AUKUS

AUKUS

AUKUS signatories
Formation	15 September 2021 (2021-09-15)
Type	Military alliance
Purpose	Collective security
Region	Indo-Pacific
Membership	Australia United Kingdom United States

AUKUS (/ˈɔːkəs/, AW-kəs) is a trilateral security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States, announced on 15 September 2021 for the Indo-Pacific region. Under the pact, the US and the UK will help Australia to acquire nuclear-powered submarines. Although the joint announcement by Australian prime minister Scott Morrison, British prime minister Boris Johnson and US president Joe Biden did not mention any other country by name, anonymous White House sources have alleged it is designed to counter the influence of China in the Indo-Pacific region. However, Johnson later told parliament that the move was not intended to be adversarial toward China.

The pact also includes cooperation on cyber capabilities, artificial intelligence, quantum technologies and undersea capabilities. Under the pact, Australia will acquire new long-range strike capabilities for its air force and navy. The pact will focus on military capability, separating it from the Five Eyes intelligence-sharing alliance that also includes New Zealand and Canada.

On 17 September 2021, France, which is an ally of the three countries, recalled its ambassadors from Australia and the US; French foreign minister Jean-Yves Le Drian called the pact a "stab in the back" following Australia's cancellation of a French–Australian submarine deal worth €56 billion (A$90 billion) without notice, ending efforts to develop a deeper strategic partnership between France and Australia.

Background

Naval Group–Australia strategic partnership agreement

Further information: Attack-class submarine

In 2009, two years after the start of the project to replace the Royal Australian Navy's conventionally powered Collins-class submarines, the Australian Defence White Paper stated: "The Government has ruled out nuclear propulsion for these submarines".

In 2016, Australian prime minister Malcolm Turnbull signed a A$50 billion (€31 billion) deal with the partly French government-owned company Naval Group (known as DCNS until 2017) to design a new generation of submarines, known as the Attack-class, under the "Future Submarine Program", scheduled to replace the Collins-class. The design was based on the latest French nuclear-powered attack submarine, the Barracuda class, which required converting the nuclear propulsion to conventional propulsion. Another difference was that Australia chose to equip it with a United States Navy combat system and torpedo with Lockheed Martin Australia selected to integrate them into the design. Australia typically requires that part of their vessels be built there, which increases the cost. In this case it corresponded to 60 per cent of the contract value, with France handling the technology transfer.

In 2019, Australia signed a strategic partnership agreement with Naval Group to design and construct twelve submarines to be built in Australia. However, the project was beset by delays and cost overruns, leading to uncertainty and tension behind the scenes. The revised cost, including inflation during the length of the program was A$90 billion (€56 billion).

In February 2021, an initial design plan was rejected as being too expensive, and Naval Group were given until September to improve their proposal. At a Senate inquiry in early June 2021, with delays ongoing, Defence Secretary Greg Moriarty revealed under questioning that he had considered making contingency plans if the French project was to fail, admitting that there had been ongoing problems for over a year. Two weeks later, Australian prime minister Scott Morrison met French president Emmanuel Macron in Paris and expressed concern about the project going off track, to which Macron replied that France was giving "full and complete" commitment and would proceed "further and faster if possible".

On 30 August 2021, the French and Australian defense and foreign affairs ministers released a joint statement reaffirming the project, stating that the "Ministers underlined the importance of the Future Submarine program."

Australia decided to cancel the contract with Naval Group for the Attack-class submarines, despite having already spent about $2.4 billion on the French project. It was expected that Australia would have to pay hundreds of millions of Euros in penalties for cancelling the contract. The French Ministry of Defense claim that on same day the project was cancelled, the Australians had written a letter to France, stating that "they were satisfied with the submarine's achievable performance and with the progress of the program."

Morrison said that Australia now required a nuclear-powered submarine which has the advantage of greater speed, can stay underwater for longer and can carry heavier loads over a conventionally powered submarine due to a change in the strategic situation in the Indo-Pacific.

Australia–UK–US negotiations

The Telegraph reported that in March 2021 the Australian navy chief Vice Admiral Michael Noonan met in London with his British counterpart Admiral Tony Radakin and requested assistance from the UK and the US in acquiring nuclear-powered submarines. The newspaper reported that British Foreign Secretary Dominic Raab "helped broker the deal". The New York Times too reported that Australia first approached the UK for assistance. A trilateral discussion was held between Johnson, Biden and Morrison at the June 2021 G7 summit held in Cornwall, England. The talks took place without Macron's knowledge. This approach was possible as a result of the UK not entering into a formal foreign policy and security treaty in the post-Brexit deal with the EU. As a result, the UK was free to pursue enhanced cooperation with other allies. Morrison said Australia had been considering an alternative to the Attack-class submarine deal for the past 18 months.

Military programs

The US and Australia had previously announced the joint development of a hypersonic missile. The three countries are also members of the Joint Strike Fighter program.

Features

Nuclear-powered submarines

Under the pact, the US will share nuclear propulsion technology with Australia the same as it has with the UK since 1958 under the 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement as will the UK. The Royal Australian Navy will now acquire at least eight nuclear-powered submarines armed with conventional weapons to be built in Australia. The basic design and key technologies will be decided by an 18-month research project begun in September 2021 with assistance from the US and UK.

Australia will now extend the life of its Collins-class submarines. The Attack-class was due to replace and may consider leasing or buying nuclear-powered submarines from the US or the UK in the interim until the delivery of its future nuclear powered submarines. Also in the interim, Australian Defence Minister Peter Dutton said that Australia will have regular visits by UK and US nuclear-powered submarines.

Australia considered purchasing French nuclear submarines which use nuclear reactors fuelled by low-enriched uranium (LEU) at less than 6%. However, French reactor designs have to be refuelled every ten years, and Australia does not have a civil nuclear capability with nuclear energy prohibited. In contrast, American and British designs power the submarines for the expected life of the submarines using nuclear reactors fuelled by highly enriched uranium (HEU) at 93% enrichment. France uses LEU as its nuclear safety regulations require all reactors and its components to be inspected at least once every 10 years anyway.

Currently, only six countries have nuclear submarines, the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States) and India. The New York Times reported that Australia will probably buy highly enriched uranium (HEU) from the US for the nuclear reactor that powers the submarine. The United States' naval reactors are all pressurized water reactors (PWR). The United Kingdom's Rolls-Royce PWR3 is a new system based on a US design but using UK reactor technology.

US deployment in Australia

In talks in Washington, D.C., between the US and Australian defence and foreign affairs ministers, Australian defence minister Peter Dutton said that the countries would be "significantly enhancing our force posture cooperation", including "greater air cooperation through rotational deployments of all types of US military aircraft to Australia". Dutton also flagged a potential increase in the number of US troops being deployed to Darwin on rotations, and more joint military exercises with the US, and with other regional partners, and more bases and equipment storage in Australia. US defence secretary Lloyd Austin said the countries would look for more opportunities to joint engagements, flagging the presence of more US troops and aircraft based in Australia. Austin also played down speculation that the US would expect Australian concessions in exchange for the nuclear technology, such as Australia hosting intermediate range missiles.

Computer and cybertechnology

The announcement of AUKUS included the stated aim of improving "joint capabilities and interoperability. These initial efforts will focus on cyber capabilities, artificial intelligence, quantum technologies, and additional undersea capabilities." Tom Tugendhat, chair of the British Commons' Foreign Affairs Committee, later commented on Twitter that "Bringing together the military-industrial complex of these three allies together is a step-change in the relationship. We've always been interoperable, but this aims at much more. From artificial intelligence to advanced technology the US, UK and Australia will now be able to cost save by increasing platform sharing and innovation costs. Particularly for the smaller two, that's game-changing." Engineering & Technology pointed to the increasing expansion of Chinese technology firms such as Huawei, which has been excluded from tendering for participation in telecommunications networks by the US and Australia on national security grounds, and government vetoes over the attempted Chinese acquisition of American company Lattice Semiconductor and ongoing British consideration of proposed takeovers of local semiconductor firms. Engineering & Technology also pointed to the March 2021 statement of the US National Security Commission on AI, of the imperative to intensify local efforts but also "rally our closest allies and partners to defend and compete in the coming era of AI-accelerated competition and conflict".

Nuclear proliferation concerns

The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty allows non-nuclear-weapon states to produce the highly enriched uranium for naval reactor fuel. Nevertheless, the agreement to transfer US or UK nuclear submarine technology including possibly highly enriched uranium has been described as an act of nuclear proliferation, and has been criticised by scholars and politicians. In the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, scholar Sébastien Philippe criticised AUKUS and wrote "we can now expect the proliferation of very sensitive military nuclear technology in the coming years, with literally tons of new nuclear materials under loose or no international safeguards." James M. Acton of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace wrote that "the nonproliferation implications of the AUKUS submarine deal are both negative and serious. For Australia to operate nuclear-powered submarines, it will have to become the first non-nuclear-weapon state to exercise a loophole that allows it to remove nuclear material from the inspection system of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). I have no real concerns that Australia will misuse this material itself, but I am concerned that this removal will set a damaging precedent. In the future, would-be proliferators could use naval reactor programs as cover for the development of nuclear weapons."

Australia and Brazil would be the first countries without nuclear weapons to have nuclear-powered submarines. Concerns were raised that this may lead to increased risk of arms proliferation if other countries follow the same approach because it would involve other countries enriching uranium for naval reactors, potentially creating more avenues to develop material needed for nuclear weapons without the safeguards provided by regular inspections. This would not apply in the case of Brazil because the reactor will use low enriched uranium at 7% concentration. 20% is the minimum level required to make a nuclear weapon.

Comments and responses from participating countries

Territories and territorial waters of Australia (yellow), the United Kingdom (blue), and the United States (green), including the respective Antarctic claims of Australia and the UK.

Australia

Federal opposition leader Anthony Albanese, of the Australian Labor Party, said that his party would support nuclear submarines as long as there was no requirement to have a domestic civil nuclear industry, no possession of nuclear weapons and that the deal is consistent with Australia's responsibilities under the nuclear non-proliferation treaty. Former Labor prime minister Paul Keating condemned the deal, saying "This arrangement would witness a further dramatic loss of Australian sovereignty, as material dependency on the United States robbed Australia of any freedom or choice in any engagement Australia may deem appropriate". Former Labor prime minister Kevin Rudd warned against overly obtrusive criticism of China and recommended that Australia focus on quietly improving military capability.

Former Liberal prime minister Tony Abbott called the move "the biggest decision that any Australian government has made in decades" as "it indicates that we are going to stand shoulder to shoulder with the United States and the United Kingdom in meeting the great strategic challenge of our time, which obviously, is China". Abbott said that Australia would be safer as a result, and cited China's increasing naval firepower as a justification for the deal.

Australian defence minister Peter Dutton responded by saying that Australia wanted peace and stability and "an opportunity for Indonesia, Vietnam and Sri Lanka and Korea to continue to develop". Dutton further dismissed "outbursts from China" and said that Australia was a "proud democracy" committed to "enduring peace and this collaboration makes it a safer region ... no amount of propaganda can dismiss the facts".

Australian Greens leader Adam Bandt criticised the deal, saying that it escalates tensions in the region and "makes Australia less safe".

United Kingdom

Prime Minister Boris Johnson claimed that the deal would create "hundreds of high-skilled jobs" and "preserve security and stability around the world" but said that the relationship with France was "rock solid". Conservative MP Tom Tugendhat said: "After years of bullying and trade hostility, and watching regional neighbours like the Philippines see encroachment into their waters, Australia didn't have a choice, and nor did the US or UK [to make the deal]". Former prime minister Theresa May questioned whether the UK would be forced into a war with China should Taiwan be invaded.

Johnson responded to French anger on September 21 by saying "I just think it's time for some of our dearest friends around the world to prenez un grip about this and donnez-moi un break"; the latter being broken French for "get a grip and give me a break".

Jeremy Corbyn called the pact "crazy beyond belief", with Labour members voting to condemn the pact as dangerous to world peace.

The British High Commissioner to Australia Victoria Treadell told ABC Radio "This is not an issue of this Anglosphere and I really do think we have to move away from defining countries like Australia, US and the UK as Anglosphere".

United States

President Joe Biden stated that the deal was a way to "address both the current strategic environment in the (Indo-Pacific) region and how it may evolve". After a call between the French and US presidents, the White House acknowledged the crisis could have been averted if there had been open consultations between allies. It was agreed the process would continue in such manner.

International responses

China

China's foreign affairs department spokesman Zhao Lijian said, "The US, UK and Australia are engaging in cooperation in nuclear-powered submarines that gravely undermines regional peace and stability, aggravates the arms race and hurts the international non-proliferation efforts", while the Chinese Embassy in Washington, D.C. accused the three countries of having a "Cold War mentality and ideological prejudice".

The state-owned Global Times, which is known for being more aggressive than official government statements, denounced Australia and said it had "turned itself into an adversary of China" and warned that Australia could be targeted by China as a warning to other countries if it acted "with bravado" in alliance with the US, or by being "militarily assertive". It further told Australia to avoid "provocation" or else China would "certainly punish it with no mercy", and concluded "Thus, Australian troops are also most likely to be the first batch of western soldiers to waste their lives in the South China Sea".

A Chinese party official, Victor Gao -- former interpreter for former Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping, and Vice President of a Beijing think tank, the Center for China and Globalization -- repeatedly warned that Australia's moves towards nuclear-powered submarines would lead to the country "being targeted with nuclear weapons," in the future.

China also urged the new alliance to fulfill their nuclear non proliferation obligations and said Asia-Pacific needs jobs, not submarines, and urged France to boost cooperation.

France

Background

France's territories and EEZ, excluding its Antarctic claim. A large proportion of France's overseas territories are located in the Indo-Pacific region.

France has territory in the Indo-Pacific, with its overseas territories of French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna, French Southern and Antarctic Lands and Clipperton Island as well as the regions of Mayotte and Réunion. Focused on the security of its citizens in this area, France maintains a permanent military presence there. In total, there were two million French citizens and seven thousand French troops in the Indo-Pacific as of 2021. The cooperation established with Australia (and other neighbouring countries), including the French–Australian submarine deal, is therefore an internal security issue for France due to the rise of Chinese influence in the area.

Response

The French government received official notification from Australia that the Attack-class submarine project, involving a A$90 billion Australian contract to buy 12 French submarines, was to be cancelled only a few hours before it was publicly announced. From the original 35 billion Euro cost, only eight would go to French companies. Submarines would instead be purchased from US and British companies. The French government was angered by both the cancellation of the Attack-class submarine project and not being made aware of the negotiations that led to the AUKUS agreement. In a joint statement, French foreign minister Jean-Yves Le Drian and armed forces minister Florence Parly expressed disappointment at Australia's decision to abandon their joint submarine program with France.

Le Drian further stated in a radio interview that the contract termination was a "stab in the back". On 17 September, France recalled its ambassadors from Australia and the US. Despite tension in the past, France had never before withdrawn its ambassador to the United States. In a statement, Le Drian said that the "exceptional decision is justified by the exceptional gravity of the [AUKUS] announcements" and that the snap cancellation of the submarine contract "constitute[d] unacceptable behaviour between allies and partners". French president Emmanuel Macron has not commented but is reported to be "furious" about the turn of events. In response to questions about the Australia-EU trade deal currently being negotiated, French Secretary of State for European Affairs Clément Beaune stated that he doesn't see how France can trust Australia. Arnaud Danjean, a French MEP, said that "Australians can expect more than a delay in concluding the Free Trade Agreement with the EU". French Lowy Institute policy analyst Hervé Lemahieu said the diplomatic damage from the cancellation will take years to repair and leave a lasting legacy of mistrust".After a call between the French and US presidents, the French ambassador is to return to the US.

Beaune described the United Kingdom as a junior partner and vassal of the United States due to the pact, saying in an interview: "Our British friends explained to us they were leaving the EU to create Global Britain. We can see that this is a return into the American lap and a form of accepted vassalisation." Le Drian stated that "We have recalled our ambassadors to [Canberra and Washington] to re-evaluate the situation. With Britain, there is no need. We know their constant opportunism. So there is no need to bring our ambassador back to explain." A Franco-British defence summit has been cancelled.

Opposition politicians have started criticising the French government and demanding that France leave NATO, as well as demanding a parliamentary inquest.

A foreign ministers meeting between France, Germany, the UK, and the US has been postponed, and a ministerial meeting between Australia, France, and India was cancelled. France however, contacted India to talk about strengthening their cooperation in the Indo-Pacific. France's foreign commerce minister declined a meeting with his Australian counterpart.

French president Macron said that Europe needs to stop being naive when it comes to defending its interests and build its own military capacity.

Other countries

Canada The deal was announced in the midst of the 2021 Canadian federal election. Opposition politicians quickly attacked Prime Minister Justin Trudeau over Canada's exclusion from the pact, to which Trudeau responded by stating that "This is a deal for nuclear submarines, which Canada is not currently or any time soon in the market for. Australia is." Leader of the Official Opposition Erin O'Toole stated that he would seek to join the alliance if elected.

European Union European Commission president, Ursula von der Leyen, who told CNN that "one of our member states has been treated in a way that is not acceptable. ... We want to know what happened and why." The EU also demanded an apology from Australia. President of the European Council Charles Michel denounced a "lack of transparency and loyalty" by the US.

The EU said the crisis affects the whole union. Preparations for a new EU-US trade and technology council have been postponed.

Germany Germany also criticised the pact. Minister of state for Europe Michael Roth described the row as a "wake up call" and stated that the EU must speak with one voice and that rebuilding lost trust will not be easy.

Indonesia Indonesia expressed worry over the deal, warning that it may lead to an arms race.

The Indonesian Ministry of Foreign Affairs has expressed concerns about the implications of the Australian acquisition of nuclear-powered submarines for "the continuing arms race and power projection in the region." It called on Canberra to maintain its commitment to regional peace and stability.

Indonesia later cancelled a planned visit by Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison amid the fallout of the AUKUS deal.

On 22 September 2021, the People's Representative Council's Commission I, urged President Joko Widodo to take a strong stand over the AUKUS deal through the auspices of ASEAN. Commission I member Rizki Aulia Rahma described the formation of AUKUS as a threat to Indonesian national defense and sovereignty. The Foreign Ministry responded that they were working on a response to the issues posed by AUKUS.

Kiribati The Kiribati president said that the deal puts the region at risk and that he was not consulted in relation to it. In the past the UK and US tested nuclear weapons in Kiribati, so they are concerned about nuclear submarines being developed. Kiribati recently switched diplomatic recognition from Taiwan to the China mainland. Beijing told Kiribati it is listening, whereas they felt that Australia is not listening to them. Mr Maamau said he is looking to Australia to show leadership as it debates a commitment to net zero emissions by 2050.

Malaysia Malaysia criticised the deal and warned it could spark a renewed arms race in the region. Malaysian Prime Minister Ismail Sabri Yaakob said he had raised concerns about the project with Mr. Morrison, and warned that the nuclear submarine project might heighten military tensions in Asia. He urged all parties to avoid any provocation, as well as an arms race in the region.

"At the same time, it will provoke other powers to take more aggressive action in this region, especially in the South China Sea," Mr Yaakob said.

Ismail Sabri also stressed the importance of respecting and adhering to Malaysia's existing stance and approach to nuclear-powered submarines operating in Malaysian waters, including under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty.

Australia has since dispatched officials to Kuala Lumpur to clarify about the deal. Malaysian Minister of Foreign Affairs Saifuddin Abdullah agreed to the suggestion of Australian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Marise Payne for an in-depth briefing over the matter.

In response to the announcement of the agreement Malaysia's defence Minister proposed an immediate working trip to China to discuss AUKUS, as they wanted to get views of AUKUS from China's Leadership.

New Zealand On 16 September 2021, New Zealand prime minister Jacinda Ardern issued a statement reiterating New Zealand's stance that no nuclear submarines were permitted in its waters, while also stating that they were not approached about the pact and that she would not have expected them to have been approached. Ardern said the leaders of the three member nations were "very well versed" in New Zealand's nuclear-free policy and would have "understood our likely position on the establishment of nuclear-powered submarines".

North Korea North Korea has condemned the deal as 'extremely undesirable and dangerous', stating that the moves will destroy the nuclear non-proliferation system, and criticising the 'double-dealing' of the U.S. which 'seriously threatens the world peace and stability.' stating that North Korea will take counteraction if the alliance threatens the country.

Philippines The Philippines through a statement released by the Department of Foreign Affairs welcomed the signing of the trilateral security pact. Foreign Secretary, Teodoro L. Locsin, Jr. highlighted that "the enhancement of a near-abroad ally's ability to project power should restore and keep the balance rather than destabilise it," Secretary Locsin further added that without an actual presence of nuclear weapons within the region, the Philippines therefore finds that the AUKUS move would not constitute a violation of the 1995 Southeast Asian Nuclear Weapons Free Zone treaty.

Portugal Portugal expressed solidarity with France. "In general, we ourselves express our solidarity with France, which has not been treated with due respect in this process", said Portuguese minister Augusto Santos Silva, adding that "clearly, the form was not one that should have been followed".

Taiwan Taiwan's vice president, Lai Ching-te, immediately welcomed the pact, referring to it "as a positive development for democracy, peace, and prosperity in the region." The foreign affairs spokesperson said, "Taiwan, on the groundwork of the Taiwan Relations Act and the Six Guarantees, will continue to deepen the close partnership with the United States, maintain the rules-based international order, and the peace, stability, and prosperity in the Taiwan Strait and in the Indo-Pacific region together."

Others Morrison said he contacted prime ministers Yoshihide Suga of Japan, Narendra Modi of India, and Lee Hsien Loong of Singapore. South Korea has also remained silent.

See also

• 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement
• Anglosphere
• ANZUS – 1951 Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty
• Five Eyes
• AUSCANNZUKUS
• ABCANZ Armies
• Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA) – Defence cooperation among Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore and UK
• Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) – Strategic dialogue among Australia, India, Japan and US
• Second Cold War
• Southeast Asia Treaty Organization – Collective defense organization (1955–1977)
• UKUSA Agreement – Multilateral signals intelligence treaty signed in 1946
• United States foreign policy toward the People's Republic of China

External links

• Text of the Joint Leaders Statement on AUKUS
• AUKUS Hansard (UK) debate
• Address by the Prime Minister of Australia