Quakers

The Religious Society of Friends (also known in some places as Friends Church or Quakers) is a Christian denomination focusing on the priesthood of all believers, which encompasses a wide spectrum of Christian belief, including evangelicalism, conservative Quakerism and liberal Christianity. The largest groups of Quakers are evangelical Christians who stress biblical inerrancy and salvation (mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, south America and mid-west USA). There are smaller groups of traditional Conservative Friends who retain Friends' belief of relying on the guidance of the eternal Christ in parts of North America. There are also groups of liberal Quakers who emphasise individual interpretation, on the East Coast of the USA and parts of Europe. In recent years some members of the most liberal groups have started to include increasing numbers of post-Christians and non-theists, some of whom have started to argue that Christian belief, or even any religious belief at all, is not necessary - although this view is not widely held by most Quakers worldwide. Quakers refer to each other other as Friends and prefer to be called the Society of Friends. Friends do not proselytize and people join by simply being asked. Meetings are open to all and there is no requirement to have a developed faith and seekers and people waiting on God are welcome to attend.

The movement began in mid-17th century England, when a group of over 50 itinerant preachers known as the Valiant Sixty (including James Naylor, George Fox, Margaret Fell and Francis Howgill) attempted to restore worship based on what they believed were the practices of the early Church, emphasizing ordinary individuals' personal experiences of Christ.

Today there are a range of independent local organizations called Yearly Meetings, which arose because of geographical and theological divisions in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Although some Yearly Meetings do now co-operate with other Yearly Meetings in international umbrella organizations such as Evangelical Friends International, Friends United Meeting, Friends General Conference and Friends World Committee for Consultation, there is no single international organisation, meaning that what one Yearly Meeting considers Quakerism to be is sometimes very different from what another Yearly Meeting considers Quakerism to be, the doctrine of "allowability" - that all things are allowable for the people of God ensures coherence even within a diverse meeting.

Quakers worship silently with no leader and no fixed program (mainly in Europe, Australia, New Zealand and parts of North America). Others have a form of worship which incorporates elements of both styles.Some Quakers worship in pastor-led services with readings and hymns (mainly in Africa, Asia and other parts of North America), but some Quakers are well known to others by their testimony to their faith in their actions and the way they live their lives. Such testimony may vary according to how different individuals are led and events in the wider world at the time; however, well known examples of ways in which Friends have acted historically in many yearly meetings in North America and the UK have included refusing to participate in war; social action aimed at promoting social justice and equality including participating in anti-slavery movements during 18th and 19th Centuries and the women's rights movement; wearing particular, simple (plain dress); and refusing to swear oaths.

The Religious Society of Friends has been categorized as one of the peace churches, alongside the Church of the Brethren, Mennonites, and Amish, because all of them emphasize Christian pacifism. The other churches also share similarities in terms of theology including a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, an emphasis on simplicity in speech and dress, and a lack of creedal statements.

Quakers played a role in the development of the modern industrialised Western society, with Quakers playing leading roles in the development of the banking, financial services, and manufacturing industries in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This included the fuelling of the industrial revolution by Abraham Darby I and his family, founding major banking chains Lloyds Banking Group (founded by Sampson Lloyd), Barclays PLC (which also incorporated two other Quaker banks Backhouse's Bank and Gurney's Bank) and life assurance company Friends Provident, founding pharmaceutical company Allen & Hanburys (now part of GlaxoSmithKline), founding several major manufacturing companies including chocolate manufacturers Cadbury, Terry's, Fry's, confectionary manufacturer Rowntree, shoe manufacturers Clarks and biscuit manufacturer Huntley & Palmers, as well as producing two Republican Presidents of the United States (Herbert Hoover and Richard Nixon). Since Richard Nixon resigned in 1974, Quakers have played much less role in public life. Quaker members were prominent in founding Friendly building societies, Greenpeace, CND and the United Nations

Names

Different names have been used to refer to this movement over time, and different names are in common usage in different parts of the world today. During the seventeenth century followers of the movement saw themselves as restoring the Christian Church after centuries of apostasy, and not as a separate movement, and therefore terms such as true Christianity were used, and individuals referred to themselves as the "Saints", "Children of the Light" and "Friends of the Truth", reflecting terms used in the New Testament by members of the early Christian church, and reflecting the central importance of Christ as an Inner light that showed individuals' true condition.

The origin of the name "Quaker" is disputed. In 1650, a prominent Friend, George Fox, was brought before Justice Bennet of Derby on a charge of blasphemy. According to Fox's Journal, Bennet "called us Quakers because we bid them tremble at the word of God", a scriptural reference ("e.g.", Book of Isaiah 66:2, Ezra 9:4). Therefore, what began apparently as a way to make fun of Fox's admonition by those outside the Society became a nickname that today is widely used. At the popular and scholarly level the usual term is "Quaker", which originated in ridicule but soon became widely accepted.

The formal name "Religious Society of Friends", dates from the 18th century and is still in use. The term Religious Society of Friends, harks back to the "Friends of the Truth".

Today there are regional and theological variations.

Within Britain, the most common term during the earlier part of the twentieth century was "Society of Friends" and this will be seen still on some older meeting houses. Today, Britain Yearly Meeting has promoted the name Quakers both within and without the organisation and from the end of the twentieth century this is probably the most commonly used term, although "Religious Society of Friends" is still seen and heard, particularly amongst members of the organisation talking to one another.

Within the United States, there is a mixture of use of "Quaker" and "Friends". Within more evangelical organisations the most common term is "Friends Church", and some simply refer to themselves as "Christian", and use of the word "Quaker" is seldom seen or heard. This is also the case in other parts of the world where Friends are found such as Africa, India and South America.

The Religious Society of Friends has no symbol or logo, however this red and black star has been used as a symbol for Friends' service organizations since the late 19th century

History

Main article: History of the Religious Society of Friends

Beginnings

The Religious Society of Friends began in England in the late 1640s, during the English Civil War in a context of political, social, and religious upheaval which included increasing dissatisfaction with the established church, the execution of the king Charles I of England in 1649, and the rise of Nonconformist movements.

George Fox was a prominent Quaker in the 17th century. His central teaching that Christ has come to teach his people himself forms the basis of modern Quaker faith and practice. He became convinced that it was possible to have a direct experience of God without the mediation of clergy. He began to spread this message as an itinerant preacher and found several pre-existing groups of like-minded people; he felt called to gather them together, and was arguably the most prominent of the early Society of Friends.

In the first few years of the movement, Quakers thought of themselves as part of the restoration of the true Christian church after centuries of apostasy.

Women

One of their most radical innovations was a greater, nearly equal, role for women, as Taylor (2001) shows. Despite the survival of strong patriarchal elements, Friends believed in the spiritual equality of women, who were allowed to take a far more active role than had ordinarily existed before the emergence of radical civil war sects. Early Quaker defenses of their female members were sometimes equivocal, however, and after the Restoration of 1660 the Quakers, became increasingly unwilling to publicly defend women when they adopted tactics such as disrupting services. Women's meetings were organized as a means to involve women in more modest, feminine pursuits. Some Quaker men sought to exclude them from church public concerns with which they had some powers and responsibilities, such as allocating poor relief and in ensuring that Quaker marriages could not be attacked as immoral. In spite of legal persecution the Quakers continued to meet openly, even in the dangerous year of 1683. Heavy fines were exacted and, as in earlier years, women were treated as severely as men by the authorities.

American colonies

Quaker William Penn founded Pennsylvania

As the movement expanded, it faced opposition and persecution. Friends were imprisoned and beaten in Great Britain, Ireland and the British colonies. In the Massachusetts Bay colony, Friends were banished on pain of death — some (most famously Mary Dyer) were hanged on Boston Common for returning to preach their beliefs. In England, Friends were effectively banned from sitting in Parliament from 1698 to 1833. Friends were most welcome in Rhode Island and composed half of the population (the other half were Baptists), with 36 of the governors for the first 100 years being Quaker. Roger Williams, in addition to his Baptist affiliation, was one of the Seekers, a diverse group that attended George Fox in Cumbria before becoming organized by him as the Quakers, in County Durham. After the Burlington, Yorkshire migration to West Jersey, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn in 1682, as a safe place for Friends to live in and practice their faith. Indeed, the British crown had granted Pennsylvania outright to Penn, a Quaker, in settlement of a large debt to his father, so Friends governed it for over 80 years. Anne Hutchinson's exile to Eastchester (town), New York, was part of the general journey outwards from Puritan hostility, while East Jersey, Barbados and the Province of Carolina (under John Archdale) were also regions of Quakerism, with the latter also having Baptists, just as in Rhode Island. Quakerism was also clearly preceded in the Mid-Atlantic by the Maryland Toleration Act, until Anglicanism was forced upon Maryland by the Virginians. In the New Amsterdam colony, efforts by Peter Stuyvesant to suppress Quaker worship on Long Island led to the Flushing Remonstrance by Quakers and others. This led the Dutch to force Stuyvesant to allow Quaker worship and is one of the earliest bases of religious toleration in the United States.

The Quaker leader William Penn had signed a peace treaty with Tammany, leader of the Delaware tribe, beginning a long period of friendly relations between the Quakers and the Indians. Additional treaties between Quakers and other tribes followed. The treaty of William Penn was not violated in his lifetime, but his heirs (who were not Quakers) displaced the Delaware Indians through the infamous Walking Purchase.

Friends had no ordained ministers and thus needed no seminaries for theological training. As a result they did not open any colleges in the colonial period, and did not join in founding the University of Pennsylvania. The first major Quaker colleges were all founded much later: Haverford College (1833), Earlham College (1844), Swarthmore College (1864), and Bryn Mawr College (1885).

Beaconite Controversy

The Beaconite Controversy arose in England from the book A Beacon to the Society of Friends, published in 1835 by Isaac Crewdson. He was a Recorded Minister in the Manchester Meeting. The controversy arose in 1831 when doctrinal differences amongst the Friends culminated in the winter of 1836–1837 with the resignation of Isaac Crewdson and of 48 fellow members of the Manchester Meeting. About 250 others left in various localities in England including prominent members. A number of these joined themselves to the Plymouth Brethren and brought influences of simplicity of worship to that society. Notable among the Plymouthists who were former Quakers included John Eliot Howard of Tottenham and Robert Mackenzie Beverley.

Beliefs and doctrine

Generally, Quakerism has had no creed but always had doctrines, for example George Fox dismissed theologians as "notionists" but accepted the Catechism and Confession of Faith by Robert Barclay. As a public statement of faith today, many Yearly Meetings publish their own Book of Discipline - often called Faith and Practice - that expresses their senses of truth and purpose.

The theological beliefs of different Yearly Meetings vary considerably, ranging from evangelical Christianity to universalist and new thought beliefs. In addition, there is wide variation in a meetings' acceptance of dissent expressed by individuals and local constituencies. While the predominant theological beliefs of different Yearly Meetings do not tally exactly with the style of service, there is often some correspondence, with Yearly Meetings that employ programmed worship tending to have more evangelical theologies, and those with unprogrammed worship tending to have more conservative or liberal theologies.

Most Friends believe in continuing revelation, which is the idea that truth is continuously revealed directly to individuals from God without a need for any intermediary, objective logic or systematic theology. For this reason, many Quakers reject the idea of priests, believing in the priesthood of all believers. Some Friends express this idea of God revealing truth to them directly using the phrase Inner Light, or Inward Light of Christ, whilst others talk of the Holy Spirit or use other phrases. George Fox, an early Friend described it as "Christ has come to teach His people Himself.". Friends often focus on trying to hear God. As Isaac Penington wrote in 1670, "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing — to feel him my root, my life, my foundation..."

Conservative / "Wilburite"

Main article: Conservative Friends

Conservative Friends share the beliefs of early Friends, stressing their trust in the immediate guidance of the inward Christ, with authority with the Holy Spirit rather than the Bible. Prior to the mid-eighteenth century, all Quakers were what would now be described as Conservative, but splits and developments in the nineteenth and twentieth century have resulted in the majority of Friends moving away from this branch.

During the nineteenth century, the conservative position was defended by John Wilbur, an American Friend who worked to prevent what he saw as the dilution of the Friends' tradition of being led by the Holy Spirit. Wilbur was expelled from his yearly meeting in 1842, and he and his supporters went on to form their own separate Yearly Meeting. In the UK, some Friends split off from London Yearly Meeting, as they felt this organization was becoming too evangelical and abandoning traditional Quaker ways, forming the separate Fritchley General Meeting in 1868 which remained separated from London Yearly Meeting until 1968. Similar splits also took place in Canada.

Today, Conservative Friends exist in the US as the conservative yearly meetings of Ohio, Iowa, and North Carolina; Ohio Yearly Meeting (Conservative) is generally considered the most traditional in this regard, retaining more rural Quakers who use the plain language and continue wearing plain dress more than the other two. There are also groups of Conservative Friends in the UK (Ripley Quaker Meeting) and Greece (Athens Meeting), and Canada.

Sacraments

Conservative Friends completely reject all forms of religious symbolism and outward sacraments, such as water baptism or the Eucharist. Conservative Friends do not believe in the reliance upon practice of the outward rites and sacraments, believing that holiness can exist in all the activities of one's life — that all of life is sacred. Many Friends believe that any meal with others could be a form of communion.

Bible

Conservative Friends have continued early Friends' rejection of the mainstream Protestant idea of sola scriptura, that the Bible is self-authenticating, clear and its own interpreter; instead, they believed that Christ, instead of the Bible, is the Word of God. Robert Barclay wrote in his Apology that the scriptures "are only a declaration of the fountain, and not the fountain itself, therefore they are not to be esteemed the principal ground of all Truth and knowledge, nor yet the adequate primary rule of faith and manners". Similarly, George Fox recounted an incident in his Journal in which when a minister claimed that the Scriptures were authoritative, Fox "...was commanded to tell them God did not dwell in temples made with hands. But I told them what it was, namely, the Holy Spirit, by which the holy men of God gave forth the scriptures, whereby opinions, religions and judgments were to be tried; for it led into all Truth, and so gave the knowledge of all Truth". Like early Friends, conservative Friends believe that Christ would not lead them in ways that contradicted the Bible.

Creed

Conservative Friends reject any formal written creed. Statements of faith made by early Friends include the Catechism and Confession of Faith by Robert Barclay, and George Fox's Letter to the Governor of Barbados.

Relationship to the wider Christian community

All Quakers prior to the 20th century considered the Religious Society of Friends to be a Christian movement, however did not feel their faith fitted within categories of Catholic, Orthodox, or Protestant.. Many conservative Friends, whilst fully seeing themselves as a Christian group, choose to remain separate from other Christian groups.

Liberal / "Hicksite"

See also: Friends General Conference

In April 1827, a division occurred within Philadelphia Yearly Meeting when its members could not agree on who was to be clerk. The background issue involved the visits and preaching of Elias Hicks, whose views were claimed to be Universalist and contradicted the historical tradition of Friends. In the same and following year, a number of Friends from Philadelphia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Baltimore Yearly Meetings in sympathy with him separated to form a parallel system of yearly meetings in America. They were referred to by their opponents as "Hicksites"; neither side embraced its nickname, preferring to style themselves simply Friends.

Today, there are a number of Yearly Meetings which have theology and practices which have inherited this tradition within Friends - in the US these meetings are affiliated to Friends General Conference, many yearly meetings in Europe and Australia/New Zealand and the Beanite yearly meetings in western United States have similar views and practices.

There is often a very wide variety of theological belief in these yearly meetings, with meetings often having a large proportion of liberal Christians and universalist Christians some of whom trust in the guidance of the inward Christ or inner light, with some non-theists, agnostics, and atheists, as well as some who are also members of other religions, although even amongst liberal yearly meetings this can be controversial. Common ideas among members of these liberal yearly meetings include a belief of "that of God in everyone", and shared values, such as peace, equality and simplicity.

Bible

Many Friends in liberal Yearly Meetings, partly under the influence of these movements such as liberal Protestantism, decided that it was possible to be led in ways contrary to Scripture, and that in such cases scripture should give way. Some Friends in liberal Yearly Meetings have rejected (or neglected) the Bible altogether; hence in some liberal Friends meetings one might encounter non-Christian Friends or those who question some or all of the traditional doctrines of Christianity. In nearly all cases, modern liberal Friends believe in the necessity of being continually guided by that of God within us.

Sacraments

Like conservative Friends, liberal Friends also reject forms of religious symbolism and sacraments, such as water baptism and the Eucharist. While Friends may recognize the potential of these outward forms for awakening experiences of the Inner Light, they are not an incorporated part of Friends worship, and are by no means regarded as necessary to authentic spirituality.

Creeds

Due in part to the emphasis on reliance on the immediate guidance of the Spirit, diverse statements of "faith and practice" and diverse understandings of the "leading of the Spirit" have always existed among Friends. Liberal Friends believe a corporate confession of faith would be an obstacle — both to authentic listening and to the recognition of new insight. As a non-creedal form of Christianity, Quakerism is especially receptive to a wide range of faith understandings. Most liberal Yearly Meetings publish a Faith and Practice book with a range of experiences of what it means to be a Friend in that Yearly Meeting.

A common set of practices emerged which spoke of key principles and beliefs held by Friends. These are "testimonies", for Friends believe these principles and practices testify to the truth of God among Friends as well as others, in deed. (See Testimonies for a list and description of several testimonies.) Rooted in the immediate experience of the community of Friends, for many Friends these values are verified by the Bible, especially in the life and teachings of Jesus.

Relationship to the wider Christian community

Many Friends in the liberal Friends' meetings are actively involved in the ecumenical movement, often particularly working closely with other Mainline Protestant and liberal Christian churches with whom they share common ground, particularly a concern for peace and social justice, and often work together with other churches and Christian groups on social justice projects and campaigns. Some liberal Yearly Meetings are members of ecumenical pan-Christian organizations which include Protestant, Orthodox and Anglican churches - for example Philadelphia Yearly Meeting is a member of the National Council of Churches , Britain Yearly Meeting is a member of Churches Together in Britain and Ireland, and Friends General Conference is a member of the World Council of Churches..

The majority of other Christian groups are happy to recognize Friends amongst their fellow-Christians.. The Bible Theology Ministries ( a small charismatic church in Swansea does not recognise Quakers as Christian, but then they also do not recognise Roman Catholics as Christian., regarding both Quakers and Roman Catholics as 'cults'. Some people who attend Friends meetings assume that Quakers are not Christian because they may not hear anyone using overtly Christian language during the meeting for worship

There are Friends in some liberal unprogrammed Meetings who no longer feel happy to call themselves Christian and instead consider themselves unitarian, agnostic, atheist, secular humanist, postchristian, or nontheist. In 1870, Richard Price Hallowell argued that the logical extension of Quakerism is to establish a universal Church, which demands a religion which embraces Jew, Pagan and Christian, and which cannot be limited by the dogmas of one or the other, and there are now a few Friends in liberal meetings who actively identify as members of a faith other than Christianity, such as Judaism, Islam, Buddhism or Paganism, although this is controversial, even in liberal Yearly Meetings.

Gurneyite

See also: Friends United Meeting

The Orthodox Friends in America were exercised by a transatlantic dispute between Joseph John Gurney of England and John Wilbur of Rhode Island. Gurney emphasized scriptural authority and favored working closely with other Christian groups. Gurneyite Friends today (especially those in parts of the US and Africa affiliated to Friends United Meeting) regard Christ as their teacher and Lord. Over the next several decades, a number of Wilburite-Gurneyite separations occurred.

Bible

Gurneyite Yearly Meetings tend to put more emphasis on the authority of the Bible over the direct experience of God, often seeing the Bible as the direct word of God.

Sacraments

Beginning in the 1880s, some Friends began using outward sacraments, first in Evangelical Friends Church - Eastern Region (then known as Ohio Yearly Meeting [Damascus]). This practice differs from Friends in liberal and conservative Yearly meetings.

Creeds

Orthodox Friends have enumerated and subscribed to a set of doctrines, such as the Richmond Declaration. While there has been conflict over the role of the Richmond Declaration in subsequent years, it was "adopted," "accepted" or "approved" by nearly all of the Gurneyite yearly meetings at the time. The Five Years Meeting of Friends reaffirmed the Richmond Declaration in 1912 but specifically stated that it was not to constitute a creed.

Relationship to the wider Christian community

All Guerneyite Friends would see themselves as part of a Christian movement, and work closely with other Christian groups. Friends United Meeting (the international organization of Gurneyite Yearly Meetings) is a member of the National Council of Churches and the World Council of Churches., which are pan-Christian organizations which include Protestant, Orthodox and Anglican churches.

Evangelical

See also: Evangelical Friends International

The largest proportion of Friends worldwide are in the evangelical group of yearly meetings (mainly in the US, Asia and Central America which are affiliated with Evangelical Friends Church International). They regard Christ as their Lord and savior., and have similar theological views to other evangelical churches.

Bible

Evangelical Friends regard the Bible as the literal and self-authenticating word of God.

Sacraments

Friends Church Southwest approved the practice of outward sacraments. In places where Evangelical Friends have done mission work, including in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, baptism with water is carried out.

Creeds

The "Beliefs of Friends" statement by Evangelical Friends International, is comparable to other evangelical churches' confessions of faith.

Relationship to the wider Christian community

Evangelical Friends work closely with other evangelical churches from other Christian traditions. The North American branch of Evangelical Friends Church International is a member church of the National Association of Evangelicals. Like other evangelical churches, evangelical Friends tend to be less involved with ecumenical work with non-evangelical churches, and are not members of the World Council of Churches or National Council of Churches.

Testimony

Quakers try to bear witness or testify to their beliefs in their every day life — an expression of "spirituality in action", drawing on James' advice that faith by itself, if it is not accompanied by action, is dead.

They may do this in many ways, according to how they are led by God, however there are some shared ways in which many Quakers relate to God and the world. These ways of acting often mirror common Christian ethical codes, e.g. the Sermon on the Mount or the Sermon on the Plain, however Friends would argue that they feel personally moved by God or Christ to act in these ways rather than simply following an ethical code.

Some theologians have attempted to classify the ways in which Friends commonly testify to their faith into categories of common ways in which Friends behave - these are known by some as testimonies. As these are not centrally drawn up in any way but are simply individuals' descriptions of the way in which many Friends are currently led to act, lists of testimonies are continuously evolving, and vary between different theologians and traditions. In his book Quaker Speak, the British Friend Alastair Heron lists the following ways in which Friends do, or have, witness(ed) or testify/testified to God:

Testimony which opposes:

• betting and gambling
• capital punishment
• conscription
• hat honor
• oaths
• slavery
• times and seasons
• tithing

Testimony which promotes:

• integrity (or truth)
• peace
• penal reform
• plain language
• relief of suffering
• simplicity
• social order
• Sunday observance
• sustainability
• temperance and moderation

In the USA, children and Friends school students are often taught the acronym SPICES, which stands for Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, Equality and Stewardship. In the UK, the acronym STEP or PEST is used, for Peace, Equality, Simplicity and Truth.

It should be stressed that there is no central list or rule of testimony, and each Friend acts simply as he or she is led by God, which may or may not be in the ways listed above. Some Friends are against giving a list of testimonies, stating that to do so is credal, and against the basic concepts of Quakerism.

Several groups of Quaker meeting houses in the US, particularly Delaware and Pennsylvania, have extended the testimony opposing hat honor to include an opposition to modern-day honorifics bestowed to corporate officer titles, corporate hierarchies, and publicizing salary history for employees.

Calendar and church holy days

The "plain calendar," sometimes called the "scriptural calendar," differs from what Friends referred to as the "world's calendar" in that it uses numbers to denominate the names of the months and days of the week. The plain calendar does not use names of calendar units derived from the traditional names due to their derivation from pagan deities. Instead, it uses ancient terminology as found in the bible where the days of the week were numbered; for example, Jesus' followers went to the tomb early on the First Day of the week. From this, the plain calendar week begins with First Day (Sunday) and ends on Seventh Day (Saturday). Similarly the calendar's months run concurrently with the traditional months albeit named First Month, Second Month, etc. The calendar emerged in the 17th century in England in the general non-conformist movement but became closely identified with Friends by the end of the 1650s and was commonly employed into the 20th century. However, most Friends today regard its continued usage as somewhat pedantic and it is rarely encountered, except in certain parts of the Society. The term "First Day School" is still in quite common among Quakers, for what is called by most churches "Sunday School".

Friends have also eschewed the traditional church calendar of holy days, not observing religious festivals such as Christmas, Lent, or Easter at particular times of the year, but instead believing that Christ's birth, crucifixion and resurrection should be commemorated every day of the year. For example, many Quakers feel that fasting at Lent but then eating in excess at other times of the year is hypocrisy, and therefore many Quakers, rather than observing Lent, live a simple lifestyle all the year round (see Testimony of Simplicity). These beliefs tie in with Quakers' beliefs on sacraments and the belief that all of life is sacred.

Similarly, Friends traditionally are non-Sabbatarians, holding that "every day is the Lord's day", and that what should be done on a First Day should be done every day of the week. Meeting for Worship is often held on a First Day, however this is more because of convenience rather than because it is believed that Sunday is Sabbath (or the appointed day), and many Friends hold Meeting for Worship on other days of the week.

These beliefs are often referred to as the testimony against time and season.

Mysticism

Quakerism differs from other mystical religions in at least two important ways. For one, Quaker mysticism is primarily group-oriented rather than focused on the individual. The Friends' traditional meeting for worship may be considered an expression of that group mysticism, where all the members of the meeting listen together for the Spirit of God, speaking when that Spirit moves them.

Additionally, Quaker mysticism as it has been expressed after the late 19th century includes a strong emphasis on its outwardly directed witness. Rather than seeking withdrawal from the world, the Quaker mystic translates his or her mysticism into action. They believe this action leads to greater spiritual understanding — both by individuals and by the Meeting as a whole. This view of mysticism includes social and political activities.

Worship

Friends Meeting House, Manchester, United Kingdom

Most groups of Quakers meet for regular worship. There are two main types of worship worldwide:

• Unprogrammed worship - This, constituting about 11% of Quakers worldwide, is based in silence. It is practiced in yearly meetings in Europe, Asia, southern Africa, Oceania and parts of the US. It is usually held with others, and those who feel "moved to speak by God" can minister for as long as they feel is right. There is usually space to reflect between spoken contributions, and the meetings normally last for one hour. There is no (human) leader in such a service, Quakers who worship in this tradition often believing that each person is equal before God and is capable of knowing "the light" directly. The event where this happens is usually called meeting for worship
• Programmed worship - this makes up around 89% of Friends worldwide. The event is sometimes called a meeting for worship or sometimes called a Friends Church service. In many yearly meetings in Africa, Asia and parts of the US, worship is programmed. Here there is often a prepared message, which may be delivered by an individual with theological training. There may be hymns, a sermon, Bible readings and prayers, and a period of silent worship. There is often a paid pastor responsible for pastoral care of the members of the local church. This style of worship is particularly common with meetings affiliated to Friends United Meeting (who make up around 50% of Friends worldwide) and Evangelical Friends International, who make up around 30% of Friends worldwide.

While the different styles of worship are often associated with the theological splits, with conservative (Wilburite) and liberal (Hicksite) Friends generally worshiping in unprogrammed meetings, and Gurneyite and evangelical Friends worshiping in programmed Friends church services, this is not a strict rule. Many meetings hold both programmed and unprogrammed services or other activities.

Unprogrammed worship

See also: Friends General Conference and Britain Yearly Meeting

The interior of an old meeting house in the United States

Unprogrammed worship is the more traditional style of worship among Friends and remains the norm in Britain, Ireland, continental Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and parts of the United States (particularly Yearly Meetings associated with Friends General Conference). During an unprogrammed meeting for worship, Friends gather together in "expectant waiting" for God's leading. Sometimes a meeting is entirely silent, sometimes quite a few people speak. Meeting for Worship generally lasts about an hour.

When they feel they are led by the spirit of God a participant will rise and share a message (give "vocal ministry") with those gathered. Typically, messages, testimonies, ministry, or other speech are not prepared as a "speech". Speakers are expected to discern the source of their inspiration — whether divine or self. After someone has spoken, it is expected that more than a few moments will pass in silence before further Ministry; there should be no spirit of debate.

Unprogrammed worship is generally deemed to start as soon as the first participant is seated, the others entering the room in silence. The Meeting for Worship ends when one person (usually predetermined) shakes the hand of another person present. All the members of the assembly then shake hands with their neighbors, after which one member usually rises and extends greetings and makes announcements.

Meetings for worship for specific tasks

Birth

Within the unprogrammed tradition, Friends do not practice water baptism, Christening ceremony or other ceremony for the birth of a child. The child is welcomed into the meeting by everyone present at their first attendance. Formerly, it was the practice that children born to Quaker parents automatically became members of the Religious Society of Friends (sometimes called Birthright membership), but this is no longer the case in most areas, and most parents now leave it up to the child to decide whether to become a member when they are an older child or adult.

Marriage

Main article: Quaker wedding

See also: Homosexuality and Quakerism

A meeting for worship for the solemnisation of marriage in an unprogrammed Friends meeting is similar to any other unprogrammed Meeting for Worship. The meeting for worship is conducted exactly as a normal meeting for worship, and the pair marry one another before God and gathered witnesses. After exchanging vows, the meeting returns to open worship and guests are free to speak as they are led. At the rise of meeting all the witnesses, who comprise everyone present at the meeting including the youngest children, are asked to sign the wedding certificate as a record of the event. In Britain, Quakers have their own registrars who keep a separate record of the union and notify the General Register Office.

In the early days of the United States, there was doubt whether a marriage solemnized in such a manner was entitled to legal recognition, so that over the years each state set its own rules for the procedure. Most US states (Pennsylvania being the prominent exception) expect that the marriage document filed with local authorities will be signed by a single officiant (a priest, rabbi, minister, Justice of the Peace, etc.). Quakers routinely modify the document to allow several Friends to sign as the officiant. Often these are the members of a committee of oversight of the marriage ceremony, 3 or 4 individuals that have helped the couple plan their marriage. Usually a separate document containing their vows and the signatures of all present is kept by the couple, and often displayed prominently in their home.

In many Friends meetings, the couple will also have met with a "clearness committee" prior to getting married. This committee's purpose is to discuss with the couple the many aspects of being married and being a couple. If the couple seems clear in their commitment to marry, then the couple will be recommended to the meeting for marriage and the marriage will take place. "Clearness committees" are used in other contexts as well, where individuals or groups need to obtain guidance on a particular action to be taken.

In recent years, Friends within the liberal, unprogrammed meetings in Australia, Britain and some meetings in North America have celebrated weddings or civil unions between partners of the same sex. Britain Yearly Meeting decided in 2009 to recognise marriages between same-sex couples, making them the first mainstream religious body in the UK to do so. As true same-sex marriage (as distinct from civil partnership) is not recognized in law or by civil authorities in the United Kingdom these marriages will not be recognized in civil courts. However, they stated that the law does not preclude Friends from "playing a central role in the celebration and recording" of marriage between same-sex couples, and asked the government to change the law so that marriage between same-sex couples would be recognized in the same way as opposite-sex marriages. In parts of the United States where same-sex marriages are not legal, some meetings follow the practice of early Quakers in overseeing the union without reference to the state at all. Many Friends meetings in the US have celebrated "union" ceremonies for same-sex couples; sometimes other Friends meetings geographically nearby have quite different views on the topic. Many Friends in the US are also involved in the movement to allow same-sex marriage legally.

Memorial services

Traditional Quaker memorial services are also held as a form of worship and are known as memorial meetings. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances about the person who has died. In some traditions, the coffin or ashes of the deceased are not present, and these memorial meetings are often held many weeks after the death, which can enable wider attendance and can also allow spiritual reflection and celebration of life, rather than emotional grief, to dominate. However in some traditions memorial meetings take place immediately after death and may occur prior to burial or cremation with the coffin present in the meeting for worship. Memorial meetings can last over an hour, particularly if there are a large number of people in attendance. Memorial services give everyone a chance to remember the lost individual in his own way, thus bringing comfort to those present, and re-affirmation of the larger community of Friends.

Decision making

Quaker Business Meeting in York

Business decisions on a local level within unprogrammed meetings are conducted at a monthly meeting for worship which may be variously called a "Meeting for Worship with a Concern for Business", "meeting for worship for church affairs" or simply "Business Meeting". A business meeting is a form of worship, and conducted in the manner of meeting for worship, all decisions are reached so that they are consistent with the guidance of the Spirit.

Instead of voting, the Meeting attempts to gain a sense of God's will for the community. Each member of the meeting is expected to listen to that of God within themselves and, if led, to contribute it to the group for reflection and consideration. This ministry is, unlike in meeting for worship, regulated. A friend will stand if they feel moved to speak but must wait to be called upon by the Clerk of the meeting before speaking. Each member listens to others' contributions carefully, in an attitude of seeking Truth rather than of attempting to prevail or to debate. Direct replies to someone's contribution are not permitted and all contributions must be addressed to the clerk or the meeting as a whole.

A decision is reached when the Meeting, as a whole, feels that the "way forward" has been discerned (also called "coming to unity") or there is a consensus. On some occasions a single Friend will hold up a decision because they feel the meeting is not following God's will; occasionally, some members of the Meeting will "stand aside" on an issue, meaning that these members do not share in the general sense of the meeting but are willing to allow the group to move forward.

Many Quakers describe the search for unity as the gathering of believers who "wait upon the Lord" to discover God's will. When seeking unity, Friends are not attempting to seek a position with which everyone is willing to live (as is often the case in consensual models) but in determining God's will. It is assumed that if everyone is listening to God's Spirit, the way forward will become clear.

The business conducted "in the manner of Friends" can seem time-consuming and impractical. The process can be frustrating and slow, but Friends believe it works well, allowing the group to come to decisions even around the most difficult matters. By the time a decision is recognized, the important issues have been worked out and the group supports the decision; there is no "losing" side.

Many non-Friends express doubts as to whether this process of decision making can work in a large group, although many yearly meetings have successfully employed this practice for generations. Some Quaker-related organizations, such as Haverford College near Philadelphia, Guilford College, in Greensboro, North Carolina, Wilmington College, in Wilmington, Ohio and Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, also use traditional Quaker form practices of governance.

Programmed worship

Programmed worship resembles a typical Protestant worship service in the United States. This tradition arose among Friends in the United States in the 19th century in response to large numbers of converts to Quakerism during the national spiritual revivalism of the time. Typically there are readings from scripture, hymns, and a sermon from the pastor. A period of silence (similar in practice to that of unprogrammed meetings, though generally shorter) is included in some Programmed Friends worship services. Most Friends in the southern and central United States worship in this way.

The Friends meetings started in Africa and Latin America were generally started by Friends from programmed elements of the society, therefore most African and Latin American Friends worship in a programmed style.

Some Friends also hold what is termed Semi-Programmed Worship, which brings programmed elements like hymns and readings into an otherwise unprogrammed worship service.

See also: Friends United Meeting and Evangelical Friends Church International

National and international divisions and organization

Like many movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved, changed, and split into various smaller subgroups.

Since its beginnings in the United Kingdom, Quakerism has spread to other countries, chiefly Australia, Bolivia, Burundi, Costa Rica, Ireland, Japan, Kenya, Philippines, Rwanda, South Africa, South Korea, Taiwan, Uganda, and the United States. Although the total number of Quakers is relatively small, around 360,000 worldwide, there are places, such as Philadelphia, Pennsylvania;Kaimosi, Kenya; Newberg, Oregon; Greenleaf, Idaho; Whittier, California; Richmond, Indiana; Friendswood, Texas; Birmingham, UK; Ramallah, Palestine and Greensboro, North Carolina in which Quaker influence is concentrated.

Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has tended away from creeds, and away from hierarchical structure.

The various branches have widely divergent beliefs and practices, but the central concept to most Friends is the "Inner Light" or "Light of Christ within". Accordingly, individual Quakers may develop individual religious beliefs arising from their personal conscience and revelation coming from "God within"; Quakers feel compelled to live by such individual religious beliefs and inner revelations. Throughout their history, Quakers have also founded other charities or organizations for many causes they felt are in keeping with their faith. Within the last century there have been some 100 organizations founded by either individual Friends, groups of Friends or Friends working with or amongst others: Amnesty International, Greenpeace, OXFAM, Peace Action, WILPF. (SEE List of Quaker Businesses)

A worldwide list of yearly meetings is at http://www.fwccworld.org/find_friends/index.php. Many (mostly US) meetings are listed at http://www.quaker.org/meetings.html. A geographic locator of local meetings and smaller worship groups in North America is at http://quakerfinder.org/.

International organization

Main article: Friends World Committee for Consultation

Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) is the international Quaker organization which loosely unifies the diverse groups of Friends; FWCC brings together the largest variety of Friends in the world.

There are various organizations associated with Friends including a U.S. lobbying organization based in Washington, D.C. called the Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL); several service organizations like the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), the Quaker United Nations Offices, Quaker Peace and Social Witness, Friends Committee on Scouting, the Quaker Peace Centre in Cape Town, South Africa and the Alternatives to Violence Project.

Friends World Committee for Consultation is divided into four Sections to represent different regions of the world: Africa, Asia West Pacific, Europe and Middle East, and Americas.

Africa

Main article: Religious Society of Friends in Africa

The highest concentration of Quakers is in Africa. The Friends of East Africa were at one time part of a single East Africa Yearly Meeting, then the largest Yearly Meeting in the world. Today, this region is served by several distinct Yearly Meetings. Most of these are affiliated with the Friends United Meeting, practice programmed worship, and employ pastors. There are also Friends meetings in Rwanda and Burundi, as well as new work beginning in North Africa. Small unprogrammed meetings exist also in Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Australia and New Zealand

Friends in Australia and New Zealand are based around the unprogrammed tradition, similar to Britain Yearly Meeting

Considerable distances between the colonies, and a low immigration of Quakers, meant that the organization of Friends in Australia was quite dependent on London until the 20th century. The Society has remained unprogrammed and is constituted as the Australia Yearly Meeting, with local organization around seven Regional Meetings: Canberra (which extends into southern New South Wales), New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia (which extends into Northern Territory), Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia. There is an annual meeting each January hosted by a different Regional Meeting over a seven year cycle, with a Standing Committee each July or August. The 2006 Australian Census recorded 1984 Quakers in Australia, which was an increase of 11% since the 2001 Census.

Meetings for worship in New Zealand started in Nelson in 1842, and in Auckland in 1885.

Asia

There are Quaker meetings in India, Hong Kong, Korea, Philippines, Japan and Nepal.

India has four Yearly Meetings - the unprogrammed Mid-India Yearly Meeting, programmed Bhopal Yearly Meeting and Mahoba Yearly Meeting. Bundelkhand Yearly Meeting is an evangelical Friends Church affiliated to Evangelical Friends International. There are also a number of separate programmed and unprogrammed worship groups not affiliated to any yearly meeting.

There are also evangelical Friends Churches in the Philippines and Nepal, affiliated to Evangelical Friends International.

Europe

In the United Kingdom, Quakers follow unprogrammed worship and are part of Britain Yearly Meeting, where there are 25,000 worshippers in around 500 Local Meetings.

These meetings used to be called Preparative Meetings, and the groups they formed were previously known as Monthly Meetings: now they are Area Meetings. This change, made in Britain Yearly Meeting 2007, was intended to simplify Quaker jargon. The structure extends into several Area Meetings becoming a General Meeting — formerly Quarterly Meeting — Some General Meetings now call themselves Regional Gatherings (e.g. Bristol & Wessex Regional Gathering, was Bristol & Somerset GM) which each continue to meet up to three times per year, but now play no direct role in church government. Instead, Area Meetings are represented directly in Meeting for Sufferings, which meets in between Yearly meetings.

There is also small groups of Conservative Friends meeting in Ripley and Greenwich in England, and Arbroath in Scotland, and Athens in Greece, who follow Ohio Yearly Meeting's Book of Discipline.

The first French Quaker community was founded in Congénies, in the south of France in 1788.

Friends meetings also exist in the Netherlands http://www.vriendenkring.info/, Russia http://quakers.ru/english.htm, Germany. Some of these meetings are small and do not meet weekly.

North America

Quakers can be found throughout the provinces of Canada, with some of the largest concentrations of Quakers in Southern Ontario.

Friends Church, Pleasant Plain, Iowa.

Friends in the United States have diverse practices, though united by many common bonds. Along with the division of worship style (see "Quaker Worship" above) come several differences of theology, vocabulary and practice.

A local congregation in the unprogrammed tradition is called a meeting, or a monthly meeting (e.g., Smalltown Meeting or Smalltown Monthly Meeting). The reference to "monthly" is because the meeting meets monthly to conduct the business of the meeting. Most "monthly meetings" meet for worship at least once a week; some meetings have several worship meetings during the week. In programmed traditions, the local congregations are often referred to as "Friends Churches".

Several local monthly meetings are often part of a regional group called a quarterly meeting, which is usually part of an even larger group called a yearly meeting. Again, quarterly or yearly refers to the frequency of "meetings for worship with a concern for business."

Some yearly meetings belong to larger organizations to help maintain order and communication within the society, the three chief ones being Friends General Conference (FGC), Friends United Meeting (FUM), and Evangelical Friends Church International (EFCI) (in all three groups, most member organizations, though not necessarily people are from the United States). FGC is theologically the most Liberal of the three groups, while EFCI is the most Evangelical. FUM is the largest. Friends United Meeting was originally known as "Five Years Meeting." Some monthly meetings belong to more than one of these larger organizations, while others are independent, not joining any.

Further reading

• Abbott, Margery; Chijioke, Mary Ellen; Dandelion, Pink; Oliver, John William, ed. (2003). Historical Dictionary of The Friends (Quakers). Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810844834. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Bacon, Margaret Hope (2000). The Quiet Rebels: The Story of the Quakers in America. Pendle Hill Publications. p. 249. ISBN 978-0875749358. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Bacon, Margaret Hope. "Quakers and Colonization," Quaker History, 95 (Spring 2006), 26–43.
• Barbour, Hugh; Frost, J. William. The Quakers. (1988), 412pp; historical survey, including many capsule biographies online edition
• Barbour, Hugh (1985). The Quakers in Puritan England. Friends United Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0913408872. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Benjamin, Philip. Philadelphia Quakers in an Age of Industrialism, 1870-1920 (1976),
• Bill, J. Brent, Holy Silence: The Gift of Quaker Spirituality ISBN 1-55725-420-6
• Boulton, David (ed.) 2006. Godless for God's Sake: Nontheism in Contemporary Quakerism. Dales Historical Monographs. ISBN 0-9511578-6-8
• Birkel, Michael L., Silence and Witness: The Quaker Tradition ISBN 1-57075-518-3 (in the UK, ISBN 0-232-52448-3)
• Braithwaite, William C. The Beginnings of Quakerism (1912); revised by Henry J. Cadbury (1955) online edition
• Braithwaite, William C. Second Period of Quakerism (1919); revised by Henry Cadbury (1961), covers 1660 to 1720s in Britain
• Brinton, Howard H., Friends for 350 Years ISBN 0-87574-903-8
• Brock, Peter. Pioneers of the Peaceable Kingdom (1968), on Peace Testimony from the 1650s to 1900.
• Bronner, Edwin B. William Penn's Holy Experiment (1962)
• Burnet, G.B., Story of Quakerism in Scotland The Lutterworth Press 2007, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-7188-9176-3
• Connerley, Jennifer. "Friendly Americans: Representing Quakers in the United States, 1850-1920." PhD dissertation U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 2006. 277 pp. Citation: DAI 2006 67(2): 600-A. DA3207363 online at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
• Cooper, Wilmer A., A Living Faith: An Historical and Comparative Study of Quaker Beliefs. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-944350-53-4
• Dandelion, Pink, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction ISBN 978-0-19-920679-7
• Davies, Adrian. The Quakers in English Society, 1655-1725. (2000). 261 pp.
• Doherty, Robert. The Hicksite Separation (1967), uses the new social history to inquire who joined which side
• Dunn, Mary Maples. William Penn: Politics and Conscience (1967)
• Frost, J. William. The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends (1973), emphasis on social structure and family life
• Frost, J. William. "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade against Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature," Quaker History 67 (1978): 42-58,
• Gillman, Harvey, A Light that is Shining: Introduction to the Quakers ISBN 0-85245-213-6
• Guiton, Gerard, The Growth and Development of Quaker Testimony' ISBN 0-7734-6002-0
• Hamm, Thomas. The Quakers in America. (2003). 293 pp., strong analysis of current situation, with brief history
• Hamm, Thomas. The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800-1907 (1988), looks at the impact of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction
• Hamm, Thomas D. Earlham College: A History, 1847-1997. (1997). 448 pp.
• Hubbard, Geoffrey, Quaker by Convincement ISBN 0-85245-189-X and ISBN 0-14-021663-4
• Illick, Joseph E. Colonial Pennsylvania: A History. 1976. online edition
• Ingle, H. Larry, First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism ISBN 0-19-507803-9 and ISBN 0-19-510117-0
• Ingle, H. Larry, Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation ISBN 0-87574-926-7
• James, Sydney. A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America (1963), a broad ranging study that remains the best history in America before 1800
• Jones, Rufus M., Amelia M. Gummere, and Isaac Sharpless. Quakers in the American Colonies (1911), history to 1775 online edition
• Jones, Rufus M. Later Periods of Quakerism, 2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.
• Jones, Rufus M. The Story of George Fox (1919) 169 pages online edition
• Jones, Rufus M. A Service of Love in War Time: American Friends Relief Work in Europe, 1917-1919 (1922) online edition
• Jordan, Ryan. "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833-1865," Civil War History, Vol. 53, 2007 online edition
• Jordan, Ryan. Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865. (2007) 191pp
• Kennedy, Thomas C. British Quakerism, 1860-1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community. (2001). 477 pp.
• Larson, Rebecca. Daughters of Light: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700-1775. (1999). 399 pp.
• LeShana, James David. "'Heavenly Plantations': Quakers in Colonial North Carolina." PhD dissertation: U. of California, Riverside 1998. 362 pp. DAI 2000 61(5): 2005-A. DA9974014 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
• Minear, Mark., "Richmond, 1887: A Quaker Drama Unfolds" ISBN (0913408980) ISBN (9780913408988)
• Moore, Rosemary, The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain 1646-1666 (2000) 314pp ISBN 0-271-01989-1
• Moretta, John A., William Penn and the Quaker Legacy ISBN 0-321-16392-3
• Mullet, Michael, editor, New Light on George Fox ISBN 1-85072-142-4
• Nash, Gary. Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1680-1726 (1968)
• Punshon, John, Portrait in Grey : a short history of the Quakers (1994) ISBN 0-85245-180-6
• Punshon, John. Portrait in Grey: A short history of the Quakers. (Quaker Home Service, 1984).
• Rasmussen, Ane Marie Bak. A History of the Quaker Movement in Africa. (1994). 168 pp.
• Russell, Elbert. The History of Quakerism (1942). online edition
• Smuck, Harold. Friends in East Africa (Richmond, Indiana: 1987)
• Steere, Douglas. 1967. On Being Present Where You Are. Wallingford, Pa: Pendle Hill Pamphlet No. 151.
• Tolles, Frederick B. Meeting House and Counting House (1948), on Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia
• Tolles, Frederick B. Quakers and the Atlantic Culture (1960)
• Trueblood, D. Elton The People Called Quakers (1966)
• Vlach, John Michael. "Quaker Tradition and the Paintings of Edward Hicks: A Strategy for the Study of Folk Art," Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 94, 1981 online edition
• Walvin, James. The Quakers: Money and Morals. (1997). 243 pp.
• Yarrow, Clarence H. The Quaker Experience in International Conciliation (1979), for post-1945

Primary sources

• Bill, J. Brent, Imagination and Spirit: A Contemporary Quaker Reader ISBN 0-944350-61-5
• Gummere, Amelia, ed. The Journal and Essays of John Woolman (1922) online edition
• Jones, Rufus M., ed. The Journal of George Fox: An Autobiography online edition
• Mott, Lucretia Coffin. Selected Letters of Lucretia Coffin Mott. edited by Beverly Wilson Palmer, U. of Illinois Press, 2002. 580 pp
• Smith, Robert Lawrence, A Quaker Book of Wisdom ISBN 0-688-17233-4
• West, Jessamyn, editor, The Quaker Reader (1962) ISBN 0-87574-916-X collection of essays by Fox, Penn, and other notable Quakers

Children's books

• De Angeli, Marguerite Thee, Hannah! ISBN 0-8361-9106-4
• Turkle, Brinton
  • The Adventures of Obadiah ISBN 0-670-10614-3
  • Obadiah the Bold ISBN 1-893103-19-6
  • Rachel and Obadiah ISBN 1-893103-18-8
  • Thy Friend, Obadiah ISBN 0-14-050393-5

External links

Information

• Exhaustive list of links, websites, mailing lists, and other information on Quakers
• FWCC: Worldwide umbrella group, with information on different types of Quakers
• QuakerMaps: a directory of Friends Meetings and churches, complete with embedded Google maps
• QuakerFinder: online locator tool for local meetings and worship groups in North America
• Quaker Quaker: daily magazine, discussion boards, Convergent Friends
• Quaker Library at Friends General Conference (FGC)
• Ohio Yearly Meeting of Conservative Friends
• Christian Quaker Internet Mission
• Primitive Quakers
• Quaker Information Center
• About Quaker Worship – explanation for non-Quakers
• Quakers in the Deep South
• Quaker Electronic Archive
• Quaker Heritage Press Online Texts
• U.S. Friends/Quakers map, by county
• Religious Society of Friends. Records, 1828-2009
• Argenta Friends Press - information about Quakers and publication of the Canadian Quaker Pamphlet Series
• University of Tasmania Library Quaker Resources Collection
• LiberalQuakers.org: Fostering understanding of liberal Quakerism and helping people find their way to a liberal Friends meeting.

Documentary films

• Quaker Video Collection, QuakerQuaker.org
• Art 21: James Turrell, Live Oak Friends Meeting house, PBS Documentary, Biography in text and online clip.
• Quakers – Seeking the Light Within, 2003. Documentary. In: Compass, TV, ABC (Australia), 2003. September 28. 22:00hrs.
• An Introduction to Watford Quakers, 2007.