Jump to content

Red

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Keraunos (talk | contribs) at 06:25, 25 October 2010 (Delete space.). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

This article is about the color. For other uses, see Red (disambiguation).

Red (RGB)
#FF0000

Red (CMYK))
#ED1C24

Red (NCS) S 1080-R
#C40233

Red (Munsell) 5R
#F2003C

Red
Spectral coordinates
Wavelength~630–740[1][2] nm
Frequency~480–405 THz
Common connotations
passion, aggression, courage, energy, guilt, love, anger, hatred, pain, socialism, fire, heat, sacrifice, violence, bullfighting, emergency, danger, sin, negativity, blood, devils, lust, communism, stop, exit, honor, leadership, Valentine's Day, yield sign, blushing, Christmas, purity, attraction, beauty, error, failure, wrong way, conservatism (US), happiness (China), good luck (China), HIV/AIDS awareness and drug intolerance
About these coordinates     Color coordinates
Source[Unsourced]

Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths of light discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength range of roughly 630–740 nm.[2] Longer wavelengths than this are called infrared (below red), and cannot be seen by the naked human eye. Red is used as one of the additive primary colors of light, complementary to cyan, in RGB color systems. Red is also one of the subtractive primary colors of RYB color space but not CMYK color space.

Various definitions of red

The definition of the color red depends on what color system is used to define the color red. The definition of red according to four of the major color systems is shown below.

Red (RGB)

Red (RGB)
 
About these coordinates     Color coordinates
Hex triplet#FF0000
sRGBB (r, g, b)(255, 0, 0)
HSV (h, s, v)(0°, 100%, 100%)
CIELChuv (L, C, h)(53, 179, 12°)
SourceHTML/CSS[3]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
Red, green and blue lights, representing the three basic additive primary colors of the RGB color system, red, green, and blue.

The red color used as a primary in the RGB color model, i.e. X11 red, is shown at right. This tone of red is one of the three additive primary colors, along with green and blue. The three additive primaries in the RGB color system are the three colors of light chosen such as to provide the maximum gamut of colors that are capable of being represented on a computer or television set.

Red (CMYK)

Red (CMYK)
 
About these coordinates     Color coordinates
Hex triplet#ED1C24
sRGBB (r, g, b)(237, 28, 36)
HSV (h, s, v)(358°, 88%, 93%)
CIELChuv (L, C, h)(51, 157, 12°)
SourceCMYK
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
Cyan, magenta, and yellow are the three subtractive primary colors used in printing.

The red color used as a secondary in the CMYK color model used in printing is the tone of red that is achieved by mixing process (printer's) magenta and process (printer's) yellow in equal proportions. It is displayed at right.

The purpose of the CMYK color system is to provide the maximum possible gamut of color reproducible in printing.

The color indicated is only approximate as the colors of printing inks may vary.

Red (NCS)

Red (NCS)
 
About these coordinates     Color coordinates
Hex triplet#C40233
sRGBB (r, g, b)(196, 2, 51)
HSV (h, s, v)(345°, 99%, 77%)
CIELChuv (L, C, h)(41, 127, 8°)
SourcesRGB approximation to NCS S 1080-R[4]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
Approximations within the sRGB gamut to the primary colors of the Natural Color System, a model based on the opponent process theory of color vision.

The red color used as a primary in the NCS or Natural Color System is shown at right (NCS 1080-R). The Natural Color System is a color system based on the four unique hues or psychological primary colors red, yellow, green, and blue. These hues are an average derived from individual variations recorded by different observers. The NCS is based on the opponent process theory of vision.

The “Natural Color System” is widely used in Scandinavia.

Red (Munsell)

Red (Munsell)
 
About these coordinates     Color coordinates
Hex triplet#F2003C
sRGBB (r, g, b)(242, 0, 60)
HSV (h, s, v)(345°, 100%, 95%)
CIELChuv (L, C, h)(51, 159, 8°)
SourceMunsell Color Wheel
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
The hues of the Munsell color system, at varying values, and maximum chroma to stay in the sRGB gamut.

The red color used as a primary in the Munsell color system (Munsell 5R) is shown at right. The Munsell color system is a color space that specifies colors based on three color dimensions: hue, value (lightness), and chroma (color purity), spaced uniformly in three dimensions in the elongated oval at an angle shaped Munsell color solid according to the logarithmic scale which governs human perception. In order for all the colors to be spaced uniformly, it was found necessary to use a color wheel with five primary colors--red, yellow, green, blue, and purple.

The Munsell colors displayed are only approximate as they have been adjusted to fit into the sRGB gamut.

Etymology and linguistic definitions

The word red comes from the Old English rēad.[5] Further back, the word can be traced to the Proto-Germanic rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root reudh-. In Sanskrit, the word rudhira means red or blood. In the English language, the word red is associated with the color of blood, certain flowers (e.g. roses), and ripe fruits (e.g. apples, cherries). Fire is also strongly connected, as is the sun and the sky at sunset. Healthy light-skinned people are sometimes said to have a "ruddy" complexion (as opposed to appearing pale). After the rise of socialism in the mid-19th century, red was to describe revolutionary movements.[6]

In science

Artificial red poppies

Colorimetry, color science, vision, and photography

Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths of light discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength range of approximately 630–700 nm.[2] Longer wavelengths than this are called infrared, or below red and cannot be seen by human eyes.[7] Red's wavelength has been an important factor in laser technologies as red lasers, used in early compact disc technologies, are being replaced by blue lasers, as red's longer wavelength causes the laser's recordings to take up more space on the disc than blue lasers.[8] A main theory for why primates developed sensitivity to red, is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and inedible vegetation.[9] This further drove other adaptations to take advantage of this new ability, such as red faces.[10] Red light is also used to preserve night vision in low-light or night-time situations, as the rod cells in the human eye aren't sensitive to red.[11][12] Red is one of the three additive primary colors of light, complementary to cyan, in RGB color systems. Red is also one of the three subtractive primary colors of RYB color space but not CMYK color space.[13]

One common use of red as an additive primary color is in the RGB color model. Because red is not by itself standardized, color mixtures based on red are not exact specifications of color either. The United States government sets certain specifications for what paints to use when red is stated in a design.[14] In order for computers to produce exact colors, the color red needs to be defined in terms of an absolute color space, such as sRGB.[15] color correction (so that a standardized red is produced that is not in fact full intensity of only the red colorant).

Red illumination was (and sometimes still is) used as a safelight while working in a darkroom, as it does not expose most photographic paper and some films.[16] Though many more modern darkrooms use an amber safelight, red illumination is closely associated with the darkroom in the public mind.[17]

In nature

Mars possesses a distinct red color, particularly when seen up close

Mars is called the Red Planet because of the reddish color imparted to its surface by the abundant iron oxide present there.[18] Astronomical objects which are moving away from the observer exhibit a red shift. Jupiter's surface displays a Great Red Spot, a football-shaped gigantic storm south of the planet's equator.[19]

Red blood cells on agar plates

Oxygenated blood is red due to the presence of oxygenated hemoglobin.[20] When used about animal coloration red usually refers to a brownish, reddish-brown or ginger color. In this sense it is used to describe coat colors of reddish-brown cattle and dogs, and in the names of various animal species or breeds such as red fox, red squirrel, red deer, Robin Redbreast, Red Grouse, Red Knot, Redstart, Redwing, Red Setter, Red Devon cattle etc. The usage for animal color appears similar to that for red ochre, red hair and Red Indian. When used for flowers, red often refers to purplish (red deadnettle, red clover, red helleborine) or pink (red campion, red valerian) colors.

Symbolism

Sin, guilt, pain, passion, blood, and anger

Red is used as a symbol of guilt, sin and anger, often as connected with blood or sex.[21] A Biblical example is found in Isaiah: "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow."[22] Also, The Scarlet Letter, an 1850 American novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne, features a woman in a Puritan New England community who is punished for adultery with ostracism, her sin represented by a red letter 'A' sewn into her clothes.[23] This all comes from a general Hebrew view inherited by Christianity which associates red with the blood of murder,[24] as well as with guilt in general. Often, things will be in red to scare.[25] Another popular example of this is in the phrase "caught red-handed", meaning either caught in an act of crime or caught with the blood of murder still on one's hands.[26] At one point, red was associated with prostitutes, or now, with brothels (red-light districts).[27][28] In Roman Catholicism, red represents wrath, one of the Seven Deadly Sins. In Christianity, Satan is usually depicted as colored red and/or wearing a red costume in both iconography and popular culture.[29] Statistics have shown that red cars are more likely to be involved in accidents.[30]

The color red is associated with lust, passion, love, and beauty as well. The association with love and beauty is possibly related to the use of red roses as a love symbol.[31] Both the Greeks and the Hebrews considered red a symbol of love, as well as sacrifice.[32] Psychological research has shown that men find women who are wearing red more attractive.[33]

Courage and sacrifice

Red is used as a symbol of courage and sacrifice, as in blood spilt in sacrifice or courage in the face of lethal danger.[34] Examples of this are found in the flags of many nations including the United States, as well as in the novel The Red Badge of Courage, in which a soldier in the American Civil War discovers the meaning of courage.[35] In Christianity, red is the liturgical color for the feast of martyrs, representing the blood of those who suffered death for their faith. It is sometimes used as the liturgical color for Holy Week including Palm Sunday and Good Friday, although this is a modern (20th century) development. In Roman mythology red is associated with the god of war, Mars.[34] A Roman general receiving a triumph had his entire body painted red in honor of his achievement.[36] The phrase "red-blooded" describes someone who is audacious, robust, or virile.[26] In Edward de Bono's book Six Thinking Hats a red hat represents feelings and emotions.[37] Red and gold are also used for the Gryffindor house, which is known for bravery, in Hogwarts.

Warning

Stop sign used in various countries. The shape and color red is used nearly universally today.
Red sky at night, sailor's/shepherd's delight.

Red catches people's attention, and can be used either in a negative way to indicate danger and emergency, or in a positive way in advertising to gain more viewers, or in nature, as a ripe fruit announces its readiness with its red color.[38] Several studies have indicated that red carries the strongest reaction of all the colors, with the level of reaction decreasing gradually with orange, yellow, and white, respectively.[39] Because of this, red is often used to catch people's attention in a variety of situations (see: penalty card).[40]

The port, or left, side of a sea-going vessel carries a red navigation light, to warn other vessels approaching from that side to change course to avoid a collision.[41]

Eastern and African traditions

Template:Chinese text In China, red (simplified Chinese: 红; traditional Chinese: 紅; pinyin: hóng) is the symbol of fire and the south (both south in general and Southern China specifically). It carries a largely positive connotation, being associated with courage, loyalty, honor, success, fortune, fertility, happiness, passion, and summer.[42][43] In Chinese cultural traditions, red is associated with weddings (where brides traditionally wear red dresses) and red paper is also frequently used to wrap gifts of money or other things. Special red packets (simplified Chinese: 红包; traditional Chinese: 紅包; pinyin: hóng bāo) in Mandarin or lai see in Cantonese are specifically used during the Chinese New Year to give monetary gifts. On the more negative side, obituaries are traditionally written in red ink, and to write someone's name in red signals either cutting them out of your life, or that they have died.[43] Red is also associated with both the feminine and the masculine (yin and yang respectively), depending on the source.[43][44]

In Japan, red is a traditional color for a heroic figure.[45] In the Indian Sub-continent, red is the traditional color of bridal dresses, and is frequently represented in the media as a symbolic color for married women. The color is associated with purity, sexuality in marriage relationships through its connection to heat and fertility.[46] It is also the color of wealth, beauty, and the goddess Lakshmi.[34]

In Central Africa, Ndembu warriors rub themselves with red during celebrations. Since their culture sees the color as a symbol of life and health, sick people are also painted with it. Like most Central African cultures, the Ndembu see red as ambivalent, better than black, but not as good as white.[47] In other parts of Africa, however, red is a color of mourning, representing death.[48] Because of the connection red bears with death in many parts of Africa, the Red Cross has changed its colors to green and white in parts of the continent.[49]

In sports

Both the Cleveland Indians and the Boston Red Sox wear red

Teams throughout the world wear red on their uniforms. Major League Baseball is especially well known for red teams. Numerous teams in various sports use red in their team colors.[50]

The Cincinnati Red Stockings are the oldest professional baseball team, dating back to 1869.[51] The franchise soon relocated to Boston and is now the Atlanta Braves, but its name survives as the origin for both the Cincinnati Reds and Boston Red Sox. During the 1950s when red was so strongly associated with communism, the modern Cincinnati team was known as the "Redlegs" and the term was even used on baseball cards. After the red scare faded, the team was known as the Reds again.[52]

In association football, teams that wear red as part of their kit include Manchester United, Liverpool FC, Arsenal FC, AFC Ajax, Bayern Munich and AC Milan.

The Cleveland Cavaliers use a shade of red called wine.

On flags

Red is one of the most common colors used on national flags. The use of red has similar connotations from country to country: the blood, sacrifice, and courage of those who defended their country; the sun and the hope and warmth it brings; and the sacrifice of Christ's blood (in some historically Christian nations) are a few examples. Red is the color of the flags of several countries which once belonged to the former British Empire. The British flag bears the colors red, white and blue; it includes the cross of Saint George, patron saint of England, and the saltire of Saint Patrick, patron saint of Ireland, both of which are red on white.[53] The United States flag bears the colors of Britain,[54] the colors of the French tricolore are believed to have been inspired by the American flag, and other countries' flags, such as those of Australia, New Zealand and Fiji, carry a small inset of the British flag in memory of their ties to that country.[55] Former colonies of Spain, such as Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela, also feature red, one of the colors of the Spanish flag, on their own banners. Red flags are also used to symbolize storms, bad water conditions, and many other things. Navy flags are often Red and Yellow.

Red symbolizes the flag of Nepal. This color represents the floral emblem of Nepal, the rhododendron.

Red, blue and white are also the Pan-Slavic colors adopted by the Slavic solidarity movement of the late nineteenth century. Initially these were the colors of the Russian flag; as the Slavic movement grew, they were adopted by other Slavic peoples including Slovaks, Slovenes and Serbs. The flags of the Czech Republic and Poland, which contain red use it for historic heraldic reasons (see Coat of arms of Poland and Coat of arms of the Czech Republic), not due to Pan-Slavic connotations.

Red, white, and black are the colors of Pan-Arabism, and are used by many Arab countries.[56]

Red, gold, green and black are the colors of Pan-Africanism. Several African countries thus use the color on their flags, including South Africa, Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Togo, Guinea, Benin, and Zimbabwe. The Pan-African colors are borrowed from the flag of Ethiopia, one of the oldest independent African countries.[56][57] Rwanda, notably, removed red from its flag after the Rwandan Genocide, because Pan-Africanism was so strongly associated with the event and because of red's association with blood.[58]

For other reasons, the flag of Japan has a red circle in the middle while the flag of the Philippines has a red trapezoid on the bottom and the flag of Singapore has a red rectangle on the top.

Use by political movements

The red flag of the former Soviet Union

As early as the 9th century, the Khurramites successors to the Mazdak religion and proto-communists in the Middle Ages of the Middle East used red as their symbol for revolution. Even before Europe's Revolutions of 1848, Socialist red was used as a color of European Revolutionaries, often in the form of the red flag. It was also used by Garibaldi's camicie rosse (redshirts) in the Italian Risorgimento, and taken up by Leftist and generally revolutionary groups, while the white of legitimist Bourbon partisans became associated with pre-World War I conservatives. This relates to the term "Blood of the workers", representing the suffering of the proletariat. For instance the Civil War in Russia and the Civil War in Finland were fought between the Red Army and various White Armies.

The identification of Communism with Socialist red (with the red flag being the primary color of the flag of the Soviet Union) and the red star being a Communist emblem led to such Cold War phrases as "the Red Menace" and "Red China" (distinguished from Nationalist China, "Blue China" or "Free China").

China's de-facto anthem under Mao Zedong was "The East Is Red".[59] Mao Zedong was sometimes referred to as a "red sun".[60] The color was also associated with political vehicles such as the Red Guard in China and the Red Guards during the Russian Revolution of 1917 as well as with left wing paramilitary terrorist groups such as the Red Army Faction in Germany and the Japanese Red Army. Red remains associated with parties on the left of the political spectrum. However, the major exception is the United States. There, red is associated with the center-right Republican Party. (The reason is that U.S. television networks assigned blue and red to states awarded to the Republicans and the Democrats, respectively, on news maps; the color assignments were alternated every presidential election, but the controversial 2000 presidential election was when commentators happened to pick up on the color choices.) Red and black are colors associated with anarchism, and, specifically, anarcho-syndicalism.

Food and drink

A red apple in a tree

Most red foods derive from one of two sources. Plants like apples, strawberries, cherries, tomatoes, peppers and pomegranates are often colored by forms of carotenoids, red pigments that were originally developed to assist photosynthesis.[61] Meat gets its color from the iron found in the myoglobin and hemoglobin in the muscles and residual blood.[62]

Society

The Red Hat Society is a social group founded in 1998 for women 50 and over.

See also

References

  1. ^ Thomas J. Bruno, Paris D. N. Svoronos. CRC Handbook of Fundamental Spectroscopic Correlation Charts. CRC Press, 2005.
    Color
  2. ^ a b c Craig F. Bohren (2006). Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation: An Introduction with 400 Problems. Wiley-VCH. p. 214. ISBN 3527405038.
  3. ^ W3C TR CSS3 Color Module, HTML4 color keywords
  4. ^ The sRGB values are taken by converting the NCS color 1080-R using the “NCS Navigator” tool at the NCS website.
  5. ^ Eric Partridge (1966). Origins: An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. Routledge. ISBN 0415050774.
  6. ^ Douma, Michael (2008). "Color of Power". Pigments Through the Ages. Institute for Dynamic Educational Development. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
  7. ^ "What Wavelength Goes With a Color?". Atmospheric Science Data Center. Retrieved 2009-04-15.
  8. ^ DVD
  9. ^ O'Neil, Dennis (March 19, 2010). "Primate Color Vision". Primates. San Marcos, CA: Palomar Community College. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
  10. ^ Hogan, Dan (May 25, 2007). "Color Vision Drove Primates To Develop Red Skin And Hair, Study Finds". Science News. Rockville, MD: ScienceDaily. Retrieved 22 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ "Human Vision and Color Perception". Olympus Microscopy Resource Center. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
  12. ^ "Be a Stargazer". Sensitize Your Eyes. Retrieved 2007-09-25.
  13. ^ Primary Colors: Additive and Subtractive - An Educator's Reference Desk Lesson Plan
  14. ^ U.S. Army (December 15, 1989). "Federal Standard 595b Colors Used In Government Procurement" (PDF). 595 Paint Spec. Stanton, CA: FastPoint Technologies. p. 3. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
  15. ^ Süsstrunk, Sabine. "Standard RGB Color Spaces" (PDF). Laboratory of audio-visual Communication. p. 1. Retrieved 18 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ "Important Facts About Safelights". How Safe is Your Safelight?. Eastman Kodak. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
  17. ^ Smith, S.E (August 20, 2009). "What Is a Safelight?". WiseGeek. Conjecture Corporation. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
  18. ^ Adams, Melanie (9/19/94-03/12/09). "Mars, The Red Planet". MidLink Magazine. North Carolina State University. Retrieved 12 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Cardall, Christian (2003). "The Great Red Spot". The Solar System. University of Tenesee. Retrieved 12 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ Nabili, Siamak. "Hemoglobin". Procedures and Tests. MedicineNet. p. 1. Retrieved 12 April 2010.
  21. ^ Oehler, Gustav Friedrich and George Edward Day, Theology of the Old Testament. pg. 320
  22. ^ KJV Isaiah 1:18
  23. ^ Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. New York: Pocket, 2004. ISBN 0-7434-8756-7 pg. 136
  24. ^ Hecht, Mendy. "Seven Things You Can Do for America". Retrieved 2009-10-05.
  25. ^ Atwater, Edward. Sacred Tabernacle of the Hebrews. City: Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2004. ISBN 1-4179-7818-X pg. 223
  26. ^ a b Oxford English Dictionary
  27. ^ Haarmann, Harald. Language in Its Cultural Embedding. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1990. ISBN 0-89925-583-3 pg. 13
  28. ^ Delaney, Carol. Investigating Culture. Cambridge: Blackwell Pub, 2004. ISBN 0-631-22237-5 pg. 324
  29. ^ Steffler, Alva. Symbols of the Christian Faith. City: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002. ISBN 0-8028-4676-9 pg. 132
  30. ^ Kopacz, Jeanne. Color in Three-Dimensional Design. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. ISBN 0-07-141170-4 pg. 76
  31. ^ Sebeok, Thomas and Marcel Danesi. The Forms of Meaning: Modeling Systems Theory and Semiotic Analysis. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1999. ISBN 3-11-016751-4 pgs. 150-152
  32. ^ Dreyfuss, Henry. Symbol Sourcebook. New York: Wiley, 1984. ISBN 0-471-28872-1 pg. 239
  33. ^ Red on Women Drives Men Wild also http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,444415,00.html
  34. ^ a b c Feisner, Edith. Colour. City: King Laurence Publish, 2006. ISBN 1-85669-441-0 pg. 127
  35. ^ Hoffman, Daniel. The Poetry of Stephen Crane. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971. ISBN 0-231-08662-8 pg. 150
  36. ^ Ramsay, William (1875). "Triumphus". Retrieved 2007-12-09.
  37. ^ Published by Little, Brown and Company in 1985 ISBN 0-316-17791-1 (hardback) and 0316178314 (paperback).
  38. ^ Judd, Charles Hubbard. Psychology: General Introduction. Pgs. 131-132
  39. ^ Robertson, S. (Editor). Contemporary Ergonomics 1996. Boca Raton: CRC, 1996. ISBN 0-7484-0549-6 pgs. 148-150
  40. ^ Karwowski, Waldemar. International Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human Factors, Second Edition - 3 Volume Set. Boca Raton: CRC, 2006. ISBN 0-415-30430-X pg. 1518
  41. ^ Llana, Chris (October 23, 2006). "22". Handbook of the Nautical Rules of the Road. Vol. A (2/3 ed.). Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-1557505040. Retrieved April 18, 2010. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ Li Sujun (李素军), China Red (中国红). (In Chinese.)
  43. ^ a b c Cullen, Cheryl. Global Graphics. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers, 2000. ISBN 1-56496-293-8 pg. 147
  44. ^ Hodge, Bob and Kam Louie. The Politics of Chinese Language and Culture. New York: Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0-415-17266-7 pg. 132
  45. ^ "PS2 News: CVG goes straight to hell with Devil May Cry director - ComputerAndVideoGames.com:". Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  46. ^ Lamb, Sarah. White Saris and Sweet Mangoes. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. ISBN 0-520-22001-3 pg. 188
  47. ^ Banton, Michael. Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion. New York: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-33021-1 pg. 57
  48. ^ Bradley, Carolyn. Western World Costume. New York: Dover Publications, 2001. ISBN 0-486-41986-X pg. 8
  49. ^ Austin, Erica and Bruce Pinkleton. Strategic Public Relations Management: Planning and Managing Effective Communication Programs. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006. ISBN 0-8058-5381-2 pg. 301
  50. ^ Dart, Tom (March 12, 2008). "Teams with red shirts have a head start". Times Online. London: News International Group. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
  51. ^ Frommer, Harvey (April 9, 2010). "First Professional Baseball Team: Flashback". Dr. Harvey Frommer on Sports. Diamond Bar, California: Travel Watch. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
  52. ^ Cuordileone, K.A. Manhood and American Political Culture in the Cold War. New York: Routledge, 2005. ISBN 0-415-92599-1 pg. XIII
  53. ^ Brabazon, Tara. Tracking the Jack. Sydney: UNSW Press, 2000. ISBN 0-86840-699-6 pg. 10
  54. ^ "The United States Flag - Public and Intergovernmental Affairs". United States Department of Veterans Affairs. Retrieved December 7, 2006.
  55. ^ Brabazon, Tara. Tracking the Jack. Sydney: UNSW Press, 2000. ISBN 0-86840-699-6 pgs. 13-20
  56. ^ a b Colors as Symbols in Flags: EnchantedLearning.com
  57. ^ Murrell, Nathaniel et al. Chanting down Babylon. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998. ISBN 1-56639-584-4 pg. 135
  58. ^ Rwandan: Adoption of the new flag
  59. ^ "The East Is Red". TIME. 1970-05-04. Retrieved 2009-04-10.
  60. ^ "The Reddest Red Sun". Morning Sun. Retrieved 2009-04-10.
  61. ^ Speer, Brian. "Photosynthetic Pigments". UCMP Glossary. University of California: University of California Museum of Palentology. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
  62. ^ Fleming, H.P. (1960). "Quantitative Estimations Of Myoglobin And Hemoglobin In Beef Muscle Extracts" (PDF). Journal of Animal Sciences. North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Raleigh: American Society of Animal Science. p. 2. Retrieved 22 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red&oldid=392739331"