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War in Darfur

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Conflict in Darfur
Date2003-2009[5]/2010[6]
Location
Darfur, Sudan
Result

Unclear

Belligerents
Sudan JEM factions
SLM (Minnawi faction) Sudan LJM
Allegedly supported by:
 Chad
 Eritrea[1][2][3][4]		 Sudan Janjaweed
Sudan Sudanese Armed Forces
Sudan Sudanese Police
Foreign Mercenaries		 African Union
 United Nations
Commanders and leaders
Sudan Ibrahim Khalil
Sudan Ahmed Diraige
Minni Minnawi		 Sudan Omar al-Bashir
Sudan Musa Hilal
Sudan Hamid Dawai
Sudan Ali Kushayb
Sudan Ahmed Haroun[7]		 Rodolphe Adada
United Nations Martin Luther Agwai
Strength
NRF/JEM: Unknown N/A 9,065
Casualties and losses

unknown

  • ITS OVER 9,000[8] civilians killed
    [9]
  • 2,850,000 Displaced (UN estimate)
  • 450,000 Displaced (Sudanese estimate)</ref>

unknown

51 peacekeepers killed

The Darfur Conflict[14][15] is an ongoing guerrilla conflict or civil war centered on the Darfur region of Sudan. It began in February 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) groups in Darfur took up arms, accusing the Sudanese government of oppressing non-Arab Sudanese in favor of Sudanese Arabs. One side of the conflict is composed mainly of the official Sudanese military and police, and the Janjaweed, a Sudanese militia group recruited mostly from the Arab Abbala tribes of the northern Rizeigat region in Sudan; these tribes are mainly camel-herding nomads. The other combatants are made up of rebel groups, notably the SLM/A and the JEM, recruited primarily from the non-Arab Muslim Fur, Zaghawa, and Masalit ethnic groups. Although the Sudanese government publicly denies that it supports the Janjaweed, it has been providing financial assistance and weapons to the militia and has been organizing joint attacks targeting civilians.[16][17] The Sudanese government uses oil revenues to fund a military capacity that is in turn, used to conduct war in Darfur. Oil revenues collected from companies around the world fund the civil war as well as violations of international human rights and humanitarian law. Sudan’s oil wealth has played a major part in enabling an otherwise poor government to fund the expensive bombers, helicopters and arms supplies which have allowed the Sudanese government to launch aerial attacks on towns and villages and fund militias to fight its proxy war in Darfur.[18]

There are various estimates on the number of human casualties, ranging from under twenty thousand to several hundred thousand dead, from either direct combat or starvation and disease inflicted by the conflict. There have also been mass displacements and coercive migrations, forcing millions into refugee camps or over the border and creating a large humanitarian crisis.

The Sudanese government and the JEM signed a ceasefire agreement in February, 2010, with a tentative agreement to pursue further peace. The JEM has the most to gain from the talks, and could see semi-autonomy much like South Sudan.[19] However, talks have been disrupted by accusations that the Sudanese army launched raids and air strikes against a village, violating the February agreement. The JEM, the largest rebel group in Darfur, has said they will boycott further negotiations.[20]

In Darfur, over 5 million people have been affected by the conflict.
List of abbreviations used in this article

AU: African Union
DLF: Darfur Liberation Front
ICC: International Criminal Court
IDP: Internally Displaced Person
JEM: Justice and Equality Movement
SLM/A/A: Sudan Liberation Movement/Army
SLM/A: Sudan Liberation Movement
SPLA: Sudan People's Liberation Army
UN: United Nations
UNAMID: United Nations African Union Mission in Darfur
UNSC: United Nations Security Council

Janjaweed

A mounted Black Janjaweed militiaman

The Janjaweed, a militia armed by the Sudanese government, are pastoral Arab tribesmen who have long despised the black African farmers who practice settled agriculture.[21] They are described as "a grotesque mixture of the mafia and the Ku Klux Klan," a journalist on CNN says. "These guys have a racist ideology that sees the Arab population as the supreme population that would like to see the subjugation of non-Arab peoples. They’re criminal racketeers that have been supported very directly by the government to wage the war against the people of Darfur.", [22][23] from PBS: "blatant racism and a political ideology known as 'Arab supremacism' also fuel the Janjaweed's agenda." who "are cleaning the land of non-Arabs.",[24] the BBC: "Arab militias of a campaign of ethnic cleansing against non-Arab locals." [25] the US State Department in 2005 report on Sudan's Human Rights Practices : "The government continued to support the largely Arab nomad janjaweed militia."and that Darfurians were "threatened with death, and subjected to racial epithets during attacks.", [26] the attackers "call non-Arab Africans abid or slave, and zurga, which means Black, but is used as a racial slur.", [27] there were reports (The Guardian 20 Jul, 2004) of Arab women singers complicit in rape, "While African women in Darfur were being raped by the Janjaweed militiamen, Arab women stood nearby and sang for joy." [28]

Criticism

Various sources have claimed it is a war waged by Muslim Arabs against Christian and Animist black Africans. However, this distinction is not always true as many of the victims of the atrocities in Darfur were also Muslim (albeit not Arab).[29] The conflict's origin goes back to land disputes between semi-nomadic livestock herders and those who practice sedentary agriculture.[29] Others opposed the usage of the term Arab and Black because all parties involved in the Darfur conflict—whether they are referred to as ‘Arab’ or as ‘African,’ are equally indigenous and equally Black. 'Arab' in the Sudanese context is different from Arab in the American context.[30][31]

The actual conflict is not only about race or religion, but about resources as the nomadic tribes facing drought are going after the territory of sedentary farmers.[32]

International response

Main article: International response to the Darfur conflict

International attention to the Darfur conflict largely began with reports by the advocacy organizations Amnesty International in July 2003 and the International Crisis Group in December 2003. However, widespread media coverage did not start until the outgoing United Nations Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator for Sudan, Mukesh Kapila, called Darfur the "world's greatest humanitarian crisis" in March 2004.[33] Organizations such as STAND: A Student Anti-Genocide Coalition, later under the umbrella of Genocide Intervention Network, and the Save Darfur Coalition emerged and became particularly active in the areas of engaging the United States Congress and President on the issue and pushing for divestment nationwide, initially launched by Adam Sterling under the auspice of the Sudan Divestment Task Force. Particularly strong advocates have additionally included: New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristof, Sudan scholar Eric Reeves, Enough Project founder John Prendergast, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Samantha Power, photographers Ryan Spencer Reed, former Marine Brian Steidle, actress Mia Farrow and her son Ronan Farrow, Olympian Joey Cheek, actress Angelina Jolie, actors George Clooney, and Don Cheadle, actor Jonah Hill, actress Salma Hayek, Save Darfur Coalition's David Rubenstein, Slovenian humanitarian Tomo Kriznar, and all of those involved with the Genocide Intervention Network. A movement advocating for humanitarian intervention has emerged in several countries.

United Nations

International Criminal Court

In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, but without mentioning any specific crimes.[34] Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution.[35]

In April 2007, the Judges of the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, Ahmed Haroun, and a Janjaweed leader, Ali Kushayb, for crimes against humanity and war crimes.[36] The Sudan Government said that the ICC had no jurisdiction to try Sudanese citizens and that it would not hand the two men over to authorities in the Hague.[37]

On 14 July 2008, the Prosecutor filed ten charges of war crimes against Sudan's incumbent President Omar al-Bashir, three counts of genocide, five of crimes against humanity and two of murder. The Prosecutor has claimed that Mr. al-Bashir "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity. Leaders from three Darfur tribes are suing ICC prosecutor Luis-Moreno Ocampo for libel, defamation, and igniting hatred and tribalism.[38]

After an arrest warrant was issued for the Sudanese president in March 2009, the Prosecutor appealed to have the genocide charges added. However, the Pre-Trial Chamber found that there was no reasonable ground to support the contention that he had a specific intent to commit genocide (dolus specialis), which is an intention to destroy, in whole or in part, a protected group. The definition adopted by the Pre-Trial Chamber is the definition of the Genocide Convention, the Rome Statute, and some ICTY cases. On February 3, 2010 the Appeals Chamber of the ICC found that the Pre-Trial Chamber had applied "an erroneous standard of proof when evaluating the evidence submitted by the Prosecutor" and that the Prosecutor's application for a warrant of arrest on the genocide charges should be sent back to the Pre-Trial Chamber to review based on the correct legal standard.[39] In July, 2010, Sudan's president Omar al-Bashir was finally charged by Hague for orchestrating Darfur genocide, three counts of genocide in Darfur by the International Criminal Court. [40]

Mr. al-Bashir is now the first incumbent head of state charged with crimes in the Rome Statute.[41] Bashir has rejected the charges and said, "Whoever has visited Darfur, met officials and discovered their ethnicities and tribes ... will know that all of these things are lies."[42]

It is expected that al-Bashir will not face trial in The Hague until he is apprehended in a nation which accepts the ICC's jurisdiction, as Sudan is not a state party to the Rome Statute which it signed but didn't ratify.[43] Payam Akhavan, a professor of international law at McGill University in Montreal and a former war crimes prosecutor, says although he may not go to trial, "He will effectively be in prison within the Sudan itself...Al-Bashir now is not going to be able to leave the Sudan without facing arrest."[44] The Prosecutor has publicly warned that authorities could arrest the President if he enters international airspace. The Sudanese government has announced the Presidential plane will be accompanied by jet fighters.[45] However, the Arab League has announced its solidarity with al-Bashir. Since the warrant, he has visited Qatar and Egypt. Both countries have refused to arrest him. The African Union also condemned the arrest warrant.

Some analysts think that the ICC indictment is counterproductive and harms the peace process. Only days after the ICC indictment, al-Bashir expelled 13 international aid organizations from Darfur and disbanded three domestic aid organizations.[46] In the aftermath of the expulsions, conditions in the displaced camps deteriorated,[47] and women were particularly affected.[48] Darfur rebels who were in a peace process with the Sudanese government declared there is no need to engage in a peace agreement because the ICC recognized the Sudanese president as a criminal[citation needed]. Previous ICC indictments, such as the arrest warrants of the LRA leadership in the ongoing war at northern Uganda, were also accused of harming peace processes by criminalizing one side of a war. Some believe that the arrest warrant against al-Bashir will hinder the efforts to establish peace in Darfur, and will undermine any effort to boost stability in Sudan.[49]

Criticism of international response

The Save Darfur Coalition advocacy group coordinated a large rally in New York in April 2006

Gérard Prunier, a scholar specializing in African conflicts, argued that the world's most powerful countries have largely limited themselves in expressing concerns and demand for the United Nations to take action in solving the genocide in Darfur. The UN, lacking both the funding and military support of the wealthy countries, has left the African Union to deploy a token force (AMIS) without a mandate to protect civilians. In the lack of foreign political will to address the political and economic structures that underlie the conflict, the international community has defined the Darfur conflict in humanitarian assistance terms and debated the label of "genocide."[33]

On 16 October 2006, Minority Rights Group (MRG) published a critical report, challenging that the UN and the great powers could have prevented the deepening crisis in Darfur and that few lessons appear to have been drawn from their ineptitude during the Rwandan Genocide. MRG's executive director, Mark Lattimer, stated that: "this level of crisis, the killings, rape and displacement could have been foreseen and avoided ... Darfur would just not be in this situation had the UN systems got its act together after Rwanda: their action was too little too late."[50] On 20 October, 120 genocide survivors of The Holocaust, and the Cambodian and Rwandan Genocides, backed by six aid agencies, submitted an open letter to the European Union, calling on them to do more to end the atrocities in Darfur, with a UN peacekeeping force as "the only viable option." Aegis Trust director, James Smith, stated that while "the African Union has worked very well in Darfur and done what it could, the rest of the world hasn't supported those efforts the way it should have done with sufficient funds and sufficient equipment."[51]

Human Rights First claimed that over 90% of the light weapons currently being imported by Sudan and used in the conflict are from China;[52] however, according to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)'s "Arms Transfers Data for 2007", in 2003–2007, Sudan received 87 per cent of its major conventional weapons from Russia and 8 per cent from China.[53] Human rights advocates and opponents of the Sudanese government portray China's role in providing weapons and aircraft as a cynical attempt to obtain oil just as colonial powers once supplied African chieftains with the military means to maintain control as they extracted natural resources.[54][55][56] According to China's critics, China has offered Sudan support threatening to use its veto on the U.N. Security Council to protect Khartoum from sanctions and has been able to water down every resolution on Darfur in order to protect its interests in Sudan.[57] Accusations of the supply of weapons from China, violating the UN arms embargo, continue to arise.[58]

The U.S.-funded Civilian Protection Monitoring Team, which investigates attacks in southern Sudan concluded that "as the Government of Sudan sought to clear the way for oil exploration and to create a cordon sanitaire around the oil fields, vast tracts of the Western Upper Nile Region in southern Sudan became the focus of extensive military operations."[59] However, experts say the Darfur region is unlikely to hold significant oil reserves.[60] Sarah Wykes, a senior campaigner at Global Witness, an NGO that campaigns for better natural resource governance, says: "Sudan has purchased about $100m in arms from China and has used these weapons against civilians in Darfur."[55]

In March 2007, threats of boycotting the Olympic games came from French presidential candidate François Bayrou, in an effort to stop China's support to the Sudanese government in the war.[61] There were also calls for boycotts from actor and UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador Mia Farrow, Genocide Intervention Network Representative Ronan Farrow,[62] author and Sudan scholar Eric Reeves[63] and the Washington Post editorial board.[64][65] Sudan divestment efforts have also concentrated on PetroChina, the national petroleum company with extensive investments in Sudan.[66]

In May 2009 the Mandate Darfur was canceled because the "Sudanese government is obstructing the safe passage of Darfurian delegates from Sudan."[67] The Mandate was a conference that would have brought together 300 representatives from different regions of the civil society of Darfur.[67] The conference was planned to be held in Addis Ababa in early May.

Mortality figures

A mother with her sick baby at Abu Shouk IDP camp in North Darfur

Sudanese authorities claim a death toll of roughly 19,500 civilians [68] while certain non-governmental organizations, such as the Coalition for International Justice, claim that over 400,000 people have been killed.[69]

In September 2004, the World Health Organization estimated there had been 50,000 deaths in Darfur since the beginning of the conflict, an 18-month period, mostly due to starvation. An updated estimate the following month put the number of deaths for the 6-month period from March to October 2004 due to starvation and disease at 70,000; These figures were criticized, because they only considered short periods and did not include deaths from violence.[70] A more recent British Parliamentary Report has estimated that over 300,000 people have died,[71] and others have estimated even more.

In March 2005, the UN's Emergency Relief Coordinator Jan Egeland estimated that 10,000 were dying each month excluding deaths due to ethnic violence.[72] An estimated 2.7 million people had at that time been displaced from their homes, mostly seeking refuge in camps in Darfur's major towns.[73] Two hundred thousand had fled to neighboring Chad. Reports of violent deaths compiled by the UN indicate between 6,000 and 7,000 fatalities from 2004 to 2007.[74]

In May 2005, the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) of the School of Public Health of the Université catholique de Louvain in Brussels, Belgium published an analysis of mortality in Darfur. Their estimate stated that from September 2003 to January 2005, between 98,000 and 181,000 persons had died in Darfur, including from 63,000 to 146,000 excess deaths.[75]

On 28 April 2006, Dr. Eric Reeves argued that "extant data, in aggregate, strongly suggest that total excess mortality in Darfur, over the course of more than three years of deadly conflict, now significantly exceeds 450,000," but this has not been independently verified.[76]

The UN disclosed on 22 April 2008 that it might have underestimated the Darfur death toll by nearly 50%.[9]

In July 2009, the Christian Science Monitor published an op-ed stating that many of the published mortality rates have been misleading because they include a large number of people who have died of disease and malnutrition, as well as those who have died from direct violence. Therefore, when activist groups make statements indicating that "four hundred thousand people have been killed," they are misleading the public.[77]

In January 2010, The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters published an article in a special issue of The Lancet. The article, entitled Patterns of mortality rates in Darfur Conflict, estimated, with 95% confidence, that the excess number of deaths is between 178,258 and 461,520 (the mean being 298,271), with 80% of these due to diseases.[78] 51 International peacekeepers have been killed in Darfur.[citation needed] An accurate picture of the state of the crisis in Darfur has been increasingly difficult to garner with former aid workers reporting that their remaining colleagues are "self-censoring" for fear of being expelled, and an Oct. 2010 crackdown by the Sudanese government on Radio Dabanga, the remaining uncensored Darfuri media outlet.[79]

Ongoing violence

Main articles: Civil war in Chad (2005–present), Central African Republic Bush War, and 2010 South Darfur clash

Violence in Darfur spread over the border to eastern Chad, but not as far as the capital N'Djamena, and the Central African Republic. In Chad, notably, the Janjaweed were accused of incursions and attacks. Hundreds of aid workers in Chad have already been evacuated due to increased tension between rebel groups and military forces. Meanwhile, the Janjaweed have ventured deep into Chad to conduct assaults, resulting in the fleeing of nearly 100,000 Chadians.[80]

Peace efforts

Efforts to end the war and resort to peace talks have been made, including by the U.S. government. [81][82]

Darfur Peace Agreement

A Darfur Peace Agreement between the Government of Sudan and the Sudan Liberation Movement of Minni Minnawi was signed in 2006. The agreement was only signed by one rebel group, the Sudan Liberation Movement, and rejected by the Justice and Equality Movement resulting in continuation of the conflict. The agreement includes provisions for wealth sharing, power sharing and established a Transitional Darfur Regional Authority to help administer darfur until a referendum could be held on the future of the region. The leader of the Sudan Liberation Movement, Minni Minnawi was appointed Senior Assistant to the President of Sudan and Chairman of the transitional authority in 2007.

In December 2010 the Sudan Liberation Movement withdrew from the peace agreement and the regional authority. It's leader Minni Minnawi fled to Southern Sudan and has since been dismissed as Senior Assistant to the President of Sudan and as Chairman of the Transitional Darfur Regional Authority. [83] The new Chairman Shartai Jaafar Abdel Hakam subsequently dismissed 10 other members of the Sudan Liberation Movement from the authority. [84]

Doha peace forum

In December 2010, representatives of the Liberation and Justice Movement, an umbrella organisation of ten rebel groups formed in February 2010 [85], started a fresh round of talks with the Sudanese Government in Doha, Qatar. A new rebel group, the Sudanese Alliance Resistance Forces in Darfur, has also been formed and the Justice and Equality Movement is planning further talks. [86] The talks ended on December 19 without a new peace agreement but basic principles were agreed, these included a regional authority and a referendum on autonomy for Darfur. A Darfuri Vice-President was also discussed. [87] [88]

In January 2011, the leader of the Liberation and Justice Movement, Dr Tijani Sese, stated that the movement had accepted the core proposals of the Darfur peace document proposed by the joint-mediators in Doha. The proposals include a $300,000,000 compensation package for victims of atrocities in Darfur and special courts to conduct trials of persons accused of human rights violations. Proposals for a new Darfur Regional Authority were also included, this authority would have an executive council of 18 ministers and would remain in place for five years. The current three Darfur states and state governments would also continue to exist during this period. [89] [90] In February 2011, the Sudanese Government rejected the idea of a single region headed by a vice-president from the region. [91]

On 29 January 2011, the leaders of the Liberation and Justice Movement and the Justice and Equality Movement issued a joint statement stating their commitment to the Doha negotiations and agreed to attend the Doha forum on 5 February 2011. The Sudanese government has not yet agreed to attend the forum on that date and instead favours an internal peace process without involvement of rebel groups. [92] Later in February 2011, the Sudanese Government agreed to return to the Doha peace forum with a view to complete a new peace agreement by the end of that month. [93] On 25 February 2011, both the Liberation and Justice Movement and the Justice and Equality Movement announced that they have now rejected the peace document proposed by the mediators in Doha. The main sticking points were the issue of a darfuri vice-president and compensation for victims. The Sudanese government has not commented on the peace document. [94]

See also

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  81. ^ Raghavan, Sudarsan (2010-03-11). "U.S. envoy pushes for Darfur peace deal before Sudanese elections". The Washington Post.
  82. ^ Darfur Peace and Development
  83. ^ http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/LSGZ-8C3MCC?OpenDocument
  84. ^ http://195.190.28.213/node/7168
  85. ^ http://www.sudantribune.com/EXCLUSIVE-Darfur-new-rebel-group,34301
  86. ^ http://www.enoughproject.org/publications/sudan-peace-watch-december-21-2010
  87. ^ http://www.sudantribune.com/Sudanese-government-LJM-rebels-to,37279
  88. ^ http://195.190.28.213/node/7902
  89. ^ http://195.190.28.213/node/7950
  90. ^ http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/africa/news/article_1609145.php/Alliance-of-rebel-factions-agrees-to-Darfur-peace-deal
  91. ^ http://www.shrig.org.sd/news-archive/darfur-news/2744-office-of-vp-must-meet-national-standards-says-el-haj-adam.html
  92. ^ http://www.sudanjem.com/2009/archives/42241/en/
  93. ^ http://195.190.28.213/node/9451
  94. ^ http://195.190.28.213/node/9880
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Main article: Bibliography of the Darfur conflict

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