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The Thal desert of Pakistan lies at altitudes above sea levels of approximately 200m in the north which gradually decrease to around 120m in the south.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Garzanti|first=Eduardo|last2=Liang|first2=Wendong|last3=Andò|first3=Sergio|last4=Clift|first4=Peter D.|last5=Resentini|first5=Alberto|last6=Vermeesch|first6=Pieter|last7=Vezzoli|first7=Giovanni|date=August 2020|title=Provenance of Thal Desert sand: Focused erosion in the western Himalayan syntaxis and foreland-basin deposition driven by latest Quaternary climate change|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S001282522030266X|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|language=en|volume=207|pages=103220|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103220}}</ref> The desert falls under the agro-ecological zone-III and is a sandy, arid to semi-arid region.<ref name=":9">Faraz, A., Waheed, A., Mirza, R., Nabeel, M., & Ishaq, H. (2020). Milk Yield and Composition of Barela Dromedary Camel in Thal Desert Punjab, Pakistan. ''Pakistan Journal Of Zoology'', ''52''(3). doi: 10.17582/journal.pjz/20190212070204</ref> It is divided into the districts of Bhakkar, Khushab, Mianwali, Jhang, Layyah and Muzzafargarh, all of whom display very similar geographical features.<ref name=":10">Abbas, G., Hassan, G., Anjum Ali, M., Abbas, Z., & Aslam, M. (2010). Response of wheat to different doses of ZnSO4 under thal desert environment. ''Pakistan Journal Of Botany'', ''42''(6).</ref>
The Thal desert of Pakistan lies at altitudes above sea levels of approximately 200m in the north which gradually decrease to around 120m in the south.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Garzanti|first=Eduardo|last2=Liang|first2=Wendong|last3=Andò|first3=Sergio|last4=Clift|first4=Peter D.|last5=Resentini|first5=Alberto|last6=Vermeesch|first6=Pieter|last7=Vezzoli|first7=Giovanni|date=August 2020|title=Provenance of Thal Desert sand: Focused erosion in the western Himalayan syntaxis and foreland-basin deposition driven by latest Quaternary climate change|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S001282522030266X|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|language=en|volume=207|pages=103220|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103220}}</ref> The desert falls under the agro-ecological zone-III and is a sandy, arid to semi-arid region.<ref name=":9">Faraz, A., Waheed, A., Mirza, R., Nabeel, M., & Ishaq, H. (2020). Milk Yield and Composition of Barela Dromedary Camel in Thal Desert Punjab, Pakistan. ''Pakistan Journal Of Zoology'', ''52''(3). doi: 10.17582/journal.pjz/20190212070204</ref> It is divided into the districts of Bhakkar, Khushab, Mianwali, Jhang, Layyah and Muzzafargarh, all of whom display very similar geographical features.<ref name=":10">Abbas, G., Hassan, G., Anjum Ali, M., Abbas, Z., & Aslam, M. (2010). Response of wheat to different doses of ZnSO4 under thal desert environment. ''Pakistan Journal Of Botany'', ''42''(6).</ref>


The desert largely constitutes of low sand dunes and rolling sand plains which alternate with narrow valleys of cultivable land. These sand dunes are a prominent feature of the zone and consist of sediment which has been reworked by wind and brought in by the Indus River which lays upstream of the orogenic front.<ref name=":0" /> They commonly reach heights of around 175m and cover 50-60% of the Thal desert. <ref>Bharadwaj, D.P. (1961). The arid zone of India and Pakistan. In: A History of Land Use in Arid Regions, pp. 143-174. Paris: UNESCO. 315 pp/</ref>
The desert largely constitutes of low [[Dune|sand dunes]] and rolling sand plains which alternate with narrow valleys of cultivable land. These sand dunes are a prominent feature of the zone and consist of sediment which has been reworked by wind and brought in by the [[Indus River]] which lays upstream of the orogenic front.<ref name=":0" /> They commonly reach heights of around 175m and cover 50-60% of the Thal desert. <ref>Bharadwaj, D.P. (1961). The arid zone of India and Pakistan. In: A History of Land Use in Arid Regions, pp. 143-174. Paris: UNESCO. 315 pp/</ref>


The currently active Indus River flood plain stretches > 20km in width at the southern edges of the desert and the abandoned floodplain reach even wider, covering areas of higher ground. The underlying alluvium mostly consists of laterally continuous bodies of fine to coarse sand, with minor gravel and isolated mud lenses. Coarser deposits occur in the north closer to the Salt Range, but otherwise the distribution of grain sizes is irregular.<ref name=":0" />
The currently active Indus River flood plain stretches > 20km in width at the southern edges of the desert and the abandoned floodplain reach even wider, covering areas of higher ground. The underlying [[alluvium]] mostly consists of laterally continuous bodies of fine to coarse sand, with minor gravel and isolated mud lenses. Coarser deposits occur in the north closer to the [[Salt Range]], but otherwise the distribution of grain sizes is irregular.<ref name=":0" />


== Climate ==
== Climate ==
The Thal desert is a subtropical sandy region with severe climactic conditions that are prone to temperature extremes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Dasti|first=A.|last2=Agnew|first2=A.D.Q.|date=July 1994|title=The vegetation of Cholistan and Thai deserts, Pakistan|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140196384710585|journal=Journal of Arid Environments|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=193–208|doi=10.1006/jare.1994.1058}}</ref>  Approximately 50% of the region sees hyper-arid climactic conditions (annual rainfall less than 200mm) and the remaining half sees semi-arid climactic conditions (annual rainfall between 200mm and 500mm).<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Shaheen|first=Humaira|last2=Qureshi|first2=Rahmatuallah|last3=Qaseem|first3=Mirza Faisal|last4=Bruschi|first4=Piero|date=2020-03-05|editor-last=Paniagua-Zambrana|editor-first=Narel Y.|title=The fodder grass resources for ruminants: A indigenous treasure of local communities of Thal desert Punjab, Pakistan|url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224061|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=e0224061|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0224061|issn=1932-6203|pmc=7058357|pmid=32134935}}</ref> The desert is also characterised by strong winds that blow year-round and can cause serious wind erosion that leads to local crop damage.<ref name=":0" />
The Thal desert is a [[Subtropics|subtropical]] sandy region with severe climactic conditions that are prone to temperature extremes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Dasti|first=A.|last2=Agnew|first2=A.D.Q.|date=July 1994|title=The vegetation of Cholistan and Thai deserts, Pakistan|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140196384710585|journal=Journal of Arid Environments|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=193–208|doi=10.1006/jare.1994.1058}}</ref>  Approximately 50% of the region sees [[hyper-arid]] climactic conditions (annual rainfall less than 200mm) and the remaining half sees semi-arid climactic conditions (annual rainfall between 200mm and 500mm).<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Shaheen|first=Humaira|last2=Qureshi|first2=Rahmatuallah|last3=Qaseem|first3=Mirza Faisal|last4=Bruschi|first4=Piero|date=2020-03-05|editor-last=Paniagua-Zambrana|editor-first=Narel Y.|title=The fodder grass resources for ruminants: A indigenous treasure of local communities of Thal desert Punjab, Pakistan|url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224061|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=e0224061|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0224061|issn=1932-6203|pmc=7058357|pmid=32134935}}</ref> The desert is also characterised by strong winds that blow year-round and can cause serious wind erosion that leads to local crop damage.<ref name=":0" />


=== Temperature ===
=== Temperature ===
Summers in the area see temperatures generally range from 32<sup>o</sup> C - 40<sup>o</sup> C and average around 35<sup>o</sup> C between June to July. However, southern borne hot winds blowing with high velocity can see these temperatures rise to over 45<sup>o</sup>C.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Harun|first=Nidaa|last2=Chaudhry|first2=Abdul Shakoor|last3=Shaheen|first3=Shabnum|last4=Ullah|first4=Kifayat|last5=Khan|first5=Farah|date=December 2017|title=Ethnobotanical studies of fodder grass resources for ruminant animals, based on the traditional knowledge of indigenous communities in Central Punjab Pakistan|url=http://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13002-017-0184-5|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=56|doi=10.1186/s13002-017-0184-5|issn=1746-4269|pmc=5628460|pmid=28978348}}</ref> Dust storms, resulting from unsteady thermal conditions, are also common in the summer months.<ref>Hussain, A., Mir, H., & Afzal, M. (2005). Analysis of dust storms frequency over Pakistan during (1961-2000). ''Pakistan Journal Of Meteorology'', ''2''(3). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285097369_Analysis_of_dust_storms_frequency_over_Pakistan_during_1961-2000</nowiki></ref>
Summers in the area see temperatures generally range from 32<sup>o</sup> C - 40<sup>o</sup> C and average around 35<sup>o</sup> C between June to July. However, southern borne hot winds blowing with high velocity can see these temperatures rise to over 45<sup>o</sup>C.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Harun|first=Nidaa|last2=Chaudhry|first2=Abdul Shakoor|last3=Shaheen|first3=Shabnum|last4=Ullah|first4=Kifayat|last5=Khan|first5=Farah|date=December 2017|title=Ethnobotanical studies of fodder grass resources for ruminant animals, based on the traditional knowledge of indigenous communities in Central Punjab Pakistan|url=http://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13002-017-0184-5|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=56|doi=10.1186/s13002-017-0184-5|issn=1746-4269|pmc=5628460|pmid=28978348}}</ref> [[Dust storm|Dust storms]], resulting from unsteady thermal conditions, are also common in the summer months.<ref>Hussain, A., Mir, H., & Afzal, M. (2005). Analysis of dust storms frequency over Pakistan during (1961-2000). ''Pakistan Journal Of Meteorology'', ''2''(3). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285097369_Analysis_of_dust_storms_frequency_over_Pakistan_during_1961-2000</nowiki></ref>


In the winter, temperatures vary between 3<sup>o</sup> C and 8<sup>o</sup> C and are accompanied by cold, dry winds from the north.<ref name=":11" /> In January, temperatures can reach near freezing point.<ref name=":3" />
In the winter, temperatures vary between 3<sup>o</sup> C and 8<sup>o</sup> C and are accompanied by cold, dry winds from the north.<ref name=":11" /> In January, temperatures can reach near freezing point.<ref name=":3" />
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The Thal Desert’s rainfall patterns are low and erratic with  mean annual values ranging between150-350mm.<ref name=":9" /> The majority of precipitation occurs between the months of June and August however there is high variability across seasons and even years. Total annual rainfall has been seen to progressively decrease from the northern end of the desert to the south.<ref>Rahim, S.M.A., Hasnain, S. and Farkhanda, J., 2011. Afr. J. Pl. Sci., 5: 450-459. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.5897/</nowiki> AJPS11.070</ref> It also displays cyclic fluctuations where two to three years of continued decreased rainfall is followed up by several years of higher precipitation levels.<ref name=":0" />
The Thal Desert’s rainfall patterns are low and erratic with  mean annual values ranging between150-350mm.<ref name=":9" /> The majority of precipitation occurs between the months of June and August however there is high variability across seasons and even years. Total annual rainfall has been seen to progressively decrease from the northern end of the desert to the south.<ref>Rahim, S.M.A., Hasnain, S. and Farkhanda, J., 2011. Afr. J. Pl. Sci., 5: 450-459. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.5897/</nowiki> AJPS11.070</ref> It also displays cyclic fluctuations where two to three years of continued decreased rainfall is followed up by several years of higher precipitation levels.<ref name=":0" />


Hailstorms, generated by air turbulence owing to the high temperature difference between the warm surface and the cold upper atmosphere, are also common between March and April and can cause severe damage to crop and buildings.<ref>Gosal, S. S., & Gill, R. (2004). Different biotechnological options for improving medicinal and aromatic plants. ''Indian Med.Aromat.,'' , 19-21.</ref>
[[Hailstorms]], generated by air turbulence owing to the high temperature difference between the warm surface and the cold upper atmosphere, are also common between March and April and can cause severe damage to crop and buildings.<ref>Gosal, S. S., & Gill, R. (2004). Different biotechnological options for improving medicinal and aromatic plants. ''Indian Med.Aromat.,'' , 19-21.</ref>


== Vegetation and Flora ==
== Vegetation and Flora ==
The vegetation of the Thal Desert predominantly comprises of grasses and sedges which are most commonly used as fodder by the local population.<ref>Chaudhary, S.A. 1969. Flora in Lyallpur and adjacent canal colony districts. W.Pak.Agr.University, Lyallpur, 1-177.</ref> Thorny and prickly shrubs as well as perennial herbs capable of enduring droughts are also present.<ref name=":1">Shaheen, H. (2015). ''FLORISTIC AND ETHNOBOTANICAL ENUMERATION OF THAL DESERT, PUNJAB, PAKISTAN'' (Ph.D). Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi.</ref> A floristic checklist of the Thal desert observed that Poaceae was the main family with 52 species. Most of the flora is of herbaceous nature, followed by grasses, trees, shrubs, sedges and climbers in decreasing abundance.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Shaheen|first=Humaira|last2=Qureshi|first2=Rahmatuallah|last3=Qaseem|first3=Mirza Faisal|last4=Amjad|first4=Muhammad Shoaib|last5=Bruschi|first5=Piero|date=June 2017|title=The cultural importance of indices: A comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of Noorpur Thal Punjab, Pakistan|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1876382017300896|journal=European Journal of Integrative Medicine|language=en|volume=12|pages=27–34|doi=10.1016/j.eujim.2017.04.003}}</ref>
The vegetation of the Thal Desert predominantly comprises of grasses and [[sedges]] which are most commonly used as fodder by the local population.<ref>Chaudhary, S.A. 1969. Flora in Lyallpur and adjacent canal colony districts. W.Pak.Agr.University, Lyallpur, 1-177.</ref> Thorny and prickly shrubs as well as [[perennial herbs]] capable of enduring droughts are also present.<ref name=":1">Shaheen, H. (2015). ''FLORISTIC AND ETHNOBOTANICAL ENUMERATION OF THAL DESERT, PUNJAB, PAKISTAN'' (Ph.D). Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi.</ref> A floristic checklist of the Thal desert observed that ''[[Poaceae]]'' was the main family with 52 species. Most of the flora is of [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] nature, followed by grasses, trees, shrubs, sedges and climbers in decreasing abundance.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Shaheen|first=Humaira|last2=Qureshi|first2=Rahmatuallah|last3=Qaseem|first3=Mirza Faisal|last4=Amjad|first4=Muhammad Shoaib|last5=Bruschi|first5=Piero|date=June 2017|title=The cultural importance of indices: A comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of Noorpur Thal Punjab, Pakistan|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1876382017300896|journal=European Journal of Integrative Medicine|language=en|volume=12|pages=27–34|doi=10.1016/j.eujim.2017.04.003}}</ref>


The only trees which grow in the desert include the Khaggal, Shareen, Acacia, Beri (Ziziphus Jajoba) and Karir types.<ref name=":4">Lok Sanjh Foundation. (2013). ''Thal Desert: A Research Study on Understanding Desert Ecology and Livelihood Patterns'' [Ebook]. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://loksanjh.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Desert_Ecology_Study.pdf</nowiki></ref> Ephemeral herbs also appear seasonally and shed their seeds before the arrival of summer when climactic conditions become more unfavourable throughout the desert.<ref name=":1" />
The only trees which grow in the desert include the ''Khagal'', ''Shareen'', ''[[Acacia]]'', ''Beri'' (Ziziphus Jajoba) and [[Capparis decidua|''Karir'']] types.<ref name=":4">Lok Sanjh Foundation. (2013). ''Thal Desert: A Research Study on Understanding Desert Ecology and Livelihood Patterns'' [Ebook]. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://loksanjh.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Desert_Ecology_Study.pdf</nowiki></ref> Ephemeral herbs also appear seasonally and shed their seeds before the arrival of summer when climactic conditions become more unfavourable throughout the desert.<ref name=":1" />


Medicinal purposes also account for another major usage of the plants; for example Harmal is used for indigestion and Kartuma is used to treat wounds. Other uses including thatching huts, livestock shelters and creating household items such as baskets and dyes.<ref name=":4" /> The most commonly used species is the Saccharum with its various uses in sheltering, fodder and making objects.<ref name=":5" />
Medicinal purposes also account for another major usage of the plants; for example ''[[Harmal]]'' is used for indigestion and ''Kartuma'' is used to treat wounds. Other uses including thatching huts, livestock shelters and creating household items such as baskets and dyes.<ref name=":4" /> The most commonly used species is the ''[[Saccharum]]'' with its various uses in sheltering, [[fodder]] and making objects.<ref name=":5" />


Most sub-regions of the desert are dominated by one species of plants which is a notable feature of such deserts.<ref name=":10" /> The vegetation is also highly dependent on the seasonal rainfall patterns which determine the ability of species to re-establish in the next sufficiently wet monsoon. Most plants that are grown are done so for the sole purpose of soil binding as this helps bind the sandy soil and fertilise it for future generations.<ref name=":12" /> Chickpeas are the most successfully cultivated crop in the region’s arid conditions and the desert accounts for the bulk of chickpea production in Pakistan.<ref>Shah, N.A., M., Abbas, M., & Mahmood, K. (2008). Economics of Chickpea Production in the Thal Desert of Pakistan. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Economics-of-Chickpea-Production-in-the-Thal-Desert-Shah-la/11d79615b93738240522fa698c752b2bafa34f11</nowiki></ref>
Most sub-regions of the desert are dominated by one species of plants which is a notable feature of such deserts.<ref name=":10" /> The vegetation is also highly dependent on the seasonal rainfall patterns which determine the ability of species to re-establish in the next sufficiently wet monsoon. Most plants that are grown are done so for the sole purpose of soil binding as this helps bind the sandy soil and fertilise it for future generations.<ref name=":12" /> [[Chickpea|Chickpeas]] are the most successfully cultivated crop in the region’s arid conditions and the desert accounts for the bulk of chickpea production in Pakistan.<ref>Shah, N.A., M., Abbas, M., & Mahmood, K. (2008). Economics of Chickpea Production in the Thal Desert of Pakistan. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Economics-of-Chickpea-Production-in-the-Thal-Desert-Shah-la/11d79615b93738240522fa698c752b2bafa34f11</nowiki></ref>


== Fauna ==
== Fauna ==
Livestock plays an important role towards the livelihood of the people in the region, serving as a relatively secure source of income as compared to unpredictable crop yields (Under standing 2013).<ref name=":4" /> The average herd size is 17 standard units and typically consist of goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, camels, donkeys, and mules (Hussain 2020).<ref>Hussain I. Profile of Livestock Production in Thal Desert of Pakistan. ''International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences''. 2017;7(3):480–94. [Google Scholar]</ref>
Livestock plays an important role towards the livelihood of the people in the region, serving as a relatively secure source of income as compared to unpredictable crop yields.<ref name=":4" /> The average herd size is 17 standard units and typically consist of goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, camels, donkeys, and mules.<ref>Hussain I. Profile of Livestock Production in Thal Desert of Pakistan. ''International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences''. 2017;7(3):480–94. [Google Scholar]</ref>


The desert’s natural wildlife, inclusive of deer, foxes (in particular the Houbara Bustard fox), jackals, parrots and wood-peckers, has seen drastic decline since the 1970’s with current numbers nearing extinction (understanding 2013). <ref name=":4" /> The common (desert) red fox, Kuhl's pipistrelle, Indian  desert cat, chinkara, Indian hare, and Indian hairy-footed gerbil habitats are also present but in very small numbers as result of direct reductions and habitat changes over the last century (Taber, 1967)<ref>Taber, R., Sheri, A., & Ahmad, M. (1967). Mammals of the Lyallpur Region, West Pakistan. Journal of Mammalogy, 48(3), 392-407. doi:10.2307/1377772</ref>
The desert’s natural wildlife, inclusive of deer, [[Jackal|jackals]], parrots and wood-peckers, has seen drastic decline since the 1970’s with current numbers nearing extinction. <ref name=":4" /> The common (desert) red fox, [[Kuhl's pipistrelle]], Indian desert cat, [[Chinkara]], [[Indian hare]], and [[Indian hairy-footed gerbil]] habitats are also present but in very small numbers as result of direct reductions and habitat changes over the last century.<ref>Taber, R., Sheri, A., & Ahmad, M. (1967). Mammals of the Lyallpur Region, West Pakistan. Journal of Mammalogy, 48(3), 392-407. doi:10.2307/1377772</ref>


The desert is home to both resident and migratory species. The Thal Game Reserve is estimated to host over 2.5 million birds from 55 different species.<ref name=":13">Mahboob, S., U-Nisa, Z., F Alkaham Albalawi, H., Sultana, S., & Almisned, F. (2013). Study on avian diversity of thal desert (district Jhang), Punjab, Pakistan. ''Life Science Journal'', ''10''(1). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287868614_Study_on_avian_diversity_of_thal_desert_district_Jhang_Punjab_Pakistan/citations</nowiki></ref> Bird populations peak around December-January due to an increase in the population of migratory and winter visitor species.<ref>Roberts TJ. 1991. The Birds of Pakistan. Vol.1, Oxford Univ. Press, Karachi, Pakistan.1991;1-598.</ref> After midwinter, overall population begins to decline and reaches its minimum between May-June. (Mahboob et al., 2013). Migratory birds include the Peregrine Falcon, Common quail, Sky Lark, rosy starling, yellow wagtail and the desert warbler. <ref name=":13" /> These species breed in western Siberia and migrate to Pakistan during winter. The overall density of resident bird species is higher with the most abundant species being Turdoides squamiceps and Lanius excubitor (Wardmana and Warringtonb, 1997).<ref>Wardamana OL, Warringtonb S. 1997. Seasonal Changes in Abundance of Bird Species on an Arabian Acacia Plain. Journal of Arid Environments. 1997; 35: 321-333.</ref>
The desert is home to both resident and migratory species. The Thal [[Game reserve|Game Reserve]] is estimated to host over 2.5 million birds from 55 different species.<ref name=":13">Mahboob, S., U-Nisa, Z., F Alkaham Albalawi, H., Sultana, S., & Almisned, F. (2013). Study on avian diversity of thal desert (district Jhang), Punjab, Pakistan. ''Life Science Journal'', ''10''(1). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287868614_Study_on_avian_diversity_of_thal_desert_district_Jhang_Punjab_Pakistan/citations</nowiki></ref> Bird populations peak around December-January due to an increase in the population of migratory and winter visitor species.<ref>Roberts TJ. 1991. The Birds of Pakistan. Vol.1, Oxford Univ. Press, Karachi, Pakistan.1991;1-598.</ref> After midwinter, overall population begins to decline and reaches its minimum between May-June. Migratory birds include the Peregrine Falcon, Common quail, Sky Lark, rosy starling, yellow wagtail and the desert warbler. <ref name=":13" /> These species breed in western Siberia and migrate to Pakistan during winter. The overall density of resident bird species is higher with the most abundant species being [[Turdoides squamiceps]] and [[Lanius excubitor]].<ref>Wardamana OL, Warringtonb S. 1997. Seasonal Changes in Abundance of Bird Species on an Arabian Acacia Plain. Journal of Arid Environments. 1997; 35: 321-333.</ref>


The birds feed on the large variety of insects found in the desert. These include the Cattle egret, Little green bee-eater, Persian bee-eater, Indian roller and Golden backed woodpecker.<ref name=":7" /> Cultivated crops such as gram, wheat, maize and rice are also an important food source to the granivorous birds. Larger species such as the Laggar and Peregrine falcons also prey on the rodents, lizards and small birds found in the area.<ref name=":13" />
The birds feed on the large variety of insects found in the desert. These include the [[Cattle egret]], [[Little Green Bee-eater|Little green bee-eater]], Persian bee-eater, [[Indian roller]] and [[Goldenbacked Woodpecker|Golden backed woodpecker.]]<ref name=":7" /> Cultivated crops such as gram, wheat, maize and rice are also an important food source to the granivorous birds. Larger species such as the [[Laggar falcon|Laggar]] and [[Peregrine falcon|Peregrine]] falcons also prey on the rodents, lizards and small birds found in the area.<ref name=":13" />


== History ==
== History ==
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=== Settlement of the Thal Desert ===
=== Settlement of the Thal Desert ===
The partitioning of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 resulted in the migration of over 15 million people and created a refugee problem for the then government.<ref name=":8">Abbas, M. (2020). A Study of Settlement of Refugees in the Thal Desert (1947-1969). ''Pakistan Social Sciences Review'', ''4''(II), 164-176. doi: 10.35484/pssr.2020(4-ii)14</ref> The Thal Settlement project arose as a solution to this issue with plans to settle a number of refugees into the sparsely populated Thal Desert.<ref>REFUGEES SETTLING ON RECLAIMED DESERT (1953, March 5). ''North-Eastern Courier (Perth, WA : 1923 - 1955)'', p. 4. Retrieved April 27, 2021, from <nowiki>http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article257576985</nowiki></ref> In July of 1949, the Punjab Government  enacted a law for the constitution of a public corporation, the Thal Development Authority (TDA), which began its development operations the following year in 1950.<ref name=":14">Honigmann, J. (1954). Relocation of a Punjab Pakistan Community. ''Middle East Journal,'' ''8''(4), 429-444. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/4322639</nowiki>
The partitioning of the [[Indian subcontinent]] in 1947 resulted in the migration of over 15 million people and created a refugee problem for the then government.<ref name=":8">Abbas, M. (2020). A Study of Settlement of Refugees in the Thal Desert (1947-1969). ''Pakistan Social Sciences Review'', ''4''(II), 164-176. doi: 10.35484/pssr.2020(4-ii)14</ref> The Thal Settlement project arose as a solution to this issue with plans to settle a number of refugees into the sparsely populated Thal Desert.<ref>REFUGEES SETTLING ON RECLAIMED DESERT (1953, March 5). ''North-Eastern Courier (Perth, WA : 1923 - 1955)'', p. 4. Retrieved April 27, 2021, from <nowiki>http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article257576985</nowiki></ref> In July of 1949, the [[Government of Punjab|Punjab Government]]  enacted a law for the constitution of a public corporation, the Thal Development Authority (TDA), which began its development operations the following year in 1950.<ref name=":14">Honigmann, J. (1954). Relocation of a Punjab Pakistan Community. ''Middle East Journal,'' ''8''(4), 429-444. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/4322639</nowiki>
</ref>
</ref>


Line 107: Line 107:
The years between 1953 and 1969 also saw the levelling of over 690 000 acres of the Thal Desert, the construction of over 2000 miles worth of main and link roads to connect the new villages and over 63 000 miles worth of water channels.<ref name=":8" />
The years between 1953 and 1969 also saw the levelling of over 690 000 acres of the Thal Desert, the construction of over 2000 miles worth of main and link roads to connect the new villages and over 63 000 miles worth of water channels.<ref name=":8" />


However, development of the region with the canal project, settlement of people and reclamation of land for agricultural usages has also changed the ecology of the area. Grazing lands have diminished and the biodiversity of the area has also decreased.<ref name=":4" />
However, development of the region with the canal project, settlement of people and reclamation of land for agricultural usages has also changed the [[ecology]] of the area. Grazing lands have diminished and the [[biodiversity]] of the area has also decreased.<ref name=":4" />


==Culture and society==
==Culture and society==
Line 113: Line 113:
The Thal desert is deficit in resources and infrastructure with very limited health services, schools, electricity, water and sanitation.<ref name=":4" /> Erratic rainfall patterns, frequent droughts and shifting sand dunes result in serious losses to farmers and have contributed to the widespread poverty in the area.<ref name=":12" /> The population lives in scattered settlements and most farmers own less then 5 acres of land, which is difficult to cultivate.<ref name=":4" />
The Thal desert is deficit in resources and infrastructure with very limited health services, schools, electricity, water and sanitation.<ref name=":4" /> Erratic rainfall patterns, frequent droughts and shifting sand dunes result in serious losses to farmers and have contributed to the widespread poverty in the area.<ref name=":12" /> The population lives in scattered settlements and most farmers own less then 5 acres of land, which is difficult to cultivate.<ref name=":4" />


Agriculture and livestock form the primary sources of livelihood with gram flour being the main cash crop. Milk production is also a major source of income and for this reason, cows and buffaloes are raised more frequently than camels or goats.<ref name=":5" /> Livestock productivity is limited due to fodder shortages as a result of climactic fluctuations, limited availability of veterinary services and poor access to animal vaccinations.<ref>Farooq U, Ahmad M, Saeed I. Enhancing livestock productivity in the desert ecologies of Pakistan: setting the development priorities. ''Pakistan Development Review''. 2009;48(4):795–823. [Google Scholar]</ref> In cases of crop failure, livestock is often sold in order to improve financial standing.<ref name=":4" /> Skins from livestock such as sheep and camels are also sold for making leather goods whilst teeth and bones are utilised for objects such as buttons, jewellery, and decoration.<ref name=":11" /> Camels are also commonly used for transportation throughout the region.<ref name=":15" />
[[Agriculture]] and livestock form the primary sources of livelihood with [[gram flour]] being the main cash crop. Milk production is also a major source of income and for this reason, cows and buffaloes are raised more frequently than camels or goats.<ref name=":5" /> Livestock productivity is limited due to fodder shortages as a result of climactic fluctuations, limited availability of veterinary services and poor access to animal vaccinations.<ref>Farooq U, Ahmad M, Saeed I. Enhancing livestock productivity in the desert ecologies of Pakistan: setting the development priorities. ''Pakistan Development Review''. 2009;48(4):795–823. [Google Scholar]</ref> In cases of crop failure, livestock is often sold in order to improve financial standing.<ref name=":4" /> Skins from livestock such as sheep and camels are also sold for making leather goods whilst teeth and bones are utilised for objects such as buttons, jewellery, and decoration.<ref name=":11" /> Camels are also commonly used for transportation throughout the region.<ref name=":15" />


There are several tribes in the area including the Tiwana, Sial, Mammak, Bhachar, Baghoor, Rahdari, Jhammat peoples. Seraiki is the primary language spoken by locals however Punjabi is also widely used.<ref name=":4" /> Male education and literacy rates are comparatively higher as compared to females but overall, still some of the lowest in the province of Punjab. The most common occupations, in both men and women, consists of shepherds, farmed livestock caretakers and domestic livestock caretakers.<ref name=":14" />
There are several tribes in the area including the Tiwana, Sial, Mammak, Bhachar, Baghoor, Rahdari, Jhammat peoples. [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]] is the primary language spoken by locals however [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] is also widely used.<ref name=":4" /> Male education and literacy rates are comparatively higher as compared to females but overall, still some of the lowest in the province of Punjab. The most common occupations, in both men and women, consists of shepherds, farmed livestock caretakers and domestic livestock caretakers.<ref name=":14" />


Most villages do not have a single indoor toilet facility. Chronic stomach ailments are common due to the quality of water available. Females are also more vulnerable to health conditions, particularly those related to maternity as the nearest hospital capable of treatment is generally great distances away.<ref name=":4" />
Most villages do not have a single indoor toilet facility. Chronic stomach ailments are common due to the quality of water available. Females are also more vulnerable to health conditions, particularly those related to maternity as the nearest hospital capable of treatment is generally great distances away.<ref name=":4" />

Revision as of 18:01, 24 May 2021

Thal Desert
A road passing through Thal desert at Noorpur
Length305 km (190 mi)
Geography
CountryPakistan

The Thal desert (Urdu, Punjabi: صحراےَ تھل) is situated at 31°10’ N and 71°30’ E in Punjab, Pakistan.[1] The region is located between the Jhelum and Sindh, with a total length from north to south 190 miles, with a total length from north to south of 190 miles (306 km) and a maximum breadth of 70 miles (113 km).[2] Geographically, it resembles the deserts of Cholistan and Thar.[3]

Geography

The Thal desert of Pakistan lies at altitudes above sea levels of approximately 200m in the north which gradually decrease to around 120m in the south.[4] The desert falls under the agro-ecological zone-III and is a sandy, arid to semi-arid region.[5] It is divided into the districts of Bhakkar, Khushab, Mianwali, Jhang, Layyah and Muzzafargarh, all of whom display very similar geographical features.[6]

The desert largely constitutes of low sand dunes and rolling sand plains which alternate with narrow valleys of cultivable land. These sand dunes are a prominent feature of the zone and consist of sediment which has been reworked by wind and brought in by the Indus River which lays upstream of the orogenic front.[4] They commonly reach heights of around 175m and cover 50-60% of the Thal desert. [7]

The currently active Indus River flood plain stretches > 20km in width at the southern edges of the desert and the abandoned floodplain reach even wider, covering areas of higher ground. The underlying alluvium mostly consists of laterally continuous bodies of fine to coarse sand, with minor gravel and isolated mud lenses. Coarser deposits occur in the north closer to the Salt Range, but otherwise the distribution of grain sizes is irregular.[4]

Climate

The Thal desert is a subtropical sandy region with severe climactic conditions that are prone to temperature extremes.[8]  Approximately 50% of the region sees hyper-arid climactic conditions (annual rainfall less than 200mm) and the remaining half sees semi-arid climactic conditions (annual rainfall between 200mm and 500mm).[9] The desert is also characterised by strong winds that blow year-round and can cause serious wind erosion that leads to local crop damage.[4]

Temperature

Summers in the area see temperatures generally range from 32o C - 40o C and average around 35o C between June to July. However, southern borne hot winds blowing with high velocity can see these temperatures rise to over 45oC.[10] Dust storms, resulting from unsteady thermal conditions, are also common in the summer months.[11]

In the winter, temperatures vary between 3o C and 8o C and are accompanied by cold, dry winds from the north.[9] In January, temperatures can reach near freezing point.[10]

Precipitation

The Thal Desert’s rainfall patterns are low and erratic with  mean annual values ranging between150-350mm.[5] The majority of precipitation occurs between the months of June and August however there is high variability across seasons and even years. Total annual rainfall has been seen to progressively decrease from the northern end of the desert to the south.[12] It also displays cyclic fluctuations where two to three years of continued decreased rainfall is followed up by several years of higher precipitation levels.[4]

Hailstorms, generated by air turbulence owing to the high temperature difference between the warm surface and the cold upper atmosphere, are also common between March and April and can cause severe damage to crop and buildings.[13]

Vegetation and Flora

The vegetation of the Thal Desert predominantly comprises of grasses and sedges which are most commonly used as fodder by the local population.[14] Thorny and prickly shrubs as well as perennial herbs capable of enduring droughts are also present.[15] A floristic checklist of the Thal desert observed that Poaceae was the main family with 52 species. Most of the flora is of herbaceous nature, followed by grasses, trees, shrubs, sedges and climbers in decreasing abundance.[16]

The only trees which grow in the desert include the Khagal, Shareen, Acacia, Beri (Ziziphus Jajoba) and Karir types.[17] Ephemeral herbs also appear seasonally and shed their seeds before the arrival of summer when climactic conditions become more unfavourable throughout the desert.[15]

Medicinal purposes also account for another major usage of the plants; for example Harmal is used for indigestion and Kartuma is used to treat wounds. Other uses including thatching huts, livestock shelters and creating household items such as baskets and dyes.[17] The most commonly used species is the Saccharum with its various uses in sheltering, fodder and making objects.[1]

Most sub-regions of the desert are dominated by one species of plants which is a notable feature of such deserts.[6] The vegetation is also highly dependent on the seasonal rainfall patterns which determine the ability of species to re-establish in the next sufficiently wet monsoon. Most plants that are grown are done so for the sole purpose of soil binding as this helps bind the sandy soil and fertilise it for future generations.[16] Chickpeas are the most successfully cultivated crop in the region’s arid conditions and the desert accounts for the bulk of chickpea production in Pakistan.[18]

Fauna

Livestock plays an important role towards the livelihood of the people in the region, serving as a relatively secure source of income as compared to unpredictable crop yields.[17] The average herd size is 17 standard units and typically consist of goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, camels, donkeys, and mules.[19]

The desert’s natural wildlife, inclusive of deer, jackals, parrots and wood-peckers, has seen drastic decline since the 1970’s with current numbers nearing extinction. [17] The common (desert) red fox, Kuhl's pipistrelle, Indian desert cat, Chinkara, Indian hare, and Indian hairy-footed gerbil habitats are also present but in very small numbers as result of direct reductions and habitat changes over the last century.[20]

The desert is home to both resident and migratory species. The Thal Game Reserve is estimated to host over 2.5 million birds from 55 different species.[21] Bird populations peak around December-January due to an increase in the population of migratory and winter visitor species.[22] After midwinter, overall population begins to decline and reaches its minimum between May-June. Migratory birds include the Peregrine Falcon, Common quail, Sky Lark, rosy starling, yellow wagtail and the desert warbler. [21] These species breed in western Siberia and migrate to Pakistan during winter. The overall density of resident bird species is higher with the most abundant species being Turdoides squamiceps and Lanius excubitor.[23]

The birds feed on the large variety of insects found in the desert. These include the Cattle egret, Little green bee-eater, Persian bee-eater, Indian roller and Golden backed woodpecker.[2] Cultivated crops such as gram, wheat, maize and rice are also an important food source to the granivorous birds. Larger species such as the Laggar and Peregrine falcons also prey on the rodents, lizards and small birds found in the area.[21]

History

The Greater Thal canal

Thal Canal

The history of the Thal Canal Project goes back to over 130 years. It was in 1873 that the project was first conceived for the whole of the Thal Doab. The proposal to irrigate this area with water from the Indus River[24] was repeatedly brought up for discussion in 1919, 1921, 1924, 1925, 1936 and in 1949. It was repeatedly shelved because of the argument that it would severely hurt the water availability to the lower riparians. The project proposal came under discussion again in 1975 when the Executive Committee of the National Economic Council (ECNEC) refused to endorse the project. On August 16, 2001, Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf inaugurated the 30-billion-rupee Greater Thal Canal project (GTC).[25] The second phase of Greater Thal Canal Phase project (Choubara Branch) was launched in 2020. This will bring around 300 000 acres of the desert land under irrigation.[26]

Settlement of the Thal Desert

The partitioning of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 resulted in the migration of over 15 million people and created a refugee problem for the then government.[27] The Thal Settlement project arose as a solution to this issue with plans to settle a number of refugees into the sparsely populated Thal Desert.[28] In July of 1949, the Punjab Government  enacted a law for the constitution of a public corporation, the Thal Development Authority (TDA), which began its development operations the following year in 1950.[29]

Throughout its lifetime, the TDA initiated a number of projects including the Sheep Breeding Scheme in 1952, the Open Auction Scheme in 1954 and the Peasant Grant Scheme of 1955.[30] The Peasant Grant Scheme, which was aimed at refugees and migrators from India, offered a 15 acers incentive for settlement in the Thal desert under a number of varying conditions, one of which required the land to only be used for agricultural purposes.[31]

Over 110 villages were also established by the TDA over its lifespan which enabled the settlement of over 31377 families of refugees and migrants in the Thal Desert.[32] Facilities such as schools and post offices were also provided by the TDA alongside the construction of peasant houses, huts, and cattle sheds. The TDA was dissolved in 1969 by the Government of Punjab.[33]

The years between 1953 and 1969 also saw the levelling of over 690 000 acres of the Thal Desert, the construction of over 2000 miles worth of main and link roads to connect the new villages and over 63 000 miles worth of water channels.[27]

However, development of the region with the canal project, settlement of people and reclamation of land for agricultural usages has also changed the ecology of the area. Grazing lands have diminished and the biodiversity of the area has also decreased.[17]

Culture and society

Home in Khansar, Bhakkar, Thal

The Thal desert is deficit in resources and infrastructure with very limited health services, schools, electricity, water and sanitation.[17] Erratic rainfall patterns, frequent droughts and shifting sand dunes result in serious losses to farmers and have contributed to the widespread poverty in the area.[16] The population lives in scattered settlements and most farmers own less then 5 acres of land, which is difficult to cultivate.[17]

Agriculture and livestock form the primary sources of livelihood with gram flour being the main cash crop. Milk production is also a major source of income and for this reason, cows and buffaloes are raised more frequently than camels or goats.[1] Livestock productivity is limited due to fodder shortages as a result of climactic fluctuations, limited availability of veterinary services and poor access to animal vaccinations.[34] In cases of crop failure, livestock is often sold in order to improve financial standing.[17] Skins from livestock such as sheep and camels are also sold for making leather goods whilst teeth and bones are utilised for objects such as buttons, jewellery, and decoration.[9] Camels are also commonly used for transportation throughout the region.[33]

There are several tribes in the area including the Tiwana, Sial, Mammak, Bhachar, Baghoor, Rahdari, Jhammat peoples. Saraiki is the primary language spoken by locals however Punjabi is also widely used.[17] Male education and literacy rates are comparatively higher as compared to females but overall, still some of the lowest in the province of Punjab. The most common occupations, in both men and women, consists of shepherds, farmed livestock caretakers and domestic livestock caretakers.[29]

Most villages do not have a single indoor toilet facility. Chronic stomach ailments are common due to the quality of water available. Females are also more vulnerable to health conditions, particularly those related to maternity as the nearest hospital capable of treatment is generally great distances away.[17]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Qureshi, R., Shaheen, H., Akram, A., Gulfraz, M., & Potter, D. (2014). A preliminaryfloristic checklist of Thal desert Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal Of Botany, 46(1). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260594123_A_preliminaryfloristic_checklist_of_Thal_desert_Punjab_Pakistan
  2. ^ a b Mahboob, S., U-Nisa, Z., F Alkaham Albalawi, H., Sultana, S., & Almisned, F. (2013). Study on avian diversity of thal desert (district Jhang), Punjab, Pakistan. Life Science Journal, 10(1). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287868614_Study_on_avian_diversity_of_thal_desert_district_Jhang_Punjab_Pakistan/citations
  3. ^ Anonymous. 2008a. Annual rainfall, relative humidity and temperature of Thal Deseart Punjab, Pakistan. 2006-2008. Pakistan Metrological Department Jail Road Lahore, Pakistan
  4. ^ a b c d e Garzanti, Eduardo; Liang, Wendong; Andò, Sergio; Clift, Peter D.; Resentini, Alberto; Vermeesch, Pieter; Vezzoli, Giovanni (August 2020). "Provenance of Thal Desert sand: Focused erosion in the western Himalayan syntaxis and foreland-basin deposition driven by latest Quaternary climate change". Earth-Science Reviews. 207: 103220. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103220.
  5. ^ a b Faraz, A., Waheed, A., Mirza, R., Nabeel, M., & Ishaq, H. (2020). Milk Yield and Composition of Barela Dromedary Camel in Thal Desert Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal Of Zoology, 52(3). doi: 10.17582/journal.pjz/20190212070204
  6. ^ a b Abbas, G., Hassan, G., Anjum Ali, M., Abbas, Z., & Aslam, M. (2010). Response of wheat to different doses of ZnSO4 under thal desert environment. Pakistan Journal Of Botany, 42(6).
  7. ^ Bharadwaj, D.P. (1961). The arid zone of India and Pakistan. In: A History of Land Use in Arid Regions, pp. 143-174. Paris: UNESCO. 315 pp/
  8. ^ Dasti, A.; Agnew, A.D.Q. (July 1994). "The vegetation of Cholistan and Thai deserts, Pakistan". Journal of Arid Environments. 27 (3): 193–208. doi:10.1006/jare.1994.1058.
  9. ^ a b c Shaheen, Humaira; Qureshi, Rahmatuallah; Qaseem, Mirza Faisal; Bruschi, Piero (2020-03-05). Paniagua-Zambrana, Narel Y. (ed.). "The fodder grass resources for ruminants: A indigenous treasure of local communities of Thal desert Punjab, Pakistan". PLOS ONE. 15 (3): e0224061. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224061. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7058357. PMID 32134935.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  10. ^ a b Harun, Nidaa; Chaudhry, Abdul Shakoor; Shaheen, Shabnum; Ullah, Kifayat; Khan, Farah (December 2017). "Ethnobotanical studies of fodder grass resources for ruminant animals, based on the traditional knowledge of indigenous communities in Central Punjab Pakistan". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 13 (1): 56. doi:10.1186/s13002-017-0184-5. ISSN 1746-4269. PMC 5628460. PMID 28978348.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  11. ^ Hussain, A., Mir, H., & Afzal, M. (2005). Analysis of dust storms frequency over Pakistan during (1961-2000). Pakistan Journal Of Meteorology, 2(3). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285097369_Analysis_of_dust_storms_frequency_over_Pakistan_during_1961-2000
  12. ^ Rahim, S.M.A., Hasnain, S. and Farkhanda, J., 2011. Afr. J. Pl. Sci., 5: 450-459. https://doi.org/10.5897/ AJPS11.070
  13. ^ Gosal, S. S., & Gill, R. (2004). Different biotechnological options for improving medicinal and aromatic plants. Indian Med.Aromat., , 19-21.
  14. ^ Chaudhary, S.A. 1969. Flora in Lyallpur and adjacent canal colony districts. W.Pak.Agr.University, Lyallpur, 1-177.
  15. ^ a b Shaheen, H. (2015). FLORISTIC AND ETHNOBOTANICAL ENUMERATION OF THAL DESERT, PUNJAB, PAKISTAN (Ph.D). Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi.
  16. ^ a b c Shaheen, Humaira; Qureshi, Rahmatuallah; Qaseem, Mirza Faisal; Amjad, Muhammad Shoaib; Bruschi, Piero (June 2017). "The cultural importance of indices: A comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of Noorpur Thal Punjab, Pakistan". European Journal of Integrative Medicine. 12: 27–34. doi:10.1016/j.eujim.2017.04.003.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Lok Sanjh Foundation. (2013). Thal Desert: A Research Study on Understanding Desert Ecology and Livelihood Patterns [Ebook]. Retrieved from http://loksanjh.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Desert_Ecology_Study.pdf
  18. ^ Shah, N.A., M., Abbas, M., & Mahmood, K. (2008). Economics of Chickpea Production in the Thal Desert of Pakistan. Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Economics-of-Chickpea-Production-in-the-Thal-Desert-Shah-la/11d79615b93738240522fa698c752b2bafa34f11
  19. ^ Hussain I. Profile of Livestock Production in Thal Desert of Pakistan. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences. 2017;7(3):480–94. [Google Scholar]
  20. ^ Taber, R., Sheri, A., & Ahmad, M. (1967). Mammals of the Lyallpur Region, West Pakistan. Journal of Mammalogy, 48(3), 392-407. doi:10.2307/1377772
  21. ^ a b c Mahboob, S., U-Nisa, Z., F Alkaham Albalawi, H., Sultana, S., & Almisned, F. (2013). Study on avian diversity of thal desert (district Jhang), Punjab, Pakistan. Life Science Journal, 10(1). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287868614_Study_on_avian_diversity_of_thal_desert_district_Jhang_Punjab_Pakistan/citations
  22. ^ Roberts TJ. 1991. The Birds of Pakistan. Vol.1, Oxford Univ. Press, Karachi, Pakistan.1991;1-598.
  23. ^ Wardamana OL, Warringtonb S. 1997. Seasonal Changes in Abundance of Bird Species on an Arabian Acacia Plain. Journal of Arid Environments. 1997; 35: 321-333.
  24. ^ http://www.punjab.gov.pk/mianwali
  25. ^ GreaterThalCanalStudy
  26. ^ "Irrigation dept claims credit for executing key projects in 2019". Retrieved 10 June 2020.
  27. ^ a b Abbas, M. (2020). A Study of Settlement of Refugees in the Thal Desert (1947-1969). Pakistan Social Sciences Review, 4(II), 164-176. doi: 10.35484/pssr.2020(4-ii)14
  28. ^ REFUGEES SETTLING ON RECLAIMED DESERT (1953, March 5). North-Eastern Courier (Perth, WA : 1923 - 1955), p. 4. Retrieved April 27, 2021, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article257576985
  29. ^ a b Honigmann, J. (1954). Relocation of a Punjab Pakistan Community. Middle East Journal, 8(4), 429-444. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4322639
  30. ^ Abbas, Muhammad Wasim (2020-06-30). "A Study of Settlement of Refugees in the Thal Desert (1947-1969)". Pakistan Social Sciences Review. 4 (II): 164–176. doi:10.35484/pssr.2020(4-II)14.
  31. ^ Pakistan Transforms Desert Too! (1952, March 1). Border Watch (Mount Gambier, SA : 1861 - 1954), p. 12. Retrieved April 27, 2021, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78665323
  32. ^ Pakistan's Projects FERTILE FIELDS FROM DESERT (1952, February 26). Queensland Times (Ipswich, Qld. : 1909 - 1954), p. 3 (Daily). Retrieved April 27, 2021, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article124584454
  33. ^ a b Abbas, Muhammad Wasim; Ahmad, Imran; Leghari, Muhammad Farooq Akbar (2020-06-30). "Agricultural Development under Thal Development Authority (1949-69)". Global Regional Review. V (II): 80–89. doi:10.31703/grr.2020(V-II).09.
  34. ^ Farooq U, Ahmad M, Saeed I. Enhancing livestock productivity in the desert ecologies of Pakistan: setting the development priorities. Pakistan Development Review. 2009;48(4):795–823. [Google Scholar]

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