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire Environnementale, April 2005 at http://www.afsset.fr/index.php?pageid=712&parentid=424
  91. ^ Moulder, JE (1999). "Cell phones and cancer: what is the evidence for a connection?". Radiation Research. 151 (5). New York: Academic Press: 513–531. doi:10.2307/3580028. ISSN 0033-7587. JSTOR 3580028. OCLC 119963820. PMID 10319725. Retrieved 2008-02-10. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |laysource=, |laysummary=, and |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  92. ^ "International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection home page". Retrieved 2008-01-07.
  93. ^ "Anforderungen nach NISV: Mobilfunkanlagen" (in German). Bundesamt für Umwelt [Swiss Federal Environment Ministry]. 2009-03-13. Retrieved 2010-01-20. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  94. ^ http://telecomtalk.info/india-implement-stricter-norms-mobile-phone-tower-radiation-today/99220/#more-99220
  95. ^ Wright v. Motorola, Inc. et al., No95-L-04929
  96. ^ Christopher Newman, et al. v Motorola, Inc., et al. (United States District Court for the District of Maryland) ("Because no sufficiently reliable and relevant scientific evidence in support of either general or specific causation has been proffered by the plaintiffs, as explained below, the defendants’ motion will be granted and the plaintiffs’ motion will be denied."), Text.
  97. ^ Barstad, Stine (18 February 2009). "Kunne ikke bevise at strålingen var ufarlig". Aftenposten (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 25 May 2009. Retrieved 25 May 2009.
  98. ^ Residents living next to a phone mast vs. the mobile phone company Bouygues Telecom (Versailles Court of Appeal 4 February 2009), Text.
  99. ^ http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/4597109/Mobiles-can-give-you-a-tumour-court-rules.html
  100. ^ http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/19/italy-phones-idUSL5E8LJFFW20121019
  101. ^ http://www.prlog.org/12004383-italian-supreme-court-rules-cell-phones-can-cause-cancer.html
  102. ^ http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-20/delhi/32763307_1_phone-towers-mobile-phone-cell-phone
  103. ^ http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2011/pdfs/pr208_E.pdf
  104. ^ http://www.ee.iitb.ac.in/~mwave/Cell-tower-rad-report-WB-Environ-Oct2011.pdf
  105. ^ a b http://india.nydailynews.com/business/b3412bd26671ee338b8f21b200950d05/notice-to-central-delhi-governments-on-removal-of-mobile-towers
  106. ^ "Electromagnetic Fields and Public Health - Cautionary Policies". World Health Organization Backgrounder. World Health Organization. 2000. Retrieved 2008-02-01. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  107. ^ Wiedemann; et al. (2006). "The Impacts of Precautionary Measures and the Disclosure of Scientific Uncertainty on EMF Risk Perception and Trust". Journal of Risk Research. 9 (4): 361–372. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  108. ^ "Téléphones mobiles : santé et sécurité" (in French). Le ministère de la santé, de la jeunesse et des sports. 2008-01-02. Retrieved 2008-01-19. Lay article in Template:En icon making comment at Gitlin, Jonathan M. (2008-01-03). "France: Beware excessive cell phone use—despite lack of data". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
  109. ^ "Precaution regarding electromagnetic fields". Federal Office for Radiation Protection. 2007-12-07. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
  110. ^ "Exponering" (in Swedish). Swedish Radiation Protection Authority. 2006. Retrieved 2008-01-19. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  111. ^ "UK consumer group: Hands-free phone kits boost radiation exposure". cnn.com. Cable News Network. 2000-11-02. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
  112. ^ Manning, MI and Gabriel, CHB, SAR tests on mobile phones used with and without personal hands-free kits, SARtest Report 0083 for the DTI, July 2000 (PDF) at http://straff-x.com/SAR-Hands-Free-Kits-July-2000.pdf
  113. ^ Téléphonie mobile & santé, Report for l"Agence française de sécurité sanitaire environnementale (Afsse), June 2005 at http://www.afsse.fr/index.php?pageid=671&parentid=619#
  114. ^ "Bead 'slashes mobile radiation'". BBC News. 2005-01-25. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
  115. ^ For example, Finland "Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority: Children's mobile phone use should be limited". Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK). 2009-01-07. Retrieved 2010-01-20. and France "Téléphone mobile, DAS et santé" (PDF). Votre enfant et le téléphone mobile [Your child and mobile telephony]. Association Française des Opérateurs Mobiles (AFOM)[French Mobile Phone Operators' Association] et l’Union Nationale des Associations Familiales (UNAF) [National Federation of Family Associations]. 2007-01-31. Retrieved 2010-01-20. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wireless_device_radiation_and_health&oldid=591523710"