Macedonian language

This article is about the Slavic language. For the unrelated, non-Slavic language spoken in the ancient world, see Ancient Macedonian language.

Macedonian
Македонски Makedonski
Native to	Republic of Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and in the ethnic Macedonian diaspora.
Region	The Balkans
Native speakers	2 million (approximately) [1]
Language family	Indo-European Slavic South Slavic Eastern South Slavic Macedonian
Official status
Official language in	North Macedonia
Language codes
ISO 639-1	mk
ISO 639-2	mac (B) mkd (T)
ISO 639-3	mkd

The Slavomacedonian language (Македонски јазик, Makedonski jazik) is a language in the Eastern group of South Slavic languages and is the official language of the Republic of Macedonia. It is also referred to by several alternative names, many formed with the word Slavic. Slavomacedonian is closely related to and mutually intelligible with Standard Bulgarian. It also has some similarities with standard Serbian and is closest to the intermediate Torlakian and Shop dialects spoken mostly in southern Serbia and in western Bulgaria (and by speakers in the north and east of FYROM itself).

Both Bulgarian and the Slavomacedonian language share typological similarities with Romanian, Greek, and Albanian. These five languages make up the Balkan sprachbund, even though the last three are from different language groups (Romanian is a Romance language, whilst Greek and Albanian each comprise their own separate branches of the Indo-European family). Bulgarian and Slavomacedonian are the only Slavic languages not to use noun cases (except for the vocative, and apart from some traces of once living inflections still found scattered throughout the languages). They are also the only Slavic languages with a definite article (Slavomacedonian in fact has three). This last feature is shared with the other languages in the Balkan sprachbund.

Classification and related languages

The Slavomacedonian language belongs to the eastern sub-branch of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The closest relative of Slavomacedonian is Bulgarian, spoken in Bulgaria, parts of FYROMand Turkey. Bulgarian and Macedonian properly form a dialect continuum, with the Bulgarian standard being based on the more eastern dialects, and the Slavomacedonian standard being based on the more western dialects. Slavomacedonian is mutually intelligible with Bulgarian and the Torlakian dialects, which are spoken in parts of Bulgaria and Serbia. Following that, the next closest languages are Serbian, Bosnian and Croatian. Slavomacedonian is also a constituent language of the Balkan Sprachbund, a group of languages which share grammatical and lexical features based on geographical, rather than genetic proximity.

Geographical distribution

The population of FYROM was 2,022,547 in 2002, with 1,344,815 speaking Slavomacedonian as the native language ^[2]. Outside of the Republic, there are Slavomacedonians living in other parts of the geographical area of Macedonia. There are ethnic slavs minorities in neighbouring Albania and in Bulgaria. In Bulgaria the number of people professing the Slavomacedonian language in the last census was 3,518 ^[3]. A large number of Slavomacedonians live outside the traditional Macedonian region in the Balkans, with Australia, Canada and the USA having the largest emigrant communities. According to a 1964 estimate, the number of Slavomacedonians living outside of FYROM numbers approximately 580,000 ^[4], over 30% of the total population. The Slavomacedonian spoken by communities outside the republic dates back to before the standardisation of the language and retains many dialectic though, overall, mutually intelligible variations.

The Slavomacedonian language has the status of official language only within FYROM . The language is taught in some universities in Albania, Australia, Canada, Croatia, Russia, Serbia, United States and the United Kingdom among other countries.

Dialects

Based on a large group of features, the Slavomacedonian dialects can be divided into Eastern and Western groups (the boundary runs approximately from Skopje and Crna Gora along the rivers Vardar and Crna). In addition, a more detailed classification can be based on the modern reflexes of the Proto-Slavonic reduced vowels ("yers"), vocalic sonorants and the back nasal (o). That classification distinguishes between the following 5 groups ^[5]:

Western Dialects:

• Ohrid - Prespa Group consisting of the Lower Prespa region, Ohrid, Struga, Radožda, and Vevčani.
• Debar Group consisting of the Drimkol - Golobrdo region, Debar, Mala Reka, Reka, Gora, and Skopska Crna Gora.
• Polog Group consisting of Gostivar (Upper Polog), and Tetovo (Lower Polog), as well as the entire West Central region (Prilep, Kičevo, Bitola, Kruševo, Lerin)
• Korcha Group consisting of Korchaand Nestram.

Eastern Dialects:

• Eastern Group consisting of the entire eastern part of the Macedonian region including the Kumanovo - Kriva Palanka, Štip - Strumica, Tikveš - Mariovo, Maleševo - Pirin.

Variation in vowels

The vocalic inventories of the West Central dialects consist of five vowels, /i, ɛ, a, ɔ, u/. Most of the remaining dialects also have phonemic /ə/. In addition, phonemic /ɑ/, /æ/, and /y/ and vocalic /l/ and /r/ occur in various dialects.

Most dialects have /ɛ/ from original ě (yat), but the Eastern region is characterised by the development of ě to /a/ after /c/: Eastern cal, Western cel (whole). Besides that, in the Blagoevgrad Province of Bulgaria ě gives /a/ or /æ/ under stress.In Korca, ě becomes /iæ/ under stress.

Variation in consonants

As far as consonantal features are concerned, the entire Western region is distinguished from the East by loss of /x/ (except Tetovo, Gora and Korca) and the loss of /v/ in the intervocalic position (except Mala Reka and parts of Kostur-Korca): /glava/ (head) = /gla/, /glavi/ (heads) = /glaj/. The Eastern region preserves /x/ (except Tikves-Mariovo and Kumanovo-Kriva Palanka) and intervocalic /v/. The East is also characterised by the development of epinthetic /v/ before original /o/ where the West has epinthetic /j/: Eastern /vaglɛn/ (coal) but Western /jaglɛn/. The diphonemic reflexes are most characteristic of the dialects of Greek Macedonia and Blagoevgrad province, Kostur-Korca and Ohrid-Prespa. The Seres-Nevrokop dialects have a series of phonemically palatalised consonants.

Variation in word stress and its effects on vowels

The Western dialects generally have fixed stress, antepenultimate in the Republic of Macedonia, and penultimate in Greece and Albania. The Eastern region, along with the neighbouring Bulgarian dialects, has various non-fixed stress systems. In Lower Vardar and Seres-Nevrokop unstressed /a, ɛ, ɔ/ are reduced (raised) to [ə, i, u]. The reduction of unstressed vowels (as well as the aforementioned allophonic palatalisation of consonants) is characteristic of East Bulgarian as opposed to West Bulgarian dialects, so these dialects are regarded by Bulgarian linguists as transitional between East and West Bulgarian ^[6].

Phonology

The phoneme inventory of standard literary Macedonian contains 31 phonemes. These consist of five vowels, one semivowel, three liquid consonants (which are also called "semivowels" by Lunt 1952) three nasal consonants, three pairs of fricatives, two pairs of affricates, a non-paired voiceless fricative, nine pairs of voiced and unvoiced consonants and four pairs of stops ^[7].

Vowels

Macedonian vowels
	Front	Central	Back
High	и /i/		у /u/
Mid	е /ɛ/		о /ɔ/
Low		а /a/

In addition, the schwa /ə/ may appear in certain dialects or loanwords.

Consonants

Consonant Phonemes of Macedonian
	Bilabial		Labio- Dental		Dental		Alveolar		Post- Alveolar		Palatal		Velar
Plosives	p	b			t	d					c	ɟ	k	g
Nasals	m				n						ɲ
Fricatives			f	v	s	z			ʃ	ʒ			x
Affricates					ʦ	ʣ			tʃ	dʒ
Approximants											j
Trills					r
Laterals					ɫ		l

At the end of a word, the 'voiced — voiceless' opposition is neutralised and all consonants are pronounced as voiceless.

In cases when /r/ is syllabic, the sign ' is used before the letter <р>. For example: 'рж (/r̩ʒ/), за'ржи (/za̩r̩ʒi/), 'рт (/r̩t/), 'рбет (/r̩bɛt/), 'ркулец (/r̩kulɛts/) etc.

Neither Lunt (1952) nor Friedman (2001) recognise the existence of a palatalised (/lʲ/) or palatal (/ʎ/) lateral in standard Macedonian. This is in contrast with the surrounding related languages (Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian language). Instead, a /lj/ sequence is supposed to occur (except in rapid speech). Both of these scholars also assert that there is a phonemic contrast between the velarised lateral /ɫ/ and the nonvelarised /l/. While they admit that /ɫ/ and /l/ (both written 'л') occur mainly before front and non-front vowels, respectively, they state that, at least in the prescribed norm (Friedman 2001) or in some words (Lunt 1952), /l/ (written 'љ') may also occur before non-front vowels. Hence minimal pairs like бела /bɛła/ "white, feminine" vs беља /bɛla/ "trouble" express this contrastiveness.

Word stress

The word stress in Macedonian is antepenultimate, meaning it falls on the third from last syllable in words with three or more syllables, and on the first or only syllable in other words. This is sometimes disregarded when the word has entered the language more recently and from a foreign source. For example: Meнаџмент (Management) is pronounced /mɛnadʒ'mɛnt/ with the stress falling on the last syllable.

Example: планина /'planina/; планината /pla'ninata/; планинарите /plani'narite/ etc.

Further examples include:

• Disyllabic words are stressed on the second-to-last syllable.

Examples: дé-те, мáj-кa, тáт-ко - déte, májka, tátko (child, mother, father)

• Trisyllabic and polysyllabic words are stressed on the third-to-last syllable.

Examples: тáт-ко-то, тáт-ков-ци, тат-кóв-ци-те, ма-кé-до-нец - tátkoto, tátkovci, tatkóvcite, mákedonec (the father, fathers, the fathers, Macedonian [nationality, male gender])

Deviations include:

• Verbal adverbs: викáјќи, одéјќи - vikájki, odéjkji (shouting, walking)
• Foreign loanwords: клишé, генéза, литератýра - klishé, genéza, literatúra (cliché, genesis, literature)

Grammar

Main article: Macedonian grammar

As with the Bulgarian grammar, the grammar of Macedonian is markedly analytic in comparison with other Slavic languages, having lost the common Slavic case system. The Macedonian language shows some special and in some cases unique characteristics due to its central position in the Balkans.

Literary Macedonian is the only South Slavic literary language that has three forms of the definite article, based on the degree of proximity to the speaker, and a past tense formed by means of an auxiliary verb "to have", followed by a past passive participle in the neuter.

Both double object and mediative (sometimes referred to as renarrative or admirative) mood are also found in the Bulgarian language, although the use of double object is much more restricted in the Bulgarian standard (see also Bulgarian syntax).

Nouns

Definiteness (article)

The article is postfixed, as in Bulgarian, Albanian and Romanian. One feature that has no parallel in other standard Balkan languages is the existence of three definite articles pertaining to position of the object, unspecified, proximate (or close) and distal (or distant). Bulgarian only has the basic (unspecified) form, although three definite article forms also exist in certain Bulgarian dialects, notably the vernaculars of Tran and parts of the Rhodopes ^[8].

The definite articles
Gender	Distance
	Unspecified	Close (this)	Distant (that)
Masculine (Singular)	-от [-ot]	-ов [-ov]	-он [-on]
Feminine (Singular)	-та [-ta]	-ва [-va]	-на [-na]
Neuter (Singular)	-то [-to]	-во [-vo]	-но [-no]
Masculine and Feminine (Plural)	-те [-te]	-ве [-ve]	-не [-ne]
Neuter (Plural)	-тa [-ta]	-вa [-va]	-нa [-na]

Examples

• книга (kniga) - a book
  • книгата (knigata) - the book
  • книгава (knigava) - this book; the book over here
  • книгана (knigana) - that book; the book over there
• книги (knigi) - books
  • книгите (knigite) - the books
  • книгиве (knigive) - these books; the books over here
  • книгине (knigine) - those books; the books over there

Gender and number

Nouns in Macedonian have gender -masculine, feminine and neuter and inflect for number. The gender opposition does not exist in the plural ^[9]. Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify.

Vocative case

The vocative case is formed by adding the endings -o (usual in feminine nouns), -u (usual in masculine monosyllabic nouns) and -e (usual for masculine polysyllabic nouns). Example: пријател priyatel (friend) > пријателe priyatele (O friend!). Compare with other languages in the Balkan sprachbund: Bulgarian: приятел priyatel - приятелю priyatel'u, Serbo-Croatian: prijatelj/пријатељ - prijatelju/пријатељу, Greek: φίλος fílos - φίλε fíle, Romanian: prieten - prietene. The vocative is used almost only for singular masculine and feminine nouns.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns (nominative):

	Singular	Plural
1st person	јас	ние
2nd person	ти	виe
3rd person (M)	тoј	тиe
3rd person (F)	таа
3rd person (N)	тоа

Verbs

Perfect tense

In Macedonian the perfect tense is formed by a clitic which agrees in number and gender with the object of the sentence, followed by има "to have", and the passive participle of the verb in its uninflected form. This is common in Germanic and Romance languages, along with other languages in the Balkan Sprachbund, such as Albanian and Greek. For example, the sentence "I have read the book" reads:

Јаc	ја	имам	прочитано	книгата
Jas	ja	imam	pročitano	knigata
I	it (clitic)	have	read	book-the

In contrast, in other Slavic languages that have the perfect tense, it is almost universally built with the verb "to be" and a past active participle; that is also an option in Macedonian. The older common Slavic form with сум "to be" is predominant in the east of the country, while the form with "to have" is more widespread in the west, but has spread in the younger generations due to the influence of the standard language ^[10]. The sentence "I have seen" reads:

New perfect	Old perfect
имам видено	сум видел
imam videno	sum videl

Being replaced by the new construction, the "old perfect" tends to become an expression of the renarrative mood (aka nonconfirmative status) in Western Macedonia and in the standard language.

Aorist

The aorist, called in Macedonian either aorist or minato opredeleno svršeno vreme, i.e., past definite complete tense, is a form which refers to a completed action in the past tense. It most often corresponds to the simple past tense in English: I read the book, I wrote the letter, I ate my supper, etc. In contemporary standard Macedonian, the aorist is formed almost exclusively from perfective verbs.

The formation of the aorist for most verbs is not complex, but there are numerous small subcategories which must be learned. While all verbs in the aorist (except sum) take the same endings, there are complexities in the aorist stem vowel and possible consonant alternations.

All verbs (except sum) take the following endings in the aorist:

jas -v	nie -vme
ti -#	vie -vte
toj -#	tie -a

The sign # means that there is a zero ending, i.e., nothing is added after the stem vowel."^[11]

Future tense

The future tense is formed by means of the clitic ќе and an inflected present tense form of the verb. Thus, "I will come" reads:

ќе	доjдам
ќe	dojdam
will (clitic)	I come (perfective aspect)

I will come.

In this respect, both Macedonian and Bulgarian differ from other Slavic languages. In Macedonian, as in other Balkan Sprachbund languages (Bulgarian, Greek and Albanian) the clitic is fixed, whereas in Serbo-Croatian it inflects for person and number ^[12]. In both cases the clitic is derived from a verb meaning "to want".

Future-in-the-past is expressed by means of the same clitic and a past tense inflected form of the verb:

ќе	доjдеше
ќe	dojdeše
will (clitic)	he came (imperfective aspect)

He would come/he would have come.

In this respect, Macedonian is different from Bulgarian: Macedonian is consistent in the use of ќе as a clitic, whereas the equivalent Bulgarian construction involves the inflection of the clitic for tense, person and number as a regular verb (щях да дойда - št'ah da dojda - I would [have] come; щеше да дойде - šteše da dojde - he would [have] come).

An interesting fact is that a past tense form of the verb can be used in a future sense as well, although this construction is mostly limited to older speakers.

Examples: Те oтепав, чим ќе те фатам. - Te otepav, čim ќe te fatam. (lit. "I have killed you, when I get you") Те фатам ли, те казнив. - Te fatam li, te kazniv. (lit. "As soon as I grab you, I have punished you")

Syntax

The canonical word order of Macedonian is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO).

Vocabulary

As a result of the close relatedness with Bulgarian, Macedonian shares a large percentage of its lexicon with this language. Other languages which have been in positions of power, such as Serbian, Turkish and increasingly English also provide a significant proportion of the loan words. Prestige languages, such as Old Church Slavonic and Russian also provided a lexical source.

During the standardisation process, there was deliberate care taken to try and purify the lexicon of the language. "Serbisms" and "Bulgarisms", which had become common due to the influence of these languages in the region were rejected in favour of words from native dialects and archaisms. One example being the word for "event", nastan which was found in certain examples of folk poetry. The Bulgarian and Serbian words that had been in common use were sobitie and događaj respectively. This is not to say that there are no Serbisms or Bulgarisms in the language, but rather they were discouraged on a principle of "seeking native material first" ^[13].

Writing system

Main article: Macedonian alphabet

The Macedonian alphabet, as any Slavic Cyrillic alphabet, is ultimately based on the Cyrillic alphabet of Saints Cyril and Methodius; it is an adaptation of Vuk Karadžić's phonetic alphabet, which is the official alphabet of the Serbian language. It differs from Serbian Cyrillic in the letters Ќ and Ѓ (which have distinct phonetic values from their Serbian counterparts Ћ and Ђ), while Dze (Ѕ, ѕ) is a unique letter preserved from Old Church Slavonic in Macedonian Cyrillic.

History

Main article: History of the Macedonian language

The region of Macedonia and the Republic of Macedonia are located on the Balkan peninsula. The Slavs first came to the Balkan Peninsula in the sixth and seventh centuries. In the ninth century, the Greek Byzantine monks Saints Cyril and Methodius developed the first writing system for the Slavonic languages. At this time, the Slavic dialects were so close as to make it practical to develop the written language on the dialect of a single region. There is dispute as to the precise region, but it is likely that they were developed in the region around Thessaloniki.

In the fourteenth century, the Ottoman Turks invaded and conquered most of the Balkans, incorporating Macedonia into the Ottoman Empire. While the written language, now called Old Church Slavonic, remained static as a result of Turkish domination, the spoken dialects moved further apart. Only very slight traces of written Macedonian survive from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. ^[14]

During the increase of national consciousness in the Balkans, standards for the languages of Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian were created. As Turkish influence in Macedonia waned, schools were opened up that taught the Bulgarian standard language in areas with significant Bulgarian population. (see Demographic History of Macedonia)

In 1845 the Russian scholar Viktor Grigorovič travelled in the Balkans in order to study the south Slavic dialects of Macedonia. His work announced to the world for the first time the existence of two separate Bulgarian dialects: Eastern and Western. According to his findings, the Western Bulgarian variety, spoken in Macedonia, was characterized by traces of Old Slavic nasal vowels ^[15]. It wasn't until the works of Krste Misirkov that parts of what had been regarded as West Bulgarian dialects were defined as a separate 'Macedonian' language. Misirkov was born in a village near Pella in Greek Macedonia. Although literature had been written in the Slavic dialects of Macedonia before, arguably the most important book published in relation to the Macedonian language was Misirkov's On Macedonian Matters, published in 1903. In that book, he argued for the creation of a standard literary Macedonian language from the central dialects of Macedonia which would use a phonetic orthography.

After the first two Balkan wars, the region of Macedonia was split between Greece, Bulgaria and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia occupied the area that is currently the Republic of Macedonia incorporating it into the Kingdom as "Southern Serbia". During this time, Yugoslav Macedonia became known as Vardar Banovina (Vardar province) and the language of public life, education and the church was Serbo-Croatian. In the other two states, Greece and Bulgaria, the respective national languages were imposed, in Bulgaria, the local dialects were described as dialects of Bulgarian.

During the second World War, Yugoslav Macedonia was occupied by the Bulgarians, who were allied with the Axis. The Bulgarian language was reintroduced in schools and liturgies. The Bulgarians were initially welcomed as "liberators" from Serbian domination. However, as a result of unpopular assimilation policies, reminiscent of what Serbian practice had been since the first World War, they were quickly seen as "conquerors".

There were a number of groups fighting the Bulgarian occupying force, some advocating independence and others union with Bulgaria. The eventual outcome was that almost all of Vardar Banovina (i.e. the areas which geographically became known as Vardar Macedonia) was incorporated into the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a constituent Socialist Republic with the Macedonian language holding official status within both the Federation and Republic. The Macedonian language was proclaimed the official language of the Republic of Macedonia at the First Session of the Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia, held on August 2, 1944. The first official Macedonian grammar was developed by Krume Kepeski. One of the most important contributors in the standardisation of the Macedonian literary language was Blaže Koneski. The first document written in the literary standard Macedonian language is the first issue of the Nova Makedonia newspaper in 1944.

Examples

Lord's Prayer

Оче наш

Оче наш кој што си на небото,

да се свети името Твое,

да биде кралството Твое,

да биде волјата Твоја,

како на небото, така и на Земјата!

Лебот наш насушен дај ни го денес

и прости ни ги долговите наши

како што им проштеваме и ние

на нашите должници.

И не воведи нè во искушение,

но избави нè од лукавиот.

Амин!

Oče naš

Oče naš, koj što si na neboto

da se sveti imeto Tvoe,

da bide kralstvoto Tvoe,

da bide voljata Tvoja,

kako na neboto, taka i na Zemjata!

Lebot naš nasušen daj ni go denes

i prosti ni gi dolgovite naši

kako što im proštevame i nie

na našite dolžnici.

I ne vovedi nè vo iskušenie,

no izbavi nè od lukaviot.

Amin!

Political views on the language

Main article: Political views on the Macedonian language

As with the issue of Macedonian ethnicity, the politicians, linguists and common people from Macedonia and neighbouring countries have opposing views about the existence and distinctiveness of the Macedonian language.

According to the Macedonian view, now prevalent and official in the books in Republic of Macedonia, Macedonian was the first official language of the Slavs, thanks to the Saints Cyril and Methodius's introduction of Slavic literacy language through the Glagolitic script, that was based on the Southern Macedonian dialect of Thessaloniki ^[16].

Bulgaria recognised the Macedonian language between 1944 and 1948, the date of the Tito-Stalin split ^[17]. This date also coincided with the first references efforts of Bulgarian linguists to the Serbianisation of the Macedonian language ^[18]. Although Bulgaria was the first country to recognise the independence of the Republic of Macedonia, it has since refused to recognise the existence of a separate Macedonian nation and a separate Macedonian language. Serbia gradually accepted both, although extreme nationalistic views still exist.

Both Bulgarian and Serbian nationalist commentators and linguists have attempted to pronounce Macedonian as merely a dialect of their own respective languages. Although described as being dialects of Bulgarian prior to the establishment of the standard, the current academic consensus outside Bulgaria and Serbia is that Macedonian is an autonomous language within the South Slavic dialect continuum ^[19].

Alternative names

Main article: Macedonian language naming dispute

Bulgarian

In most sources before WWII, the dialects covered by the modern Macedonian language were referred to as Bulgarian dialects. This is based on the fact that until World War II, the southern Slavonic dialect continuum covering the area of today's Republic of Macedonia was referred to as "Bulgarian" by its speakers and by its non-speakers. After WWII the question about the "Macedonian language" was forgotten in the name of the Bulgaro-Yugoslavian friendship under the pressure of the Soviet Union

Greece

According to the linguistic publication Ethnologue, alternative names include Macedonian Slavic and (in Greece) Slavic [20]. The use of the name Macedonian for the language is considered offensive by Greeks, who assert that the ancient Macedonian language is the only "Macedonian language" and that it was a northern Greek dialect. Greeks object to the use of the "Macedonian" name in reference to the modern Slavic language, calling it "Slavomacedonian" (Macedonian: славомакедонски јазик, Greek: Σλαβομακεδονική γλώσσα), a term introduced and accepted by the Slavic-speaking community of northern Greece itself,^[21] or "Skopian", which, since the 1990s, are considered pejorative terms by ethnic Macedonians (i.e. people with that national identity).^[22] Terms such as Slav Macedonian have also been used. ^[23]

See also

• Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache
• Balkan linguistic union
• Bulgarian language
• Common phrases in Macedonian
• Macedonian alphabet
• Romanisation of Macedonian
• Slavic language (Greece)
• Sociolinguistics
• Swadesh list of Macedonian words
• Torlakian dialect

Notes

1. ^ Although the precise number of speakers is unknown, figures of between 1.6 million [24] and 2-2.5 million have been cited, see Topolinjska (1998) and Friedman (1985). The general academic consensus is that there are approximately 2 million speakers of the Macedonian language, accepting that "it is difficult to determine the total number of speakers of Macedonian due to the official policies of the neighbouring Balkan states and the fluid nature of emigration" (Friedman 1985).
2. ^ Poulton, Hugh (1995, 2000). Who Are the Macedonians?. United Kingdom: C. Hurst & Co. Ltd. pp. p. ix. ISBN 0253345987. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |year= (help)
3. ^ "Eurominority". The European Languages. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
4. ^ Template:Fr icon "Euromosaic". Le [slavo]macédonien / bulgare en Grèce. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
5. ^ Stallaerts, Robert (1999). Historiography in the Former and New Yugoslavia (PDF). pp. p.319. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
6. ^ Lumsden, Malvern (2003). Three Zones of Social Reconstruction in War-traumatized Societies (PDF). pp. p.12. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
7. ^ Joseph, Brian D. (1999). Romanian and the Balkans: Some Comparative Perspectives (PDF). pp. p.2. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
8. ^ Popis na Naselenie, Domaćinstva i Stanovi vo Republika Makedonija, 2002 - Vkupno naselenie na Republika Makedonija spored majčin jazik.
9. ^ Преброяване 2001 - Окончателни резултати - Население към 01.03.2001 г. по области и етническа група
10. ^ Greek Helsinki Monitor - Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
11. ^ Topolinjska, Z. (1998). "In place of a foreword: facts about the Republic of Macedonia and the Macedonian language" in International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Issue 131. pp. 1-11
12. ^ Bernard Comrie and Greville G. Corbett. (2002) The Slavonic Languages (p. 247. The Macedonian Language) (New York: Routledge Publications)
13. ^ Стойков, С. (2002) Българска диалектология, 4-то издание. стр. 143, 186. Also available online.
14. ^ ibid. стр. 140, 143.
15. ^ Lunt, H. (1952) Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language p. 1
16. ^ Стойков, С. (2002) Българска диалектология, 4-то издание. стр. 127. Also available online.
17. ^ Friedman, V. (2001) Macedonian (SEELRC), p.17.
18. ^ Friedman, V. (2001) Macedonian (SEELRC), p.40.
19. ^ Christina E. Kramer (1999), Makedonski Jazik (The University of Wisconsin Press);
20. ^ Tomić, O. (2003) "Genesis of the Balkan Slavic Future Tenses" in Formal Approaches to Slavic Linguistics: The Ottawa Meeting 2003 (Michigan : Michigan Slavic Publications)
21. ^ Friedman, V. (1998) "The implementation of standard Macedonian: problems and results" in International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Issue 131. pp. 31-57
22. ^ Lunt, H. (1953) "A Survey of Macedonian Literature" in Harvard Slavic Studies, Vol. 1, pp. 363-396
23. ^ Seriot, P. (1997) "Faut-il que les langues aient un nom? Le cas du macédonien", in Andrée Tabouret-Keller (éd.) Le nom des langues. L'enjeu de la nomination des langues, Vol. 1, pp. 167-190 (Louvain : Peeters) (in French)
24. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica - Old Church Slavonic
25. ^ Mahon, M. (1998) "The Macedonian question in Bulgaria" in Nations and Nationalism Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 389-407
26. ^ Friedman, V. (1998) "The implementation of standard Macedonian: problems and results" in International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Issue 131. pp. 31-57
27. ^ Trudgill, P. (1992) "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe" in International Journal of Applied Linguistics. Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 167-177
28. ^ Although acceptable in the past, current use of this name in reference to both the ethnic group and the language can be considered pejorative and offensive by ethnic Macedonians. In the past, the Macedonian Slavs in Greece seemed relieved to be acknowledged as "Slavomacedonians". A native of Greek Macedonia, a pioneer of ethnic Macedonian schools in the region and local historian, Pavlos Koufis, says in Laografika Florinas kai Kastorias (Folklore of Florina and Kastoria), Athens 1996, that, “[During its Panhellenic Meeting in September 1942, the KKE mentioned that it recognises the equality of the ethnic minorities in Greece] the KKE recognised that the Slavophone population was ethnic minority of Slavomacedonians]. This was a term, which the inhabitants of the region accepted with relief. [Because] Slavomacedonians = Slavs+Macedonians. The first section of the term determined their origin and classified them in the great family of the Slav peoples.” The Greek Helsinki Monitor reports: "... the term Slavomacedonian was introduced and was accepted by the community itself, which at the time had a much more widespread non-Greek Macedonian ethnic consciousness. Unfortunately, according to members of the community, this term was later used by the Greek authorities in a pejorative, discriminatory way; hence the reluctance if not hostility of modern-day Macedonians of Greece (i.e. people with a Macedonian national identity) to accept it."

References

1. Dorian, Nancy, (1992), "Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language Contraction and Death", ISBN 0-521-43757-1
2. Friedman, V. (2001) Macedonian (SEELRC)
3. Lunt, H., (1952), Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language (Skopje)

External links

• A grammar of Macedonian by Victor Friedman
• Macedonian - English, Greek, Albanian, German, French, Italian translator
• Ethnologue: Languages of the World (unknown ed.). SIL International.
• BBC Education - Languages: Macedonian, Makedonski
• The Macedonian Language
• Macedonian - English Dictionary
• Reading and Pronouncing Macedonian: An Interactive Tutorial
• Otto Kronsteiner. The Collapse of Yugoslavia and the Future Prospects of the Macedonian Literary Language
• UCLA Language materials project: Macedonian profile
• Krste Misirkov - Za Makedonckite Raboti (Complete text of the book)
• Nature of Standard Macedonian lanuage by Mladen Srbinovski
• The Macedonian nationality