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* A340-500: US$261.8M (2011)<ref name="A_price"/> (${{inflation|USD|261.8|2011|r=1}}M today)
* A340-500: US$261.8M (2011)<ref name="A_price"/> (${{inflation|USD|261.8|2011|r=1}}M today)
* A340-600: US$275.4M (2011)<ref name="A_price"/> (${{inflation|USD|275.4|2011|r=1}}M today)
* A340-600: US$275.4M (2011)<ref name="A_price"/> (${{inflation|USD|275.4|2011|r=1}}M today)
| developed from = Airbus A300
| developed from = [[Airbus A300]]
}}
}}
|}
|}

Revision as of 19:16, 22 January 2020

"A340" redirects here. For the road in Hampshire and Berkshire, see A340 road.

A340
An A340-300, the most widespread variant, of Lufthansa, the largest operator
Role Wide-body jet airliner
National origin Multi-national
Manufacturer Airbus
First flight 25 October 1991; 33 years ago (1991-10-25)
Introduction 15 March 1993; 31 years ago (1993-03-15) with Lufthansa & Air France
Status In service
Primary users Lufthansa
Iberia
South African Airways
Mahan Air
Produced 1991–2011[1]
Number built 380 (377 delivered to airlines)[2]
Developed from Airbus A300

The Airbus A340 is a long-range, four-engine, wide-body commercial passenger jet airliner that was developed and produced by the European aerospace company Airbus. The A340 was assembled in Toulouse, France. It seats up to 375 passengers in the standard variants and 440 in the stretched -600 series. Depending on the model, it has a range of 6,700 to 9,000 nautical miles (12,400 to 16,700 km; 7,700 to 10,400 mi). Its distinguishing features are four high-bypass turbofan engines and three-leg main landing gear.

The A340 was manufactured in four fuselage lengths. The initial variant, A340-300, which entered service in 1993, measured 63.69 metres (209.0 ft).[3] The shorter -200 was developed next, and the A340-600 was a 15.96 metres (52.4 ft) stretch of the -200.[4] The -600 was developed alongside the shorter A340-500, which would become the longest-range commercial airliner until the arrival of the Boeing 777-200LR. The -200 and -300 models are powered by the 151 kilonewtons (34,000 lbf) CFM56-5C, while the 267-kilonewton (60,000 lbf) Rolls-Royce Trent 500 is the exclusive powerplant for the extended-range -500 and -600 models. The initial A340-200 and -300 variants share the fuselage and wing of the twin-engine Airbus A330 with which it was concurrently designed. The heavier A340-500 and -600 are stretched and have enlarged wings.[5]

Launch customers Lufthansa and Air France placed the A340 into service in March 1993. In September 2011, 379 orders had been placed (not including private operators), of which 375 were delivered. The most common type is the A340-300 model, with 218 aircraft delivered. Lufthansa, the biggest operator of the A340, acquired 62 aircraft, and continues to operate 32 -300 and -600 series variants as of June 2019. The A340 is used mainly on long-haul, trans-oceanic routes due to its immunity from ETOPS restrictions; however, with reliability and fuel efficiency in engines improving, airlines are gradually phasing out the type in favour of more economical twinjets of comparable capacity such as the Boeing 777,[6][7] while Airbus has positioned the larger variants of the Airbus A350 as a successor.[8][9] Airbus announced on 10 November 2011 that A340 production had been concluded.[1]

Development

See also: Development of the Airbus A330

Background

Compared to the A340 quadjet (inflight), the lighter A330 (on ground) has two engines and no centre-line wheel bogie

When Airbus designed the Airbus A300 during the 1970s it envisioned a broad family of airliners to compete against Boeing and McDonnell Douglas, two established US aerospace manufacturers. From the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal.[10] Prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9.[11] A tenth variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10.[12] It was a smaller aircraft that would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the single-aisle market, which resulted in the Airbus A320 family, which was the first digital fly-by-wire commercial aircraft. The decision to work on the A320, instead of a four-engine aircraft proposed by the Germans, created divisions within Airbus.[12] As the SA or "single aisle" studies (which later became the successful Airbus A320) underwent development to challenge the successful Boeing 737 and Douglas DC-9 in the single-aisle, narrow-body airliner market, Airbus turned its focus back to the wide-body aircraft market.

The A300B11,[13] a derivative of the A310, was designed upon the availability of "ten ton" thrust engines.[14] Using four engines, it would seat between 180 and 200 passengers, and have a range of 6,000 nautical miles (11,000 km).[15] It was deemed a replacement for the less-efficient Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s still in service.[14] The A300B11 was joined by another design, the A300B9, which was a larger derivative of the A300. The B9 was developed by Airbus from the early 1970s at a slow pace until the early 1980s. It was essentially a stretched A300 with the same wing, coupled with the most powerful turbofan engine available at the time.[14] It was targeted at the growing demand for high-capacity, medium-range, transcontinental trunk routes.[14] The B9 offered the same range and payload as the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, but it used between 25%[14] to 38%[16] less fuel. The B9 was therefore considered a replacement for the DC-10 and the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar.[17]

To differentiate the programme from the SA studies, the B9 and B11 were redesignated the TA9 and TA11 (TA standing for "twin aisle"), respectively.[13] In an effort to save development costs, it was decided that the two would share the same wing and airframe; the projected savings were estimated at US$500 million (about £490 million or €495 million).[18] The adoption of a common wing structure also had one technical advantage: the TA11's outboard engines could counteract the weight of the longer-range model by providing bending relief.[14] Another factor was the split preference of those within Airbus and, more importantly, prospective airliner customers. Airbus vice president for strategic planning, Adam Brown, recalled,

North American operators were clearly in favour of a twin[jet], while Asians wanted a quad[jet]. In Europe, opinion was split between the two. The majority of potential customers were in favour of a quad despite the fact, in certain conditions, it is more costly to operate than a twin. They liked that it could be ferried with one engine out, and could fly 'anywhere'— ETOPS (extend-range twin-engine operations) hadn't begun then.[19][20]

Design effort

The first specifications of the TA9 and TA11 were released in 1982.[21] While the TA9 had a range of 3,300 nautical miles (6,100 km), the TA11 range was up to 6,830 nautical miles (12,650 km).[21] At the same time, Airbus also sketched the TA12, a twin-engine derivative of the TA11, which was optimised for flights of a 2,000 nautical miles (3,700 km) lesser range.[21] By the time of the Paris Air Show in June 1985, more refinements had been made to the TA9 and TA11, including the adoption of the A320 flight deck, fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system and side-stick control.[22] Adopting a common cockpit across the new Airbus series allowed operators to make significant cost savings; flight crews would be able to transition from one to another after one week of training.[23] The TA11 and TA12 would use the front and rear fuselage sections of the A310.[24] Components were modular and also interchangeable with other Airbus aircraft where possible[23] to reduce production, maintenance and operating costs.

The A330/A340 shares a common flight deck with the A320.

Airbus briefly considered a variable camber wing; the concept was that the wing could change its profile to produce the optimum shape for a given phase of flight. Studies were carried out by British Aerospace (BAe) at Hatfield and Bristol. Airbus estimated this would yield a 2% improvement in aerodynamic efficiency.[25] However, the plan was later abandoned on grounds of cost and difficulty of development.[13]

Airbus had held discussions with McDonnell Douglas to jointly produce the aircraft, which would have been designated as the AM 300.[26] This aeroplane would have combined the wing of the A330 with the fuselage of the McDonnell Douglas MD-11.[26] However, talks were terminated as McDonnell Douglas insisted on the continuation of its trijet heritage.[27] Although from the start it was intended that the A340 would be powered by four CFM56-5 turbofan engines, each capable of 25,000 pounds-force (110 kN),[28] Airbus had also considered developing the aircraft as a trijet due to the limited power of engines available at the time, namely the Rolls-Royce RB211-535 and Pratt & Whitney JT10D-232[29] (redesignated PW2000 in December 1980).

As refinements in the A340's design proceeded, a radical new engine option was offered by International Aero Engines, a group comprising Rolls-Royce, Pratt & Whitney, Japanese Aero Engines Corporation, Fiat and MTU Aero Engines (MTU). The engine nacelles of the superfan engine consisted of provisions to allow a large fan near the rear of the engine. As a result of the superfan cancellation by IAE, the CFM56-5C4 was used as the sole engine choice instead of there being an alternate option as originally envisioned. The longer-range versions, namely the A340-500 and -600, are powered by Rolls-Royce Trent 500 engines.

On 27 January 1986, the Airbus Industrie Supervisory Board held a meeting in Munich, West Germany, after which board-chairman Franz Josef Strauß released a statement, "Airbus Industrie is now in a position to finalise the detailed technical definition of the TA9, which is now officially designated the A330, and the TA11, now called the A340, with potential launch customer airlines, and to discuss with them the terms and conditions for launch commitments".[22] The designations were originally reversed because the airlines believed it illogical for a two-engine jet airliner to have a "4" in its name, whilst a quad-jet would not. On 12 May 1986, Airbus dispatched fresh sale proposals to five prospective airlines including Lufthansa and Swissair.[22]

Production and testing

In preparations for production of the A330/A340, Airbus's partners invested heavily in new facilities. Filton was the site of BAE's £7 million investment in a three-storey technical centre with an extra 15,000 square metres (160,000 sq ft) of floor area.[30] BAe also spent £5 million expanding the Broughton wing production plant by 14,000 m2 (150,000 sq ft)[30] to accommodate a new production line. However, France saw the biggest changes with Aérospatiale starting construction of a new Fr.2.5 billion ($411 million) assembly plant, adjacent to Toulouse-Blagnac Airport, in Colomiers.[31] By November 1988, the first 21 m (69 ft) pillars were erected for the new Clément Ader assembly hall.[31] The assembly process, meanwhile, would feature increased automation with holes for the wing-fuselage mating process drilled by eight robots.[32] The use of automation for this particular process saved Airbus 20% on labour costs and 5% on time.[32]

An A340-200 demonstrator at the 1992 Farnborough Air Show

British Aerospace accepted £450 million funding from the UK government, short of the £750 million originally requested.[33] Funds from the French and German governments followed thereafter. Airbus also issued subcontracts to companies in Austria, Australia, Canada, China, Greece, Italy, India, Japan, South Korea, Portugal, the United States, and the former Yugoslavia.[34] The A330 and A340 programmes were jointly launched on 5 June 1987,[35] just prior to the Paris Air Show. The order book then stood at 130 aircraft from 10 customers, apart from the above-mentioned Lufthansa and International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC). Eighty-nine of the total orders were A340 models.[33] At McDonnell Douglas, ongoing tests of the MD-11 revealed a significant shortfall in the aircraft's performance. An important carrier, Singapore Airlines (SIA), required a fully laden aircraft that could fly from Singapore to Paris, against strong headwinds during mid-winter in the northern hemisphere.[36] The MD-11, according to test results, would experience fuel starvation over the Balkans.[36] Due to the less-than-expected performance figures, SIA cancelled its 20-aircraft MD-11 order on 2 August 1991, and ordered 20 A340-300s instead.[37] Despite selling 200 units, some[weasel words] consider that the MD-11 failed commercially and that it unsuccessfully competed against the A340.[27]

The first flight of the A340 occurred on 21 October 1991,[38] marking the start of a 2,000-hour test flight programme involving six aircraft.[39] From the start, engineers noticed that the wings were not stiff enough to carry the outboard engines at cruising speed without warping and fluttering. To alleviate this, an underwing bulge called a plastron was developed to correct airflow problems around the engine pylons[40] and to add stiffness. European JAA certification was obtained on 22 December 1992; the FAA followed on 27 May 1993.[41]

Entry into service and demonstration

The first A340, a -200, was delivered to Lufthansa on 2 February 1993 and entered service on 15 March.[41] The 228-seat airliner was named Nürnberg.[42] The first A340-300, the 1000th Airbus, was delivered to Air France on 26 February, the first of nine it planned to operate by the end of the year.[41] Air France replaced the Boeing 747 with the A340 on Paris–Washington D.C., flying four times weekly.[43] Lufthansa intended to replace aging DC-10s with the A340s on Frankfurt–New York services.

On 16 June 1993, an A340-200 dubbed the World Ranger flew from the Paris Air Show to Auckland, New Zealand in 21 hours 32 minutes and back in 21 hours 46 minutes after a five-hour stop; this was the first non-stop flight between Europe and New Zealand and the longest non-stop flight by an airliner at the time.[44] The 19,277 km (10,409 nmi) flight from Paris to Auckland broke six world records with 22 persons and five center tanks. [45] Taking off at 11:58 local time, it arrived back in Paris 48 hours and 22 minutes later, at 12:20.[45][46] This record held until 1997 when a Boeing 777-200ER flew 20,044 km (10,823 nmi) from Seattle to Kuala Lumpur.[47]

-500/600 larger variants

In 1991, the A340-400X was a simple 12-frame, 20 ft 10 in (6.35 m) -300 stretch from 295 to 335 passengers with the MTOW bumped from 553,360 to 588,600 lb (251 to 267 t) and the range decreased by 750 to 5,900 nmi (1,390 to 10,930 km).[48] CFM International was then set to develop for $1–1.5 billion a new engine between the 150 kN (34,000 lbf) CFM56 and the 315–400 kN (70–90,000 lbf) GE90.[49] In 1994, Airbus was studying a heavier A340 Advanced with a reinforced wing and 178 kN (40,000 lbf) engines: the Pratt & Whitney advanced ducted propulsor, CFM International CFMXX or Rolls Royce RB.411, to allow from 1996 a -300 stretch for 50 more passengers over the same range, a -300 with the -200 range and a -200 with more range.[50] In 1995, the A340-400 was slated for 2000, seating 380 passengers with a 300 t (660,000 lb) take-off weight.[51]

The A340-600 was the longest passenger airliner until the introduction of the Boeing 747-8 in 2010

In April 1996, GE Aviation obtained an exclusivity for the 13,000 km (7,000 nmi) 375-passenger -600 stretch with 226 kN (51,000 lbf) engines, above the 225.5 kN (50,700 lbf) limit of the CFM International partnership with SNECMA and dropping the 191 kN (43,000 lbf) CFMXX.[52] The -600 would be stretched by 20–22 frames to 75 m (246 ft), unit thrust was raised from 227 kN (51,000 lbf) to 249 kN (56,000 lbf) and maximum takeoff weight would be increased to 330 t (730,000 lb). The wing area would increase by 56m² (600 ft²) to 420 m2 (4,500 sq ft) through a larger chord needing a three-frame centre fuselage insert and retaining the existing front and rear spars, and a span increased by 3.5 to 63.8 m (11 to 209 ft), along a 25% increase in wing fuel capacity and four wheels replacing the centre twin bogie. A -500 with the larger wing and engines and three extra frames for 310 passengers would cover 15,725 km (8,490 nmi) to replace the smaller, 14,800 km (8,000 nmi) range, A340-8000. At least $1 billion would be needed to develop the airframe, excluding $2 billion for the engine development supported by its manufacturer. A 12 frame -400 simple stretch would cover 11,290 km (6,100 nmi) with 340 passengers in three-class.[53]

It was enlarged by 40% to compete with the then in-development 777-300ER/200LR: the wing would be expanded with a tapered wing box insert along the span extension, it would have enlarged horizontal stabilizers and the larger A330-200 fin and it would need 222–267 kN (50–60,000 lbf) of unit thrust. The ultra-long-haul 1.53 m (5.0 ft) -500 stretch would seat 316 passengers, a little more than the -300, over 15,355 km (8,290 nmi), while the 10.07 m (33.0 ft) -600 stretch would offer a 25% larger cabin for 372 passengers over a range of 7,400 nmi (13,700 km).[54] MTOW was increased to 356 t (785,000 lb).[55]

Unwilling to commit to a $1 Billion development without a good return on investment prospects and a second application, in 1997 GE Aviation stopped exclusivity talks for a scaled down GE90 to 245–290 kN (55–65,000 lbf), leaving Rolls-Royce Plc proposing a more cost-effective Rolls-Royce Trent variant needing less development and Pratt & Whitney: a PW2000 advanced ducted propulsor, a PW4000 derivative or a new geared turbofan.[56] In June 1997, the 250 kN (56,000 lbf) Trent 500 was selected, with growth potential to 275 kN (62,000 lbf), derived from the A330 Trent 700 and the B777 Trent 800 with a reduced fan diameter and a new LP turbine, for a 7.7% lower TSFC than the 700. Airbus claims 10% lower operating costs per seat than the -300, 3% below those of what Boeing was then proposing, the 777-300X.[57] The $2.9 billion program was launched in December 1997 with 100 commitments from seven customers worth $3 billion, aiming to fly the first -600 in January 2001 and deliver it from early 2002 to capture at least half of the 1,500 sales forecast in the category through 2010.[58]

In 1998, the -600 stretch was stabilised at 20 frames for 10.6 m (35 ft), the MTOW rose to 365 t (805,000 lb) and the unit thrust to 52,000 to 60,000 lbf (230 to 270 kN), keeping the Trent 700 2.47 m (8.1 ft) fan diameter with its scaled IP and HP compressors and the high-speed, low-loading HP and IP turbines of the Trent 800.[59]

A340 stretch concepts
Period 1991[48] 1994[50] 1995[51] 1996[54] 1998[59]
Unit thrust 178 kN (40,000 lbf) 267 kN (60,000 lbf) 267 kN (60,000 lbf)
Stretch 12 frames (40 pax) 50 pax 20–22 frames, 10.07 m (33.0 ft) 20 frames, 10.6 m (35 ft)
Passengers 335 380 375 380
Range 5,900 nmi (10,900 km) same as -300 7,400 nmi (13,700 km) 7,500 nmi (13,900 km)
MTOW 267.0 t (588,600 lb) 300 t (660,000 lb) 356 t (785,000 lb) 365 t (805,000 lb)

Despite the -500/600 introduction, sales slowed in the 2000s as the Boeing 777-200LR/-300ER dominated the long-range 300-400 seats market. The A340-500IGW/600HGW high gross weight variants did not arouse much sales interest.[9][6][7] In January 2006, Airbus confirmed it studied an A340-600E (Enhanced), more fuel-efficient than earlier A340s, reducing the per-seat 8–9% greater fuel consumption of the -600 with the Boeing 777-300ER with new Trent 1500 engines and technologies from the A350 initial design.[9]

At 380, the advertised three-class seating of the -600 was well above the real world average of 323 seats, while the B777-300ER is advertised for 365 and offers 332, impacting seat costs. By 2018, a 2006 -600 was worth $18M and a 2003 one $10M, projected to fall to $7M in 2021 with a $200,000/month lease rate falling to $180,000 in 2021; its D check cost $4.5M and its engine overhaul $3–6M.[60]

End of production

In 2005, 155 B777s were ordered against 15 A340s: twin engine ETOPS restrictions were overcome by lower operating costs, compared to quad jets.[61] In 2007, Airbus predicted that another 127 A340 aircraft would likely be produced through 2016, the projected end of production.[62]

On 10 November 2011, Airbus announced the end of the A340 program. At that time, the company indicated that all firm orders had been delivered.[63] The decision to terminate the program came as A340-500/600 orders came to a halt, with analyst Nick Cunningham pointing out that the A340 "was too heavy and there was a big fuel burn gap between the A340 and Boeing’s 777". Bertrand Grabowski, managing director of aircraft financier DVB Bank SE, noted "in an environment where the fuel price is high, the A340 has had no chance to compete against similar twin engines, and the current lease rates and values of this aircraft reflect the deep resistance of any airlines to continue operating it".[9][6][7]

As a sales incentive amid low customer demand during the Great Recession, Airbus had offered buy-back guarantees to airlines that chose to procure the A340. By 2013, the resale value of an A340 declined by 30% over ten years, and both Airbus and Rolls-Royce were incurring related charges amounting to hundreds of millions of euros. Some analysts have expected the price of a flight-worthy, CFM56-powered A340 to drop below $10 million by 2023.[64]

Airbus could offer used A340s to airlines wishing to retire older aircraft such as the Boeing 747-400, claiming that the cost of purchasing and maintaining a second-hand A340 with increased seating and improved engine performance reportedly compared favourably to the procurement costs of a new Boeing 777.[65]

In 2013, as ultra-long range is a niche, the A340 was less attractive with best usage on long, thin routes, from hot-and-high airports or as interim air charter. A 10-year-old A340-300 had a base value of $35m and a market value of $24m, leading to $320,000/mo ($240,000-$350,000) lease rate, while a -500 is $425,000 and a -600 is leased $450,000 to $500,000 per month, versus $1.3m for a 777-300ER. The lighter A340-300 consumes 5% less fuel per trip with 300 passengers than the 312 passengers 777-200ER while the heavier A340-600 uses 12% more fuel than a 777-300ER.[66]

As an effort to support the A340's resale value, Airbus has proposed reconfiguring the aircraft's interior for a single class of 475 seats. As the Trent 500 engines are half the maintenance cost of the A340, Rolls-Royce proposed a cost-reducing maintenance plan similar to the company's existing program that reduced the cost of maintaining the RB211 engine powering Iberia's Boeing 757 freighters. Key to these programs is the salvaging, repair and reuse of serviceable parts from retired older engines.[67]

Airbus has positioned the larger versions of the A350, specifically the A350-900 and A350-1000, as the successors to the A340-500 and A340-600.

The ACJ340 is listed on the Airbus Corporate Jets website, as Airbus can convert retired A340 airliners to VIP transport configuration.[68]

Design

The A340-200/300 is powered by four CFM International CFM56-5Cs

The Airbus A340 is a wide-body twin-aisle passenger airliner which has the distinction of being the first truly long-range aircraft to be produced by Airbus.[69] It is powered by four FADEC turbofan jet engines, optimized to perform long distance routes.[70] The A340 had been built upon developments made in the production of earlier Airbus aircraft and as such shares many features with those aircraft, such as a common cockpit design with the Airbus A320 and A330; as the aircraft was developed at the same time as the A330, the two aircraft employ many similar components and sections, such as identical fly-by-wire control systems and similar wings.[23][71] Both before and after the A340 entered revenue service, the features and improvements developed were usually shared with the A330.[72]

The A340 is a low-wing cantilever monoplane; for the A340-200 and A340-300 variants, the wing itself is virtually identical to that of the A330. On the A330-300, one engine is installed at the inboard pylon while the outboard pylon position is not used; for the A340-300, both engine pylons are used. The A340's two engines at each wing provide a more equal force distribution (engine weight) over the wing; also, the total engine weight counteracting moment is located more outboard with more engine weight located further outboard on the wing, hence the wing root bending moment with equal TOW is less on the A340-300 than on the A330-300, which allows the A340-300 wing to able to sustain a higher (wing limited) MTOW to carry more fuel for greater range. The wings were designed and manufactured by BAe, which developed a long slender wing with a very high aspect ratio to provide high aerodynamic efficiency.[73][a] The wing is swept back at 30 degrees and, along with other design features, allows a maximum operating Mach number of 0.86.[75][76] To reach a long span and high aspect ratio without a large weight penalty, the wing has relatively high Thickness-to-chord ratio of 11.8%[77] or 12.8%.[78][b] Jet airliners have Thickness-to-chord ratios ranging from 9.4% (MD-11 or Boeing 747) to 13% (Avro RJ or 737 Classic).[79] Each wing also has a 2.74 m (9.0 ft) tall winglet instead of the wingtip fences found on earlier Airbus aircraft.[80] The failure of International Aero Engines' radical ultra-high-bypass V2500 SuperFan, which had promised around 15 per cent fuel burn reduction for the A340, led to multiple enhancements including wing upgrades to compensate.[80][81] Originally designed with a 56 m (184 ft) span, the wing was later extended to 58.6 m (192 ft) and finally to 60.3 m (198 ft).[80] At 60.3 m (198 ft), the wingspan is similar to that of the larger Boeing 747-200, but with 35 percent less wing area.[75][76]

Planform view of an A340-600 with the undercarriage retracting

The A340 uses a modified A320 glass cockpit. Instead of a conventional control yoke, the flight deck features side-stick controls. The main instrument panel is dominated by six cathode ray tube monitors which display information to the flight crew; on later aircraft, these monitors have been replaced by liquid crystal displays.[70] Flight information is directed via the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) and systems information through the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM).[82][83] The aircraft monitoring system is connected to various sensors throughout the aircraft and automatically alerts the crew to any parameters detected outside of their normal range; pilots can also manually inspect systems of their choosing at any time. The information display system is designed to be easily interpreted and give a clear picture of the aircraft's operational status.[70] Instead of paper manuals, electronic CD-ROM-based manuals are used; Airbus offers web-based updates to electronic documentation as an option.[84]

Many measures were taken from the start of the A340's design process to reduce the difficulty and cost of maintenance, which was reportedly half of that of the earlier Airbus A310 despite the increase in size.[84] The aircraft's four engines featured improved controls and monitoring systems that enabled engine parameters to be more readily checked and avoid unnecessary early removals; the four-engine approach also avoided the stringent ETOPS requirements such as more frequent inspections. The A340 also has a centralised maintenance computer which provides comprehensive easily understandable systems information, which can be transmitted in real-time to ground facilities via the onboard satellite-based ACARS datalink.[70][84] Some aspects of the maintenance, such as structural changes, remained unchanged, while increased sophistication of technology in the passenger cabin, like the in-flight entertainment systems, were increased over preceding airliners.[84]

Operational history

Air Lanka's first A340-300, 4R-ADA

The first variant of the A340 to be introduced, the A340-200, entered service with the launch customer, Lufthansa, in 1993. It was followed shortly thereafter by the A340-300 with its operator, Air France. Lufthansa's first A340, which had been dubbed Nürnberg (D-AIBA),[42] began revenue service on 15 March 1993.[41][85] Air Lanka (later renamed Sri Lankan Airlines) became the Asian launch customer of the Airbus A340; the airline received its first A340-300, registered (4R-ADA), in September 1994. British airline Virgin Atlantic was an early adopter of the A340; in addition to operating several A340-300 aircraft, Virgin Atlantic announced in August 1997 that it was to be the worldwide launch customer for the new A340-600.[86] The first commercial flight of the A340-600 was performed by Virgin in July 2002.[86]

Singapore Airlines ordered 17 A340-300s and operated them until October 2013. The A340-300s were purchased by Boeing as part of an order for Boeing 777s in 1999.[87] The airline then purchased five long-range A340-500s, which joined the fleet in December 2003. In February 2004, the airline's A340-500 performed the longest non-stop commercial air service in the world, conducting a non-stop flight between Singapore and Los Angeles.[88] In 2004, Singapore Airlines launched an even longer non-stop route using the A340-500 between Newark and Singapore, SQ 21, a 15,344 kilometres (8,285 nmi) journey that was the longest scheduled non-stop commercial flight in the world.[89] The airline continued to operate this route regularly until the airline decided to retire the type in favour of new A380 and A350 aircraft;[90] its last A340 flight was performed in late 2013.

The A340 was typically used by airlines as a medium-sized long-haul aircraft, and was often a replacement for older Boeing 747s as it was more likely profitable.[91] Airbus produced a number of A340s as large private jets for VIP customers, often to replace aging Boeing 747s in this same role. In 2008, Airbus launched a dedicated corporate jetliner version of the A340-200: one key selling point of this aircraft was a range of up to 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 km). Airbus had built up to nine different customized versions of the A340 to private customer's specific demands prior to 2008.[92]

South African Airways A340-200 near London Heathrow Airport, 2010

The A340 has frequently been operated as a dedicated transport for heads of state. A pair of A340-300s were acquired from Lufthansa by the Flugbereitschaft of the German Air Force; they serve as VIP transports for the German Chancellor and other key members of the German government.[93] The A340 is also operated by the air transport division of the French Air Force, where it is used as a strategic transport for troop deployments and supply missions, as well as to transport government officials.[94] A one-of-a-kind aircraft, the A340-8000, was originally built for Prince Jefri Bolkiah, brother of the Sultan of Brunei Hassanal Bolkiah. The aircraft was unused and stored in Hamburg until it was procured by Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal of the House of Saud,[95] and later sold to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, then-President of Libya; the aircraft was operated by Afriqiyah Airways and was often referred to as Afriqiyah One.[96]

In 2008, jet fuel prices doubled compared to the year before; consequently, the A340's fuel consumption led airlines to reduce flight stages exceeding 15 hours. Thai Airways International cancelled its 17-hour, nonstop Bangkok–New York/JFK route on 1 July 2008, and placed its four A340-500s for sale. While short flights stress aircraft more than long flights and result in more frequent fuel-thirsty take-offs and landings, ultra-long flights require completely full fuel tanks. The higher weights in turn require a greater proportion of an aircraft's fuel fraction just to take off and to stay airborne. In 2008, Air France-KLM SA's chief executive Pierre-Henri Gourgeon disparagingly referred to the A340 as a "flying tanker with a few people on board".[97] While Thai Airways consistently filled 80% of the seats on its New York City–Bangkok flights, it estimated that, at 2008 fuel prices, it would need an impossible 120% of seats filled just to break even.[98] Other airlines also re-examined long-haul flights. In August 2008 Cathay Pacific stated that rising fuel costs were hurting its trans-Pacific long-haul routes disproportionately, and that it would cut the number of such flights and redeploy its aircraft to shorter routes such as between Hong Kong and Australia. "We will ... reshap[e] our network where necessary to ensure we fly aircraft to where we can cover our costs and also make some money."[99] Aviation Week noted that rapid performance increases of twin-engine aircraft has led to the detriment of four-engine types of comparable capacity such as the A340 and 747; at this point most 747s had accumulated significant flying hours before retirement in contrast to A340s which were relatively young when grounded.[8][100][101]

By 2014, Singapore Airlines had phased out the type, discontinuing SQ21 and SQ22, which had been the longest non-stop scheduled flights in the world. Emirates Airlines decided to accelerate the retirement of its A340 fleet, writing down the value of the A340-500 type to zero despite the oldest -500 only being 10 years old, with president Tim Clark saying they "designed in the late 1990s with fuel at $25-30. They fell over at $60 and at $120 they haven’t got a hope in hell".[102]

Passenger cabin of a Lufthansa A340

International Airlines Group, the parent of Iberia Airlines (which is also the operator of the last production A340 built), is overhauling its A340-600s for continued service for the foreseeable future, while it is retiring its A340-300s. The IAG overhaul featured improved conditions and furnishings in the business and economy classes; the business-class capacity was raised slightly while not changing the type's overall operating cost. Lufthansa, which operates both Airbus A340-300s and -600s, concluded that, while it is not possible to make the A340 more fuel efficient, it can respond to increased interest in business-class services by replacing first-class seats with more business-class seats to increase revenue.[102][103]

In 2013, Snecma announced that they planned to use the A340 as a flying testbed for the development of a new open rotor engine. This test aircraft is forecast to conduct its first flight in 2019. Open rotor engines are typically more fuel-efficient but noisier than conventional turbofan engines; introducing such an engine commercially has been reported as requiring significant legislative changes within engine approval authorities due to its differences from contemporary jet engines. The engine, partly based on the Snecma M88 turbofan engine used on the Dassault Rafale, is being developed under the European Clean Sky research initiative.[104][105]

Variants

Airbus A340 family
Airbus A340 variants
ICAO code[106] Model(s)
A342 A340-200
A343 A340-300
A345 A340-500
A346 A340-600

There are four variants of the A340. The A340-200 and A340-300 were launched in 1987 with introduction into service in March 1993 for the -200. The A340-500 and A340-600 were launched in 1997 with introduction into service in 2002. All variants were available in a corporate version.

A340-200

French Air Force A340-200 at Toulouse–Blagnac Airport

The -200 is one of two initial versions of the A340; it has seating for 261 passengers in a three-class cabin layout with a range of 13,800 kilometres (7,500 nmi) or seating for 240 passengers also in a three-class cabin layout for a range of 15,000 kilometres (8,100 nmi).[107] This is the shortest version of the family and the only version with a wingspan measuring greater than its fuselage length. It is powered by four CFMI CFM56-5C4 engines and uses the Honeywell 331–350[A] auxiliary power unit (APU).[108] It initially entered service with Air France in May 1993. Due to its large wingspan, four engines, low capacity and improvements to the larger A340-300, the -200 proved heavy and unpopular with mainstream airlines. Only 28 A340-200s were produced. The closest Boeing competitor is the Boeing 767-400ER.

One version of this type (referred to by Airbus as the A340-8000) was ordered by the prince Jefri Bolkiah requesting a non-stop range of 15,000 kilometres (8,100 nmi). This A340-8000, in the Royal Brunei Airlines livery had an increased fuel capacity, an MTOW of 275 tonnes (606,000 lb), similar to the A340-300, and minor reinforcements to the undercarriage. It is powered by the 150 kilonewtons (34,000 lbf) thrust CFM56-5C4s similar to the -300E. Only one A340-8000 was produced. Besides the -8000, some A340-200s are used for VIP or military use; users include Royal Brunei Airlines, Qatar Amiri Flight, Arab Republic of Egypt Government, Royal Saudi Air Force, Jordan and the French Air Force. Following the -8000, other A340-200s were later given performance improvement packages (PIPs) that helped them achieve similar gains in capability as to the A340-8000. Those aircraft are labeled A340-213X. The range for this version is 15,000 kilometres (8,100 nmi).

The final airline example of the A340-200 was retired by Air Leisure in July 2017.[109] All active remaining A340-200s still flying after July 2017 are VIP or government planes.

A340-300

Lufthansa Airbus A340-300 on final approach

The A340-300 flies 295 passengers in a typical three-class cabin layout over 6,700 nautical miles (12,400 km). This is the initial version, having flown on 25 October 1991, and entered service with Lufthansa and Air France in March 1993. It is powered by four CFMI CFM56-5C engines and uses the Honeywell 331–350[A] APU,[108] similar to the -200. The A340-300 is superseded by the A350-900.[110] Its closest competitor is the Boeing 777-200ER.[111] A total of 218 -300s were delivered.

The A340-300E, often mislabelled as A340-300X, has an increased MTOW of up to 275 tonnes (606,000 lb) and is powered by the more powerful 34,000 lbf (150 kN) thrust CFMI CFM56-5C4 engines. Typical range with 295 passengers is between 7,200 to 7,400 nautical miles (13,300 to 13,700 km). The largest operator of this type is Lufthansa, who has operated a fleet of 30 aircraft. The A340-300 Enhanced is the latest version of this model and was first delivered to South African Airways in 2003, with Air Mauritius receiving the A340-300 Enhanced into its fleet in 2006. It received newer CFM56-5C4/P engines and improved avionics and fly-by-wire systems developed for the A340-500 and -600.

As of July 2018, there were 96 Airbus A340-300s in airline service.[112]

A340-500

When the A340-500 was introduced, it was the world's longest-range commercial airliner. It first flew on 11 February 2002, and was certified on 3 December 2002. Air Canada was supposed to be the launch customer, but filed for bankruptcy in January 2003, delaying delivery to March. This allowed early deliveries to the new launch customer, Emirates, allowing the carrier to launch nonstop service from Dubai to New York—its first route in the Americas. The A340-500 can fly 313 passengers in a three-class cabin layout over 16020 km (8650 nm). Compared with the A340-300, the -500 features a 4.3-metre (14.1 ft) fuselage stretch, an enlarged wing, significant increase in fuel capacity (around 50% over the -300), slightly higher cruising speed, a larger horizontal stabilizer and a larger vertical tailplane. The centerline main landing gear was changed to a four-wheel bogie to support additional weight. The A340-500 is powered by four 240 kN (54,000 lbf) thrust Rolls-Royce Trent 553 turbofans and uses the Honeywell 331–600[A] APU.[113]

Etihad Airways Airbus A340-500 taking off

Designed for ultra long-haul routes, the -500 has a range of 9,000 nautical miles,[114] where the Boeing 777-200LR have an 8,555 nmi range,[115] 445 fewer. Due to its range, the -500 is capable of travelling non-stop from London to Perth, Western Australia, though a return flight requires a fuel stop due to headwinds.[116] Singapore Airlines used this model (initially in a two-class 181-passenger layout, later in a 100-passenger business-only layout) between early 2004 and late 2013 for its Newark–Singapore and Singapore–Newark nonstop routes SQ21 and SQ22. The former was an 18-hour, 45-minute 'westbound' (actually a polar route northbound to 130 km (70 nm) abeam the North Pole, then south across Russia, Mongolia and the People's Republic of China) and the latter was an 18-hour, 30-minute eastbound, 15,344 kilometres (8,285 nmi) journey. At the time, the flight was the longest scheduled non-stop commercial flight in the world.[89][117] Singapore Airlines even added a special compartment to the aircraft to store a corpse if a passenger were to die during the flight, though it was reported it had not been necessary.[118][117] Singapore Airlines suspended operating the flight from 2013 onwards partly due to high fuel prices then and returned its aircraft to Airbus in exchange for ordering new Airbus A350 aircraft.[117] The SQ21/SQ22 route was eventually resumed, flown by A350-900ULR aircraft.[119]

The A340-500IGW (Increased Gross Weight) version has a range of 17,000 km (9,200 nmi) and a MTOW of 380 t (840,000 lb) and first flew on 13 October 2006. It uses the strengthened structure and enlarged fuel capacity of the A340-600. The certification aircraft, a de-rated A340-541 model, became the first delivery, to Thai Airways International, on 11 April 2007.[120] Nigerian airline Arik Air received a pair of A340-542s in November 2008, using the type to immediately launch two new routes, Lagos–London Heathrow and Lagos–Johannesburg; a non-stop Lagos–New York route began in January 2010.[121][122] The A340-500IGW is powered by four 250 kN (56,000 lbf) thrust Rolls-Royce Trent 556 turbofans.

Like the A340-200, a shortened derivative of the -300, the -500 was unpopular.[123] The -500 series was considered "very inefficient for how few seats they have because they still carry most of the guts of the larger airplanes [the A340-600] from which they were shrunk". Also the ultra long-haul market was a niche that was difficult to profit from, due to the amount of fuel that had to be carried. In addition, the -500 could not meet its maximum range without carrying a reduced load of passengers, so several operators reconfigured their -500s from a mix of business and premium economy to an all-business class with 100 seats.[citation needed] As of July 2018, there were 3 A340-500s in airline service, 2 with Azerbaijan Airlines and 1 with Hi Fly.[112]

A340-600

Lufthansa operates the largest number of A340-600s

Designed to replace early-generation Boeing 747 airliners, the A340-600 is capable of carrying 379 passengers in a three-class cabin layout 13,900 km (7,500 nmi). It provides similar passenger capacity to a 747 but with 25 percent more cargo volume, and at lower trip and seat costs. The first flight of the A340-600 was made on 23 April 2001.[124] Virgin Atlantic began commercial services in August 2002.[125][126] The variant's main competitor is the 777-300ER. The A340-600 was replaced by the A350-1000.

The A340-600 is 12 m (39 ft 4.4 in) longer than a -300, more than 4 m (13 ft 1.5 in) longer than the Boeing 747-400 and 2.3 m (7 ft 6.6 in) longer than the A380, and has two emergency exit doors added over the wings. It held the record for the world's longest commercial aircraft until the first flight of the Boeing 747-8 in February 2010. The A340-600 is powered by four 250 kN (56,000 lbf) thrust Rolls-Royce Trent 556 turbofans and uses the Honeywell 331–600[A] APU.[113] As with the -500, it has a four-wheel undercarriage bogie on the fuselage centre-line to cope with the increased MTOW along with the enlarged wing and rear empennage. Upper deck main cabin space can be optionally increased by locating facilities such as crew rest areas, galleys, and lavatories upon the aircraft's lower deck. In early 2007, Airbus reportedly advised carriers to reduce cargo in the forward section by 5.0 t (11,000 lb) to compensate for overweight first and business class sections; the additional weight caused the aircraft's centre of gravity to move forward thus reducing cruise efficiency. Affected airlines considered filing compensation claims with Airbus.[127]

The A340-600HGW (High Gross Weight) version first flew on 18 November 2005[128] and was certified on 14 April 2006.[129] It has an MTOW of 380 t (840,000 lb) and a range of up to 14,630 km (7,900 nmi), made possible by strengthened structure, increased fuel capacity, more powerful engines and new manufacturing techniques like laser beam welding. The A340-600HGW is powered by four 61,900 lbf (275 kN) thrust Rolls-Royce Trent 560 turbofans. Emirates became the launch customer for the -600HGW when it ordered 18 at the 2003 Paris Air Show;[130] but postponed its order indefinitely and later cancelled. Rival Qatar Airways, which placed its order at the same airshow, took delivery of only four aircraft with the first aircraft on 11 September 2006.[131] The airline has since let its purchase options expire in favour of orders for the Boeing 777-300ER.[132]

As of July 2018, there were 60 A340-600s in service with six airlines worldwide.[112]

Operators

Main article: List of Airbus A340 operators

A total of 135 aircraft (all A340 variants) were in service in July 2019.[133] Airline operators were Lufthansa (28), Iberia (17), South African Airways (13), Mahan Air (10), and other airlines with fewer aircraft of the type.[2][134]

Deliveries

Deliveries
Type Total 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993
A340-200 28 1 3 3 5 4 12
A340-300 218 3 2 2 4 5 10 8 22 19 20 23 30 25 14 21 10
A340-500 34 2 0 2 2 1 4 5 9 7
A340-600 97 2 8 8 8 18 15 14 16 8
Total 377 2 0 4 10 13 11 24 24 28 33 16 22 19 20 24 33 28 19 25 22

Data through end of July 2017. Updated on 6 August 2017.[2]

Accidents and incidents

Remains of Air France Flight 358 at Toronto Pearson International Airport
This A340-600 was written off in a ground testing accident prior to delivery

As of September 2019, the A340 has never been involved in a fatal incident, although there have been six hull losses:[135][136]

  • 20 January 1994 – an Air France A340-200 registered F-GNIA was destroyed by fire during servicing at Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport.[137]
  • 5 November 1997 – a Virgin Atlantic Airways Airbus A340-311 conducted an emergency landing on Runway 27L at London (England) Heathrow Airport with the aircraft's left-main landing gear partially extended. The aircraft was repaired and returned to service.[138][139]
  • 29 August 1998 – a Sabena A340-200 (OO-SCW) was severely damaged while landing on Runway 25L in Brussels Zaventem Airport. The right main gear collapsed; the right engines and wingtip hit the runway and slid to the right in soft ground. The 255 passengers and 10 crew were safely evacuated. The cause of the gear failure was found to be a fatigue crack. Although severely damaged, the aircraft was repaired and returned to service for 16 years until it was stored.[139][140]
  • 24 July 2001 – a SriLankan Airlines A340-300 registered 4R-ADD was destroyed on the ground at Bandaranaike International Airport; being one of 26 aircraft which were damaged or destroyed during a major attack upon the airport by Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam militants.[141][142]
  • 2 August 2005 – Air France Flight 358 was destroyed by a crash and subsequent fire after it overran runway 24L at Toronto Pearson International Airport while landing in a thunderstorm. The aircraft slid into Etobicoke Creek and caught fire. All 297 passengers and 12 crew survived; 43 people were injured, 12 seriously.[143][144]
  • 9 November 2007 – an Iberia Airlines A340-600 was badly damaged after sliding off the runway at Ecuador's Mariscal Sucre International Airport. The landing gear collapsed and two engines broke off. All 333 passengers and crew were evacuated via inflatable slides, and there were no serious injuries. The aircraft was scrapped.[145]
  • 15 November 2007 – an A340-600 was damaged beyond repair during ground testing at Airbus' facilities at Toulouse Blagnac International Airport. During a pre-delivery engine test, multiple safety checks had been disabled,[146] leading to the non-chocked aircraft accelerating to 31 knots (57 km/h; 36 mph) and colliding with a concrete blast deflection wall. The right wing, tail, and left engines made contact with the ground or wall, leaving the forward section elevated several metres and the cockpit broken off; nine people on board were injured, four of them seriously.[146][147] The aircraft was written off and was later used at Virgin Atlantic's cabin crew training facility in Crawley.[148] It had been due to be delivered to Etihad Airways.[149]
  • 20 March 2009 – Emirates Flight 407 was an Emirates flight flying from Melbourne to Dubai-International using an A340-500. The flight failed to take off properly from Melbourne Airport, hitting several structures at the end of the runway before eventually climbing enough to return to the airport for a safe landing. The occurrence was severe enough to be classified an accident by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau.[150][151] The plane was subsequently repaired, and returned to service for five years before it was scrapped.[152]
  • 11 June 2018 – A Lufthansa A340-300, registration D-AIFA, was being towed with maintenance staff on board to the departure gate at Frankfurt's terminal when the tow truck caught fire. The flames substantially damaged the aircraft front section, and 10 people received minor injuries.[153] The damage was assessed to be beyond economical repair and the aircraft was written off.[152]

Specifications

Variant A340-200[154] A340-300[154] A340-500[155] A340-600[155]
Cockpit crew Two
Seating 261 (3-class) [156] or 303 (30F + 273Y) 277 (3-class) [157] or 335 (30F + 305Y) 293 [158] or 313 (12F + 36J + 265Y) 326 [159] or 380 (12F + 54J + 314Y)
Exit limit[160] 420[c]/375 375/440[c]/375 375 440
Length 59.39 m / 194.85 ft 63.69 m / 208.96 ft 67.93 m / 222.87 ft 75.36 m / 247.24 ft
Wingspan 60.3 m / 197.83 ft 63.45 m / 208.17 ft
Wing[161] 363.1 m2 (3,908 sq ft), 29.7° sweep, 10 AR 437.3 m2 (4,707 sq ft), 31.1° sweep, 9.2 AR
Height 17.03 m / 55.86 ft 16.99 m / 55.72 ft 17.53 m / 57.51 ft 17.93 m / 58.84 ft
Fuselage 5.287 m / 208.15 in cabin width, 5.64 m / 18.5 ft outside width
Cargo volume 158.4 m3 (5,590 cu ft) 132.4 m3 (4,680 cu ft) 149.7 m3 (5,290 cu ft) 201.7 m3 (7,120 cu ft)
MTOW 275 t (606,000 lb) 276.5 t (610,000 lb) 380 t (840,000 lb)
Max. PL 51 t (112,000 lb) 52 t (115,000 lb) 54 t (119,000 lb) 66 t (146,000 lb)<
OEW 118 t (260,000 lb) 131 t (289,000 lb) 168 t (370,000 lb) 174 t (384,000 lb)
Max. Fuel 110.4 t / 243,395 lb 175.2 t / 386,292 lb 155.5 t / 342,905 lb [d]
Engines (×4) CFM International CFM56-5C Trent 553 Trent 556
Thrust (×4)[160] 138.78–151.24 kN (31,200–34,000 lbf) 248.12–275.35 kN (55,780–61,902 lbf)
Speed Mach 0.86 (493 kn; 914 km/h) max,[162] Mach 0.82 (470 kn; 871 km/h) cruise
Range, max pax 7,600 nmi (14,100 km) 7,150 nmi (13,240 km) 9,000 nmi (17,000 km) 7,550 nmi (13,980 km)
Take off[e] 2,900 m (9,500 ft) 3,000 m (10,000 ft) 3,350 m (10,990 ft) 3,400 m (11,200 ft)
Ceiling 12,500 m (41,000 ft)[163] 12,527 m (41,100 ft)[164]
Line drawings
  • A340-200/300
    A340-200/300
  • A340-500/600
    A340-500/600

Engines

Model Certification date Engines[160]
A340-211 22 December 1992 CFM 56-5C2
A340-212 14 March 1994 CFM 56-5C3
A340-213 19 December 1995 CFM 56-5C4
A340-311 22 December 1992 CFM 56-5C2
A340-312 14 March 1994 CFM 56-5C3
A340-313 16 March 1995 CFM 56-5C4
A340-541 3 December 2002 RR Trent 553-61 / 553A2-61
A340-542 15 February 2007 RR Trent 556A2-61
A340-642 21 May 2002 RR Trent 556-61 / 556A2-61
A340-643 11 April 2006 RR Trent 560A2-61

See also

Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

Related lists

References

Notes
  1. ^ The higher the aspect ratio, the greater the aerodynamic efficiency.[74]
  2. ^ This is the thickness to chord ratio of the early Airbus A340 variants, which share the same wing with the A330
  3. ^ a b 4 Type A doors
  4. ^ no aux. tank, 164 t / 361 595 lb with 1 aux. tank
  5. ^ MTOW, SL, ISA
References
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  3. ^ "Dimensions & key data | Airbus, a leading aircraft manufacturer". Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
  4. ^ "Dimensions & key data | Airbus, a leading aircraft manufacturer". Archived from the original on 30 June 2016. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
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  9. ^ a b c d "Enhanced A340 to take on 777". Flight International. 29 November 2005.
  10. ^ Wensveen 2007, p. 63
  11. ^ Gunston 2009
  12. ^ a b Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 18 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  13. ^ a b c Eden 2008, p. 30
  14. ^ a b c d e f Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 23 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  15. ^ Norris & Wagner 1999, p. 59
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  23. ^ a b c Lawrence & Thornton 2005, p. 73
  24. ^ Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 24 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  25. ^ Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 26 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
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  27. ^ a b Norris & Wagner 1999, p. 67
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  29. ^ Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 36 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  30. ^ a b Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 51 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  31. ^ a b Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 52 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  32. ^ a b Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 53 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  33. ^ a b Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 32 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  34. ^ Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 55 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  35. ^ "Timeline 40 Years of Innovation" (PDF). Airbus. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  36. ^ a b Norris & Wagner 1999, p. 66
  37. ^ Norris, & Wagner 2001, p. 59 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  38. ^ Norris & Wagner 1999, p. 67
  39. ^ Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 65 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  40. ^ Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 67 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  41. ^ a b c d Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 71 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
  42. ^ a b Eden 2008, p. 35
  43. ^ Norris & Wagner 2001, p. 72 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNorrisWagner2001 (help)
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  46. ^ Eden 2008, pp. 29, 37
  47. ^ "Boeing 777 Distance and Speed World Records Confirmed" (Press release). Boeing. 29 July 1997.
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  54. ^ a b David Learmount (9 October 1996). "Airbus pushes on with new versions of A340". Flight International.
  55. ^ "Airliners of the world". Flight International. 4 December 1996.
  56. ^ Andrew Doyle (25 February 1997). "Airbus suffers setback as GE walks away from A340-600". Flight International.
  57. ^ Julian Moxon (18 June 1997). "Airbus makes Trent 500 deal with Rolls-Royce". Flight International.
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