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The Nobel Prize
DescriptionOutstanding contributions in Physics, Chemistry, Literature, Peace, and Physiology or Medicine.

The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, commonly identified with the Nobel Prize, is awarded for outstanding contributions in Economics.
CountrySweden, (Norway)
Presented bySwedish Academy
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Karolinska Institutet
Norwegian Nobel Committee
First awarded1901
Websitehttp://nobelprize.org
Alfred Nobel

The Nobel Prize (Swedish: Nobelpriset) is a Sweden-based international monetary prize. The award was established by the 1895 will and estate of Swedish chemist and inventor Alfred Nobel. It was first awarded in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace in 1901. An associated prize, The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, was instituted by Sweden's central bank in 1968 and first awarded in 1969.[1] The Nobel Prizes in the specific disciplines (Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature) and the Prize in Economics, which is commonly identified with them, are widely regarded as the most prestigious award one can receive in those fields.[1] The Nobel Peace Prize conveys social prestige and is often politically controversial.

Ceremony

With the exception of the Nobel Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economics are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on the 10th of December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The recipients' lectures are presented in the days prior to the award ceremony.[2] The Nobel Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, also on the 10th of December. The reason why Norway distributes a part of the prize is that at the time of Alfred Nobel's death, Norway and Sweden were joined together in a personal union known as the Swedish-Norwegian Union.[3][4] The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are nowadays major international events.[2]

Alfred Nobel's will

Alfred Nobel's will from November 25, 1895

Five Nobel Prizes were instituted by the final will of Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist and industrialist, who was the inventor of the high explosive dynamite. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million Swedish Kronor, to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes.[5] (As of 2008 that equates to 186 million US dollars.)

The whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the following way:

The capital shall be invested by my executors in safe securities and shall constitute a fund, the interest on which shall be annually distributed in the form of prizes to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. The said interest shall be divided into five equal parts, which shall be apportioned as follows: one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics; one part to the person who shall have made the most important chemical discovery or improvement; one part to the person who shall have made the most important discovery within the domain of physiology or medicine; one part to the person who shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency; and one part to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity among nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses.

The prizes for physics and chemistry shall be awarded by the Swedish Academy of Sciences; that for physiological or medical works by Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm; that for literature by the Academy in Stockholm; and that for champions of peace by a committee of five persons to be elected by the Norwegian Storting. It is my expressed wish that in awarding the prizes no consideration whatever shall be given to the nationality of the candidates, so that the most worthy shall receive the prize, whether he be Scandinavian or not.

— Alfred Nobel, Alfred Nobel's Will[6]

Although Nobel's will established the prizes, his plan was incomplete and, due to various other hurdles, it took five years before the Nobel Foundation could be established and the first prizes awarded on 10 December 1901.[7] The current size of the Nobel endowment fund is about US$400 million.[citation needed]

Nomination and selection

Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien (Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)

Compared with some other prizes, the Prize nomination and selection process is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why the Prizes have grown in importance over the years to become the most important prizes in their field.[8]

The Nobel laureates are selected by their respective Nobel Committees. For the Prizes in Physics, Chemistry and Economics, a committee consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; for the Prize in Literature, a committee of four to five members of the Swedish Academy; for the Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the committee consists of five members selected by The Nobel Assembly, which consists of 50 members elected by Karolinska Institutet; for the Peace Prize, the Norwegian Nobel Committee consists of five members elected by the Norwegian Storting (the Norwegian parliament).[9] In its first stage, several thousand people are asked to nominate candidates. These names are scrutinized and discussed by experts in their specific disciplines until only the winners remain. This slow and thorough process is arguably what gives the prize its importance. Despite this, there have been questionable awards and questionable omissions over the prize's century-long history.

The Dalai Lama & Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize winners. Photo by Carey Linde, 2004.

Forms, which amount to a personal and exclusive invitation, are sent to about three thousand selected individuals to invite them to submit nominations. For the peace prize, inquiries are sent to such people as governments of states, members of international courts, professors and rectors at university level, former Peace Prize laureates, current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, among others. The Norwegian Nobel Committee then bases its assessment on nominations sent in before 3 February.[10] The submission deadline for nominations for Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature and Economics is 31 January.[11] Self-nominations and nominations of deceased people are disqualified.

The names of the nominees are never publicly announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the Prize. Nomination records are sealed for 50 years.[12] In practice, some nominees do become known. It is also common for publicists to make such a claim, founded or not.

After the deadline has passed, the nominations are screened by committee, and a list is produced of approximately 200 preliminary candidates. This list is forwarded to selected experts in the relevant field. They remove all but approximately 15 names. The committee submits a report with recommendations to the appropriate institution. The Assembly for the Physiology or Medicine Prize, for example, has 50 members. The institution members then select prize winners by vote.

The committee room of the Norwegian Nobel Committee

The selection process varies slightly between the different disciplines. The Literature Prize is rarely awarded to more than one person per year, whereas other Prizes now often involve collaborators of two or three.

While posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can occur if the individual died in the months between the nomination and the decision of the prize committee. The scenario has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize of Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. As of 1974, laureates must be alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate— William Vickrey (1996, Economics)— who died after the prize was announced but before it could be presented.

Recognition time lag

Nobel's will provides for prizes to be awarded in recognition for discoveries made "during the preceding year", and for the first years of the awards, the discoveries recognized were recent. However, some awards were made for discoveries that were later discredited.[citation needed] Taking the discrediting of a recognized discovery as an embarrassment, the awards committees began to recognize scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time, in violation of the letter but not the spirit of Nobel's will.

The interval between the accomplishment of the achievement being recognized and the awarding of the Nobel Prize for it varies from discipline to discipline. The prizes in Literature are typically awarded to recognize a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. In this case the notion of "lag" does not directly apply. The prizes in Peace, on the other hand, are often awarded within a few years of the events they recognize. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Awards in the scientific disciplines of physics, chemistry, and medicine require that the significance of achievements being recognized is "tested by time." In practice it means that the lag between the discovery and the award is typically on the order of 20 years and can be even longer. For example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on stellar structure and evolution from the 1930s. Unfortunately, not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognized. Some important scientific discoveries are never considered for a Prize if the discoverers have died by the time the impact of their work is realized.

Award ceremonies

Melvin Calvin receiving the Nobel Prize at the Stockholm concert hall in 1961.

The committees and institutions serving as the selection boards for the Nobel Prizes typically announce the names of the laureates in October, with the Prizes awarded at formal ceremonies held annually on 10 December, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.[2] These Prize ceremonies are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel Banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall.

The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946); at the Aula of the University of Oslo (1947–1990); and most recently at the Oslo City Hall.[2]

A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Each award can be given to a maximum of three recipients per year. Each "Nobel Prize Award" consists of a gold medal, a diploma, and a monetary grant:

The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel Laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of His Majesty the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway. Under the eyes of a watching world, the Nobel Laureate receives three things: a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the prize amount.[13]

The grant is currently 10 million SEK, slightly more than US$1.2 million.[14]

If there are two winners in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others. It is not uncommon for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural or humanitarian causes.

Konserthuset (Stockholm)

Since 1902, the King of Sweden has, with the exception of the Nobel Peace Prize, presented all the prizes in Stockholm. At first King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners, but is said to have changed his mind once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden.

Until the Norwegian Nobel Committee was established in 1904, the President of Norwegian Parliament made the formal presentation of the Nobel Peace Prize. The Committee's five members are entrusted with researching and adjudicating the Prize as well as awarding it. Although appointed by the Norwegian Parliament (Stortinget), they are independent and answer to no legislative authority. Members of the Norwegian government are not permitted to sit on the Committee.

Nobel Banquet

After the award ceremony at the Concert Hall, around 1300 guests proceed to the Stockholm City Hall, where a banquet featuring a three course dinner, entertainment and dancing is held. The Royal Family of Sweden and the Nobel Prize Laureates are guests of honour. The banquet is extensively covered by Swedish and International media.

Previously, the Nobel Prizes ceremony was held in a ballroom in Stockholm's Grand Hotel.[2]

Nobel NightCap

Since 1978, sanctioned by the Nobel foundation, the student unions at four of Stockholm's institutions of higher learning: Stockholm University, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm School of Economics and Karolinska Institutet , arrange a lavish Afterparty on a rotating basis, to be held after the Nobel Banquet. Nobel NightCap is designed around a secret theme, unveiled at the eve of the party. The event is aimed at providing the Nobel Laureates and other guests with an opportunity to continue celebrations in a relaxed environment without media participation.[15]

Nobel Prize medals

Front side (obverse) of one of the Nobel Prize medals in Physiology or Medicine awarded in 1950 to researchers at the Mayo Clinic.
File:DSCN0732.JPG
Obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize Medal presented to Sir Ralph Norman Angell in 1933; the Imperial War Museum, London.

The Nobel Prize medals, which have been minted by Myntverket[16] in Sweden and the Mint of Norway since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. All of these medal designs feature an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse (the face of the medal). Four of the five Nobel Prize medals (Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature) feature the same design on the obverse (front sides). The reverse sides of the Nobel Prize medals for Chemistry and Physics share a design.[13][17][18] Both sides of the Nobel Peace Prize Medal[19] and the Medal for The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel are unique designs.[17][13]

The Nobel Prize medals in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine and Literature have identical obverses: it shows the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833–1896). Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize Medal and the Medal for the Prize in Economics, but with a slightly different design. The image on the reverse varies according to the institution awarding the prize. All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Today, they are made from 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. They each weigh approximately 200 g and have a diameter of 66 mm.[13][17]

Due to their gold content and public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft. During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were (illegally) sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, chemist George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia, to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast.[17]

Controversies and criticisms

Main articles: Nobel Prize controversies and Non-laureates and controversies regarding the Nobel Prize in Literature

Since the first Nobel Prize was awarded in 1901, the proceedings, nominations, awards and exclusions have generated criticism and engendered much controversy.

2009 Peace Prize to U.S. President Barack Obama

On October 9, 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize less than one year after his taking office (in fact, the nominations closed on February 1, about 11 days after Obama took office). While the committee praised his ambitious foreign policy agenda, it acknowledged that he had not yet actually achieved many of the goals that he had set out to accomplish. Former Polish President Lech Wałęsa, a 1983 Nobel Peace laureate, commented: "So soon? Too early. He has no contribution so far. He is still at an early stage. He is only beginning to act." The Associated Press speculated that the award was given not as much for his own achievements, but that "The award appeared to be a slap at Bush from a committee that harshly criticized Obama's predecessor for his largely unilateral military action in the wake of the Sept. 11 terror attacks." According to the AP, Archbishop Desmond Tutu of South Africa, who won the prize in 1984, also felt that the award acknowledge not what Obama had done, but said Obama's award shows great things are expected from him in coming years. "The exciting and important thing about this prize is that it's given to someone ... who has the power to contribute to peace," Norwegian Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg said.

"In less than a year in office, he has transformed the way we look at ourselves and the world we live in and rekindled hope for a world at peace with itself," Mohamed ElBaradei said. As stated by former Peace Prize winner ElBaradei, director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, "[Obama] has shown an unshakeable commitment to diplomacy, mutual respect and dialogue as the best means of resolving conflicts." The Norwegian Nobel Committee chairman Thorbjoern Jagland said, "Only very rarely has a person to the same extent as Obama captured the world's attention and given its people hope for a better future."

On the contrary, Republican strategist Ed Rollins said: "Nobel committee cheapens award" referring to the award[20].

Obama is the third sitting U.S. president to win the award: Theodore Roosevelt was awarded the prize in 1906 as was Woodrow Wilson in 1919.

Overlooked achievements

Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize five times between 1937 and 1948 but never received the prize, being assassinated on 30 January 1948 two days before the closing date for the 1948 Peace Prize nominations. The Norwegian Nobel Committee had very likely planned to give him the Peace Prize in 1948 as they considered a posthumous award, but ultimately decided against it, and instead chose not to award the prize that year.[21] A U.S. philatelic exhibition in Chicago, Chicagopex 2001, chose to honor the 100th anniversary of the Nobel Prize with a special show of commemorative postal cachets. One theme of the exhibition cast a shadow on the Nobel Peace Prize’s first century – the fact that the Peace Prize had not been awarded to Mahatma Gandhi.[22]

The strict rules against a prize being awarded to more than three people at once is also a cause for controversy. Where a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, inevitably one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, a Prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that failed to recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt.[23] Another well known miss was the Nobel Prize in Physics of 1965, that was awarded to Richard P. Feynman, Julian S. Schwinger and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga but failed to recognize the contribution of Freeman C. Dyson, that demonstrated the equivalence of the formulations of quantum electrodynamics of the other three scientists.

Similarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by a collaborator who happens to die before the prize is awarded. Rosalind Franklin, who was key in the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, died of ovarian cancer in 1958, four years before Francis Crick, James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins (one of Franklin's collaborators) were awarded the Prize for Medicine or Physiology in 1962.[24] Franklin's significant and relevant contribution was only briefly mentioned in Crick and Watson's now-famous paper: "We have also been stimulated by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas of Dr. M.H.F. Wilkins, Dr. R.E. Franklin, and co-workers...."[25]

In some cases, awards have arguably omitted similar discoveries made earlier. For example, the 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "the discovery and development of conductive organic polymers" (1977) ignored the much earlier discovery of highly-conductive charge transfer complex polymers: the 1963 series of papers by Weiss, et al. reported even higher conductivity in similarly iodine-doped oxidized polypyrrole.[26][27]

Lack of a Nobel Prize in Mathematics

There is no Nobel Prize in Mathematics, which has led to considerable speculation about why Alfred Nobel omitted it.[28][29] Some recipients of the Nobel Prize in other fields also have notable achievements in or have made outstanding contributions to mathematics; for example, Bertrand Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature (1950) and Max Born and Walther Bothe shared the Nobel Prize in Physics (1954). Some others with advanced credentials in mathematics and/or who are known primarily as mathematicians have been awarded the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel: Kenneth Arrow (1972), Leonid Kantorovich (1975), John Forbes Nash (1994), Clive W. J. Granger (2003), Robert J. Aumann (who shared the 2005 Prize with Thomas C. Schelling), and Roger Myerson and Eric Maskin (2007).

Several prizes in mathematics have some similarities to the Nobel Prize. The Fields Medal is often described as the "Nobel Prize of mathematics", but it differs in being awarded only once every four years to people not older than forty years old. Other prestigious prizes in mathematics are the Crafoord Prize, awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences since 1982; the Abel Prize which has also been called the "Nobel Prize of mathematics" and has been awarded by the Norwegian government annually, beginning in 2003; the Wolf Prize awarded once a year by the Wolf Foundation; the Shaw Prize in mathematical sciences awarded since 2004; and the Gauss Prize, granted jointly by the International Mathematical Union and the German Mathematical Society for "outstanding mathematical contributions that have found significant applications outside of mathematics," and introduced at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 2006. The Clay Mathematics Institute has devised seven "Millennium Problems," whose solution results in a significant cash award:[30] since it has a clear, predetermined objective for its award and since it can be awarded whenever a problem is solved, this prize also differs from the Nobel Prizes.

Emphasis on discoveries over inventions

Alfred Nobel left a fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind". One part, he stated, should be given "to the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics". Nobel did not emphasize discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel prize committee than inventions: 77% of Nobel prizes in physics have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23% to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society in the preceding year.[31][32]

Specially distinguished laureates

Multiple laureates

Since the establishment of the Nobel Prize, four people have received two Nobel Prizes:[33]

As a group, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has received the Nobel Peace Prize three times: in 1917, 1944, and 1963. The first two prizes were specifically in recognition of the group's work during the world wars, and the third was awarded at the year of its 100-Year Anniversary.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has won the Peace Prize twice: in 1954 and 1981.

Family laureates

A number of families have included multiple laureates.[33]

Refusals and constraints

Two laureates voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize :

Adolf Hitler constrained three laureates not to accept the Nobel Prize, however they were given their prizes after the Second World War :

The Soviet Union government also constrained Boris Pasternak not to accept his Nobel Prize in Literature in 1958[42].

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b "Nobel Prize" (2007), in Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 14 November 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9056008>.

    An additional award, the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, was established in 1968 by the Bank of Sweden and was first awarded in 1969. Although not technically a Nobel Prize, it is identified with the award; its winners are announced with the Nobel Prize recipients, and the Prize in Economic Sciences is presented at the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony.
  2. ^ a b c d e "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies", nobelprize.org, accessed 5 November 2007.
  3. ^ "The Nobel Prize Awarders", nobelprize.org, accessed 6 November 2007.
  4. ^ Nobel Peace Prize 2007, nobelprize.org, accessed 18 October 2007.
  5. ^ "The Will of Alfred Nobel", nobelprize.org, accessed 6 November 2007.
  6. ^ Alfred Nobel|"Alfred Nobel's Will", nobelprize.org, accessed 15 February 2007. (English version).
  7. ^ "First Nobel Prizes: December 10, 1901", This Day in History, The History Channel, accessed 30 July 2006.
  8. ^ "Nobel Prizes: Selection Process", Encyclopædia Britannica Online (2007), accessed 18 October 2007.
  9. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Economics", nobelprize.org, accessed 4 March 2007.
  10. ^ The Norwegian Nobel Foundation. "How are Laureates selected?". nobelpeaceprize.org. Retrieved 09 November 2009. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  11. ^ Nobel Foundation. "Nomination and Selection Process". nobelprize.org. Retrieved July 30 2006. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |dateformat= ignored (help)
  12. ^ The Nobel Foundation. "Frequently Asked Questions". nobelprize.org. Retrieved December 2 2008. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |dateformat= ignored (help)
  13. ^ a b c d "What the Nobel Laureates Receive", nobelprize.org, Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 2007, accessed 9 November 2007.
  14. ^ "The Nobel Prize Amounts", nobelprize.org, Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 2007, accessed 9 November 2007.
  15. ^ Nobel NightCap homepage
  16. ^ "Medalj - ett traditionellt hantverk" (in Swedish). Myntverket. Retrieved 2007-12-15.
  17. ^ a b c d Birgitta Lemmel, "The Nobel Prize Medals and the Medal for the Prize in Economics", nobelprize.org, Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 2006, accessed 9 November 2007. Original designs © The Nobel Foundation. Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007.
  18. ^ "Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Front and back images of the medal. 1954", "Source: Photo by Eric Arnold. Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers. Honors and Awards, 1954h2.1", "All Documents and Media: Pictures and Illustrations", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University, accessed 7 December 2007.
  19. ^ "The Nobel Prize for Peace", "Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors, and Medals", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University, accessed 7 December 2007.
  20. ^ [ Rollins: Nobel committee cheapens award(CNN) http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2009/10/09/rollins-nobel-committee-cheapens-award/]
  21. ^ Nobel Foundation. "Mahatma Gandhi, the Missing Laureate". nobelprize.org. Retrieved October 7 2006. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |dateformat= ignored (help).
  22. ^ Gandhi and the Nobel Peace Prize: Nobel Centennial Special Covers at Chicagopex 2001
  23. ^ Laura Spinney, "News Analysis: Nobel Prize Controversy", The Scientist 3.1 (11 December 2002): 20021211-03, accessed 28 October 2006.
  24. ^ Nobel Foundation. "The Discovery of the Molecular Structure of DNA - The Double Helix". Retrieved July 30 2006. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |dateformat= ignored (help)
  25. ^ J.D. Watson and F.H.C. Crick, Template:PDFlink, Nature 171.4356 (1953): 737-38.
  26. ^ Peter H. Proctor. "Electronic Conduction in Polymers--Historic Papers". organicsemiconductors.com. Retrieved 2007-02-12..
  27. ^ J. McGinness and P. Proctor, "Amorphous semiconductor switching in melanins", Science 183.127 (1974): 853-55. Links PMID: 4359339 (PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE), accessed 28 October 2006
  28. ^ Lars Gårding and Lars Hörmander, "Why Is There No Nobel Prize in Mathematics?", Mathematical Intelligencer 7 (1985): 73-74. [They suggest that, primarily, Nobel did not consider Mathematics as "practical" as the other disciplines in which he established Prizes.]
  29. ^ John E. Morrill, "Nobel Prize in Mathematics", American Mathematical Monthly 102.10 (December 1995): 888-92. JSTOR doi:10.2307/2975266. (5 pages.) (Restricted access.) [Summary of various speculations about reasons for Nobel's omitting a Prize in Mathematics, including possibly-apocryphal ones.]
  30. ^ "Clay Millennium Problems". Clay Institute. 2000-03-02..
  31. ^ Bartneck, C., & Rauterberg, M. (2007). Physics Nobels should favour inventions. Nature, 448(7154), p. 644. DOI 10.1038/448644c.
  32. ^ Bartneck, C., & Rauterberg, M. (2008). The Asymmetry Between Discoveries and Inventions in the Nobel Prize for Physics. Technoetic Arts, 6(1), pp 73–77. DOI: 10.1386/tear.6.1.73_1
  33. ^ a b Nobel Prize Facts, nobelprize.org, accessed 18 October 2007.
  34. ^ See "Preface", "The Peace Prize..." and "Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors, and Medals", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History and Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement, Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers, Special Collections, the Valley Library, Oregon State University, accessed 13 December 2007.
  35. ^ Physiology or Medicine prize 1959, nobelprize.org, accessed 14 January 2008
  36. ^ Chemistry prize 2006, nobelprize.org, accessed 14 January 2008
  37. ^ The Nobel Prize in Literature 1964.
  38. ^ The Nobel Peace Prize 1973.
  39. ^ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1938
  40. ^ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939
  41. ^ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1939
  42. ^ The Nobel Prize in Literature 1958

References

  • "Annan, U.N. Cited for Peace Work, Win Nobel". In Nobel Centennial. CNN.com. Copyright © 2003 Cable News Network LP, LLLP 2003. Accessed 5 November 2007. (Concerns the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize awarded to Kofi Annan and the United Nations.)
  • "The Definitive Guide to The Nobel Prizes". The Local ("Sweden's News in English"), 6 November 2007. Copyright © The Local Europe AB 2007. Accessed 5 November 2007.
  • Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to the Nobel Prizes. britannica.com. Copyright © 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Accessed 5 November 2007.
  • Lemmel, Birgitta. "The Nobel Prize Medals and the Medal for the Prize in Economics". nobelprize.org. Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 2006. Accessed 9 November 2007.
  • Liljestrand, Göran, and Carl Gustaf Bernhard. "The Prize in Physiology or Medicine". 139-278 of Nobel: The Man and His Prizes. 1950. Ed. Nobel Foundation and Wilhelm Odelberg (Coordinating Ed.). 3rd ed. New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc., 1972. ISBN 0444001174.
  • "The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies". nobelprize.org. Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007. Accessed 9 November 2007.
  • Odelberg, Wilhelm. "Foreword: Alfred Nobel: The Man and His Prizes". The Who's Who of Nobel Prize Winners: 1901–2000. Ed. Louise S. Sherby. 4th ed. Westport, CT: Oryx Press, 2002. ISBN 1573564141 (10). ISBN 9781573564144 (13).
  • Schück, Henrik, Ragnar Sohlman, Anders Österling, Carl Gustaf Bernhard, the Nobel Foundation, and Wilhelm Odelberg, eds. Nobel: The Man and His Prizes. 1950. 3rd ed. Coordinating Ed., Wilhelm Odelberg. New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc., 1972. ISBN 0444001174 (10). ISBN 9780444001177 (13). (Originally published in Swedish as Nobelprisen 50 år: forskare, diktare, fredskämpar.)
  • "What the Nobel Laureates Receive". nobelprize.org. Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007. Accessed 9 November 2007.
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