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Hazāra
هزاره
Total population
Approx. 14-16 million
Regions with significant populations
 Afghanistan5,779,800-8000000[1]
 Iran1,134,000
(1993 estimate)[2]
 Pakistan550,000[2][3]
 Canada4,300[4]
Languages
Persian (predominantly Dari and Hazaragi dialects)
Religion
Shia Islam (Twelver and Ismaili), with a Sunni minority[5]

Hazāra (Template:Lang-fa) are a Persian-speaking people who mainly live in central Afghanistan. They are overwhelmingly Twelver Shia Muslims and comprise the third largest ethnic group of Afghanistan,[6][7][8] forming about 9% (according to other sources up to 19%) of the total population.[1][9][10] More than 650,000 Hazaras live in neighbouring Pakistan (mostly settled in Quetta) and an estimated one million in Iran.[2]

Etymology

Babur, the founder of the Mughul Empire in the early 16th century, records the name Hazara in Baburnama. He referred to the populace of Hazarajat, located west of Kabul, as far as Ghor, Ghazni and Quetta.[11]

The word Hazara most likely derives from the Persian word for Thousand (Template:Lang-fa - hazār). It may be the translation of the Mongol word ming (or minggan), a military unit of 1000 soldiers at the time of Gengis Khan.[12][13][14] With time, the term Hazar could have been substituted for the Mongol word and now stands for the group of people.[15]

Origin theories

The origins of the Hazaras have not been fully reconstructed. Significant Inner Asian descent – in historical context Mongolian and Turkic - is impossible to rule out because the Hazaras' physical attributes and parts of their culture and language resemble those of Mongolians and Central Asian Turks. Thus, it is widely and popularly believed that Hazaras have Mongolian ancestry. This is partially supported by some genetic testings.[16]

The Bamiyan Valley, the site of the Buddhas of Bamiyan.

Some Hazara tribes are named after famous Mongol generals, for example the Tulai Khan Hazara who are named after Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis Khan. Some believe Hazaras are descendants of Mongol soldiers and their slave women who settled in Bamiyan following the 1221 siege of Bamiyan. Theories of Mongol or partially Mongol descent are plausible, given that the Il-Khanate Mongol rulers, beginning with Oljeitu, embraced Shia Islam. Today, the majority of the Hazaras adhere to Shi'ism, whereas Afghanistan's other major ethnic groups are mostly Sunni. However, the Sunni and Ismaili Hazara population, while existent, have not been extensively researched by scholars.

Another popular theory proposes that Hazaras are descendants of the Kushans, the ancient dwellers of Afghanistan who are believed to have constructed the Buddhas of Bamiyan. Its proponents find the location of the Hazara homeland, and the similarity in facial features of Hazaras with those on frescoes and Buddha's statues in Bamiyan, suggestive. However, this belief is contrary not only to the fact that the Kushans were Tocharians, but also to historical records which mention that in a particularly bloody battle around Bamiyan, Genghis Khan's grandson, Mutugen, was killed, and he allegedly ordered Bamiyan to be destroyed in retribution.[17]

The theory accepted by most scholars, however, is that Hazaras are a mixed group. This is not entirely inconsistent with descent from Mongol military forces. For example, Nikudari Mongols settled in eastern Persia and mixed with native populations who spoke Persian. A second wave of mostly Chagatai Mongols came from Central Asia and were followed by other Mongolic groups, associated with the Ilkhanate (driven out of Persia) and the Timurids, all of whom settled in Hazarajat and mixed with the local, mostly Persian-speaking population, forming a distinct group.[18]

Genetics

Genetically, the Hazara are primarily eastern Eurasian with western Eurasian genetic mixtures.[19][20][21] While it has been found that "at least third to half of their chromosomes are of East Asian origin, PCA places them between East Asia and Caucasus/Middle East/Europe clusters".[22] Genetic research suggests that the Hazaras of Afghanistan cluster closely with the Uzbek population of the country, while both groups are at a notable distance from Afghanistan's Tajik and Pashtun populations.[22] There is evidence of both a patrimonial and maternal relation to Mongol peoples of Mongolia.[23][24] Mongol male and female ancestry is supported by studies in genetic genealogy as well, which have identified a particular lineage of the Y‑chromosome characteristic of people of Mongolian descent ("the Y-chromosome of Genghis Khan").[19] This chromosome is virtually absent outside the limits of the Mongol Empire except among the Hazara, where it reaches its highest frequency anywhere. These results indicate that the Hazara are also characterized by very high frequencies of eastern Eurasian mtDNAs at 35%. which are virtually absent from bordering populations, suggesting that the male descendants of Genghis Khan, or other Mongols, were accompanied by women of East Asian ancestry.[25] Non-eastern Eurasian mtDNA in Hazaras are at 65% most which are West Eurasians and some South Asian.[26]

R1b1a1 (2011 name) is defined by the presence of SNP marker M73. It has been found at generally low frequencies throughout central Eurasia, but has been found with relatively high frequency among particular populations there including Hazaras in Pakistan (8/25 = 32%).[27] However, the most frequent Haplogroup type found amongst the Hazara's in the same study was haplogroup C-M217 at 40%(10/25) with Haplogroup O3 (Y-DNA) at 8% (2/25)[28] both which are associated with the Mongols and Kazakhs. They come from Caucasus and North Afghanistan.

History

An 1880 photograph by John Burke, during the Second Anglo-Afghan War, which shows Besudi Hazara tribal chiefs somewhere in Afghanistan, possibly in or around Kabul.
Faiz Mohammad Katib Hazara, a 19th century historian from Afghanistan.

The first mention of Hazaras are made by Babur in the early 16th century and later by the court historians of Shah Abbas of the Safavid dynasty. It is reported that they converted to Shia Islam between the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century, during the Safavid period.[18][29]

Hazara men along with tribes of other ethnic groups had been recruited and added to the army of Ahmad Shah Durrani in the 18th century.[30] Some claim that in the mid‑18th century Hazaras were forced out of Helmand and the Arghandab District of Kandahar Province. During the second reign of Dost Mohammad Khan's in the 19th century, Hazaras from Hazarajat began to be taxed for the first time. However, for the most part they still managed to keep their regional autonomy until the subjugation of Abdur Rahman Khan began in the late 19th century.

When the Treaty of Gandomak was signed and the Second Anglo-Afghan War ended in 1880, Abdur Rahman Khan set out a goal to bring Hazarajat and Kafiristan under his control. He launched several campaigns in Hazarajat due to resistance from the Hazaras in which his forces committed atrocities. The southern part of Hazarajat was spared as they accepted his rule, while the other parts of Hazarajat rejected Abdur Rahman and instead supported his uncle, Sher Ali Khan. In response to this Abdur Rahman waged a war against tribal leaders who rejected his policies and rule.[18] Abdur Rahman arrested Syed Jafar, chief of the Sheikh Ali Hazara tribe, and jailed him in Mazar-e-Sharif.[citation needed]

First uprising

The first Hazara uprising against Abdur Rahman Khan took place between 1888 and 1890. When Emir Abdur Rahman's cousin, Mohammad Eshaq, revolted against him, tribal leaders of the Sheikh Ali Hazaras joined the revolt. The revolt was short lived and crushed as the Emir extended his control over large parts of Hazarajat. Leaders of the Sheikh Ali Hazaras had allies in two different groups, Shia and Sunni. Abdur Rahman took advantage of the situation, pitting Sunni Hazaras against the Shia Hazaras, and made pacts among the Hazaras.

After all of Sheikh Ali Hazaras' chiefs were sent to Kabul, opposition within the leadership of Sawar Khan and Syed Jafar Khan continued against the government troops, but at last were defeated. Taxes were imposed and Afghan administrators were sent to occupied places, where they subjugated the people with abuses.[18] People were disarmed, villages were looted, local tribal chiefs were imprisoned or executed, and the better lands were confiscated and given to Afghan nomads (Kuchis).[31]

Second uprising

The second uprising occurred in the Spring of 1892. The cause of the uprising was the alleged gang rape of the wife of a Hazara chief by 33 Afghan soldiers. According to S. A. Mousavi:

"The actual trigger for the first rebellion was the assault by thirty-three Afghan soldiers on the wife of a Pahlawān Hazāra. The soldiers, who had entered the house under the pretext of searching for arms, tied the man up and assaulted his wife in front of him. The families of both the man and his wife, deciding that death was one hundred times better than such humiliation, killed the soldiers involved and attacked the local garrison, from whence they recovered their confiscated arms".[18]

Several other tribal chiefs who supported Abdur Rahman now turned against him and joined the rebellion which rapidly spread through the entire Hazarajat. In response to the rebellion, the Emir declared a "jihad" against the Shias and raised an army of up to 40, 000 soldiers, 10, 000 mounted troops, and 100,000 armed civilians (most of which were Pashtun nomads).[18] He also brought in British military advisers to assist his army.[31] The large army defeated the rebellion at its center, in Oruzgan, by 1892 and the local population was displaced with some being massacred. According to S. A. Mousavi:

"thousands of Hazara men, women, and children were sold as slaves in the markets of Kabul and Qandahar, while numerous towers of human heads were made from the defeated rebels as a warning to others who might challenge the rule of the Amir".[18]

Third uprising

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The third uprising of Hazaras was in response to the harsh repression, the Hazaras revolted again by early 1893. This revolt took the government forces by surprise and the Hazaras managed to take most of Hazarajat back. However, after months of fighting, they were eventually defeated due to a shortage of food. Small pockets of resistance continued to the end of the year as government troops committed atrocities against civilians and deported entire villages.[31]

Abdur Rahman's subjugation of the Hazaras due to fierce rebellion against the Afghan king gave birth to strong hatred between the Afghans and Hazaras for years to come. Massive forced displacements, especially in Oruzgan and Daychopan, continued as lands were confiscated and populations were expelled or fled. Some 35,000 families fled to northern Afghanistan, Mashhad (Iran) and Quetta (Pakistan). It is estimated that more than 60%[citation needed] of the Hazara population were massacred or displaced during Abdur Rahman's campaign against them. Hazara farmers were often forced to give up their property to Pashtuns[citation needed] and as a result many Hazara families had to leave seasonally to the major cities in Afghanistan, Iran, or Pakistan in order to find jobs and a source of income. Quetta in Pakistan is home to the third largest settlements of Hazaras outside Afghanistan.[citation needed] Pashtun–Hazara conflicts were and are based solely on Shi'a–Sunni relations.

20th century

In 1901 Habibullah Khan, Abdur Rahman's successor, granted amnesty to all people who were exiled by his predecessor. However, the division between the Afghan government and the Hazara people was already made too deep under Abdur Rahman. Hazaras continued to face severe social, economic and political discrimination through most of the 20th century. In 1933 King Mohammed Nadir Khan was assassinated by Abdul Khaliq Hazara. The Afghan government captured and executed him later, including several of his family members, despite their non-involvement.

Mistrust of the central government by the Hazaras and local uprisings continued. In particular, in the 1940s, during Zahir Shah's rule, a revolt took place against new taxes that were exclusively imposed on the Hazaras. The Kuchi nomads meanwhile not only were exempted from taxes, but also received allowances from the Afghan government.[18] The angry rebels began capturing and killing government officials. In response, the central government sent a force to subdue the region and later removed the taxes.

Abdul Ali Mazari, leader of the Hezbe Wahdat during and following the Soviet war in Afghanistan. He was killed by the Taliban in 1995.

During the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Hazarajat region did not see as much heavy fighting as other regions of Afghanistan. However, rival Hazara political factions fought. The division was between the Tanzáim-e nasl-e naw-e Hazara, a party based in Quetta, of Hazara nationalists and secular intellectuals, and the pro-Khomeini Islamist parties backed by the new Islamic Republic of Iran.[18] By 1979, the Iran-backed Islamist groups liberated Hazarajat from the central Soviet-backed Afghan government and later took entire control of Hazarajat away from the secularists. By 1984, after severe fighting, the secularist groups lost all their power to the Islamists.

As the Soviets withdrew in 1989, the Islamist groups felt the need to broaden their political appeal and turned their focus to Hazara ethnic nationalism.[18] This led to establishment of the Hezb-e Wahdat, an alliance of all the Hazara resistance groups (except the Harakat-e Islami). In 1992 with the fall of Kabul, the Harakat-e Islami took sides with Burhanuddin Rabbani's government while the Hezb-e Wahdat took sides with the opposition. The Hezb-e Wahdat was eventually forced out of Kabul in 1995 when the Pashtun Taliban movement captured and killed their leader Abdul Ali Mazari. With the Taliban's capture of Kabul in 1996, all the Hazara groups united with the new Northern Alliance against the common new enemy. However, it was too late and despite the fierce resistance Hazarajat fell to the Taliban by 1998. The Taliban had Hazarajat totally isolated from the rest of the world going as far as not allowing the United Nations to deliver food to the provinces of Bamiyan, Ghor, Wardak, and Daykundi.[32]

Though Hazaras played a role in the anti-Soviet movement, other Hazaras participated in the new communist government, which actively courted Afghan minorities. Sultan Ali Kishtmand, a Hazara, served as prime minister of Afghanistan from 1981-1990 (with one brief interruption in 1988).[33] The Ismaili Hazaras of Baghlan Province likewise supported the communists, and their pir (religious leader) Jaffar Naderi led a pro-Communist militia in the region.[34]

During the years that followed, Hazaras suffered severe oppression and many large ethnic massacres were carried out by the predominately ethnic Pashtun Taliban and are documented by such groups as the Human Rights Watch.[35] These human rights abuses not only occurred in Hazarajat, but across all areas controlled by the Taliban. Particularly after their capture of Mazar-e Sharif in 1998, where after a massive killing of some 8,000 civilians, the Taliban openly declared that the Hazaras would be targeted.

21st century

Karim Khalili, 2nd Vice President of Afghanistan (with Turban) is standing next to Mohammed Fahim, George W. Bush, facing Hamid Karzai.

Following the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States, British and American forces invaded Afghanistan. Many Hazaras have become leaders in today's newly emerging Afghanistan.[36] Hazaras have also pursued higher education, enrolled in the army, and many have top government positions.[37] For example, Mohammad Mohaqiq, a Hazara from the Hezb-e Wahdat party, was able to run in the 2004 presidential election in Afghanistan, and Karim Khalili became the Vice President of Afghanistan. A number of ministers and governors are Hazaras, including Sima Samar, Habiba Sarabi, Ramazan Bashardost, Sarwar Danish, Sayed Hussein Anwari, Abdul Haq Shafaq, Sayed Anwar Rahmati, Qurban Ali Oruzgani and many others. The mayor of Nili in Daykundi Province is Azra Jafari, who became the first female mayor in Afghanistan. The National Assembly of Afghanistan (Parliament) is 25% made up of ethnic Hazaras, which represents 61 members.[38]

A gathering of Hazaras on the final day of Ramadan in Daykundi Province of Afghanistan.
Habiba Sarabi and Laura Bush meeting Afghan National Police commander in Bamiyan, Afghanistan.

Although Afghanistan has been historically one of the poorest countries in the world, the Hazarajat region has been kept even more from improvements by past governments. Since ousting the Taliban in late 2001, billions of dollars have poured into Afghanistan for reconstruction and several mega-scale reconstruction projects took place in Afghanistan from August 2012. For example, there have been more than 5000 kilometers of road pavement completed across Afghanistan, of which little was done in central Afghanistan Hazarajat. On the other hand, the Band-e Amir in the Bamyan Province became the first national park of Afghanistan. The road from Kabul to Bamyan was also built, along with new police stations, government institutions, hospitals, and schools in the Bamyan Province, Daykundi Province, and the others. The first ski resort of Afghanistan was also established in Bamyan Province.[39][40]

An indication of discrimination is that Kuchis (Afghan nomads who have historically been migrating from region to region depending on the season) are allowed to use Hazarajat pastures during the summer season. It is believed that allowing the Kuchis to use some of the grazing land in Hazarajat began during the rule of Abdur Rahman Khan.[41] Living in mountainous Hazarajat, where little farm land exists, Hazara people rely on these pasture lands for their livelihood during the long and harsh winters. In 2007 some Kuchi nomads entered into parts of Hazarajat to graze their livestock, and when the local Hazaras resisted, a clash took place and several people on both sides died using assault rifles. Such events continue to occur, even after the central government was forced to intervene, including President Hamid Karzai. In late July 2012, a Hazara police commander in Uruzgan province reportedly rounded up and killed 9 Pashtun civilians in revenge for the death of two local Hazaras. The matter is being investigated by the Afghan government.[41]

The recent drive by President Hamid Karzai after the Peace Jirga to strike a deal with Taliban leaders caused deep unease in Afghanistan's minority communities, who fought the Taliban the longest and suffered the most during their rule. The leaders of the Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara communities, which together make up close to half of the country's population, vowed to resist any return of the Taliban to power, referring to the large-scale massacres of Hazara civilians during the Taliban period.[42]

Geographic distribution

The vast majority of Hazaras live in central Afghanistan, and significant numbers are also found in major cities and towns. Many Hazara men leave Hazarjat to work in cities, including in neighboring countries or abroad. The latest World Factbook estimates show that Hazaras make up nine percent of the total Afghan population but some sources claim that they are about 20 percent.[15][36] However, they fail to cite a reference. In the 1970s, they were estimated by Louis Dupree at approximately 1,000,000.[43]

Diaspora

Main articles: Hazara diaspora and Afghan diaspora

Alessandro Monsutti argues, in his recent anthropological book,[44] that migration is the traditional way of life of the Hazara people, referring to the seasonal and historical migrations which have never ceased and do not seem to be dictated only by emergency situations such as war.[45]

Besides the major populations of Hazaras in Quetta (Pakistan)—where many have achieved considerably high positions within the government and police force—and Iran, there are significant communities in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and particularly the Northern European countries such as Sweden and Denmark. Many young Hazara are studying in developed countries such as Australia, legally through education or work visas. There are many Afghan Hazara who have migrated to developed countries especially in Australia as refugees. The notable case was the Tampa affair in which a shipload of refugees, mostly Hazaras, was rescued by the Norwegian freighter MV Tampa and subsequently sent to Nauru.[46] New Zealand agreed to take some of the refugees and all but one of those were approved.

Hazaras in Pakistan

File:Musa khan at school.jpg
Muhammad Musa, Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff from 1958 to 1966

Hazaras had been seasonal menial workers in British occupied territories of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. They worked during the winter months in coal mines, road construction and in other menial labor jobs during the British expansion in Sindh, Balochistan, and Pakistan's northwest frontier. The earliest record of Hazaras in the areas of Pakistan is found in Broad-foot's Sappers company from 1835 in Quetta. This company had also participated in the first Anglo Afghan war. Hazaras also worked in the agriculture farms in Sindh and construction of Sukkur barrage. Haider Ali Karmal Jaghori was a prominent political thinker of the Hazara people in Pakistan writing about the Political history of Hazara people. His work Hazaraha wa Hazarajat Bastan Dar Aiyna-e-Tarikh was published in Quetta in 1992, and another work by Aziz Tughyan Hazara Tarikh Milli Hazara was published in 1984 in Quetta.

In Pakistan today, most of the Hazara people live in the city of Quetta, in Balochistan province. Localities in the city of Quetta with prominent Hazara populations include Hazara Town and Mehr Abad. Literacy level among the Hazara community in Pakistan is relatively high[citation needed] and they have integrated well into the social dynamics of the local society. Saira Batool, a Hazara woman was one of the first female pilots in Pakistan Air Force. Other notable Hazara include Qazi Mohammad Esa, General Muhammad Musa, who served as Commander in Chief of the Pakistani Army from 1958 to 1968, Air Marshal(r) Sharbat Ali Changezi, Hussain Ali Yousafi slain chairman of the Hazara Democratic Party,[47] Syed Nasir Ali Shah, MNA from Quetta. Agha Abbas and his son Agha Ghulam Ali, owners of Agha Juice, a famous fruit juice outlet in the country since 1960, who were murdered in [48] May 2003 and jan 2007. The political representation of the community is served by Hazara Democratic Party, a secular liberal democratic party, headed by Abdul Khaliq Hazara.[49][50]

Hazaras in Iran

Further information: Afghans in Iran

Over the many years as a result of political unrest in Afghanistan many Hazaras have migrated to Iran. They have complained of maltreatments in Iran. In March 2011, Eurasia Daily Monitor reported that representatives of Hazaras community in Iran have asked Mongolia to intervene in supporting their case with Iranian government and prevent Iranian forced repatriation to Afghanistan.[51]

Culture

Main article: Hazaragi culture
Hazara girls wearing red traditional hijabs sitting next to Tajik and Pashtun girls in Ghazni, Afghanistan.

The Hazara, outside of Hazarajat, have adopted the cultures of the cities where they dwell, and in many cases are quite Persianized. Traditionally the Hazara are highland farmers and although sedentary like the Tajiks, in the Hazarajat, they have retained many of their own customs and traditions, some of which are more closely related to those of Central Asia than to Iran.[21][52][53] For instance, many Hazara musicians are widely hailed as being skilled in playing the dambura, a regional and native instrument, a lute instrument similarly found in other Central Asian nations such as Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

Food and cuisine

Main article: Hazaragi cuisine

Language

Further information: Persian language, Dari Persian, Hazaragi, and Mogholi language

Hazaras living in rural areas speak Hazaragi, an eastern dialect of the Persian language[54][55] with a significant number of Mongolic loan words.[43] [56][57]

Many of the urban Hazaras in the larger cities such as Kabul and Mazari Sharif no longer speak Hazaragi but speak standard literary Persian (usually the Kābolī dialect) or regional varieties of Persian (for example the Khorāsānī dialect in the western region of Herat).

Until recently, a very small number of Hazaras near Herat still spoke the Moghol language, a Mongolic language once spoken by rebels against the Mongol armies of the Il-Khanat.[58]

Religion

Further information: Shi'a Islam in Afghanistan and Shi'a Islam in Pakistan
Masjid Jame in Kabul during construction in 2008, which is the largest Shia mosque in Afghanistan.[59]

Hazaras are predominantly Shi'a Muslims, mostly of the Twelver sect[60] and some Ismaili.[5] Since the majority of Afghans practice Sunni Islam, this probably contributed to the discrimination against the Hazaras.[15] Hazaras probably converted from Sunnism to Shi'ism during the reign of the Il-Khanate ruler Oljeitu (1304–1316), or during the first part of the 16th century, in the early days of the Safavid Dynasty.[61] Nonetheless, a small number of Hazaras are Sunni.[5] Sunni Hazaras have been attached to non-Hazara tribes while the Ismaili Hazaras have always been kept separate from the rest of the Hazaras on account of religious beliefs and political purposes.

Hazara tribes

Main article: List of Hazara tribes

The Hazara people have been organized by various tribes. The daizangi are the largest tribe, representing 57.2% of the Hazara population.[citation needed] However, more recently and since the inclusion of the Hazaras into the "Afghan state", tribal affiliations have been disappearing and former tribal names Sheikh Ali, Jaghori, Ghaznichi, Behsoodi, Uruzgani, and Daiznagi are also disappearing. The different Hazara tribes come from regions such as Parwan, Bamyan, and Ghazni.

Sports

Rohullah Nikpai, two-time Olympic bronze medalist in the sport of Taekwondo.

Many Hazaras are engaged in different sports. Rohullah Nikpai won a bronze medal in taekwondo in the Beijing Olympics 2008, beating world champion Juan Antonio Ramos of Spain 4–1 in a play-off final. It was Afghanistan's first-ever Olympic medal. He then won a second olympic medal for Afghanistan in the London 2012 games. Afghanistan's first female Olympic athlete Friba Razayee competed in judo at the 2004 Athens Olympics, but was eliminated in the first round of competition.

Other famous Hazara athletes are Syed Abdul Jalil Waiz (Badminton) and Ali Hazara (Football). Syed Abdul Jalil Waiz was the first ever Badminton player representing Afghanistan in Asian Junior Championships in 2005 where he produced the first win for his country against Iraq, with 15–13, 15–1. He participated in several international championships since 2005 and achieved victories against Australia, Philippines and Mongolia.

Syed Abrar Hussain Shah, a boxer, competed in the Los Angeles Olympics in 1984, the Seoul Olympics 1988, and the New Zealand Commonwealth Games in 1990. Hamid Rahimi is a new boxer from Afghanistan and lives in Germany. Some Hazaras from Pakistan have also excelled in sports and have received numerous awards particularly in boxing, football and in field hockey. Qayum Changezi was a legendary football player in Pakistan.

Discrimination

Main article: Persecution of Hazara people

Notable people

Main article: List of Hazara people

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b "Afghanistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. December 13, 2007. Retrieved December 26, 2007.
  2. ^ a b c Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com/.
  3. ^ Census of Afghans in Pakistan, UNHCR Statistical Summary Report (retrieved December 27, 2007)
  4. ^ The population of people with descent from Afghanistan in Canada is 48,090. Hazaras make up an estimated 9% of the population of Afghanistan depending to the source. The Hazara population in Canada is estimated from these two figures. Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada
  5. ^ a b c The Afghans, Their History and Culture, Religion
  6. ^ L. Dupree, "Afghānistān: (iv.) ethnocgraphy", in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition 2006, (LINK).
  7. ^ CIA World Factbook.
  8. ^ "A survey of the Afghan people - Afghanistan in 2006", The Asia Foundation, technical assistance by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS; India) and Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research (ACSOR), Kabul, 2006.
  9. ^ {{cit[e web | url=http://www.aljazeera.com/video/asia/2011/11/2011111284512336838.html | title=Hazara community finds safe haven in Peshawar | publisher=Aljazeer English | date=12 Nov 2011 | accessdate=November 13, 2011 | author=Kamal Hyder reports}}
  10. ^ "Ethnic Groups of Afghanistan". Library of Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. 1997. Retrieved 2010-09-18. In 1996, approximately 40 percent of Afghans were Pashtun, 11.4 of whom are of the Durrani tribal group and 13.8 percent of the Ghilzai group. Tajiks make up the second largest ethnic group with 15-24 percent of the population, followed by Hazaras, 25.1 percent; Uzbeks, 6.3 percent; Turkmen, 3.5 percent; Qizilbash, 1.0; 6.9 percent other.
  11. ^ Z. M. Babur, Babur-nama, Lahore, 1987. P.p 300, 207, 214, 218, 221, 251-53
  12. ^ H. F. Schurmann, The Mon-gols of Afghanistan: An Ethnography of the Moghôls and Related Peoples of Afghanistan, La Haye, 1962, p. 115
  13. ^ Hassan Poladi, The Hazâras, Stockton, 1989., p. 22
  14. ^ S.A Mousavi, The Hazaras of Afghanistan:An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study, Richmond, 1998., pp. 23-25
  15. ^ a b c "HAZĀRA". Arash Khazeni, Alessandro Monsutti, Charles M. Kieffer (Online Edition ed.). United States: Encyclopædia Iranica. December 15, 2003. Retrieved 2007-12-23. {{cite web}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  16. ^ Hartl, Daniel L.; Jones, Elizabeth W., Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes, p. 308
  17. ^ Ratchnevsky, Paul (1991) Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy Blackwell, Oxford, UK, p. 164, ISBN 0-631-18949-1
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "HAZĀRA: ii. HISTORY". Alessandro Monsutti (Online ed.). United States: Encyclopædia Iranica. December 15, 2003. Retrieved 2012-08-09.
  19. ^ a b http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0214_030214_genghis_2.html Genghis Khan a Prolific Lover, DNA Data Implies
  20. ^
    • "The Hazara Tribes in Afghanistan" in (1959) Collection of papers presented: International Symposium on History of Eastern and Western Cultural Contacts (1957: Tokyo and Kyoto) Japanese National Commission for Unesco, Tokyo, p. 61 9240301
    • Quintana-Murci, Lluís; et al. (2004). "Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor". American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (5): 834–35. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first1= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
    • Debets, G. F. (1970) Physical Anthropology of Afghanistan: I–II (translated from Russian) Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass., OCLC 90304
    • Rubin, Barnett R. (2002) The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the international system Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., page 30, ISBN 0-300-05963-9
  21. ^ a b Jochelson, Waldemar (1928) Peoples of Asiatic Russia American Museum of Natural History, New York, p. 33, OCLC 187466893, also available in microfiche edition
  22. ^ a b Afghanistan's Ethnic Groups Share a Y-Chromosomal Heritage Structured by Historical Events
  23. ^ Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes, Daniel L. Hartl, Elizabeth W. Jones, p. 309.
  24. ^ Rosenberg, Noah A.; et al. (2002). "Genetic Structure of Human Populations". Science (New Series). 298 (5602): 2381–85. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first1= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  25. ^ Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor
  26. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1181978/figure/FG1/
  27. ^ Sengupta, S; Zhivotovsky, LA; King, R; Mehdi, SQ; Edmonds, CA; Chow, CE; Lin, AA; Mitra, M; Sil, SK (2006). "Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists". American Journal of Human Genetics. 78 (2): 202–21. doi:10.1086/499411. PMC 1380230. PMID 16400607. 8/176 R-M73 and 5/176 R-M269 for a total of 13/176 R1b in Pakistan and 4/728 R-M269 in India {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  28. ^ Table 3: Complete Data Set of Y-Chromosomal HGs, Numbers of Repeats at 10 Microsatellite Loci, and Descriptions of Populations
  29. ^ http://fletcher.tufts.edu/Congratulations/faces/~/media/Fletcher/Microsites/congratulations/PDFs/Sarabi.ashx
  30. ^ "Ahmad Shah and the Durrani Empire". Library of Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. 1997. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
  31. ^ a b c Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998) [1997]. The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Richmond, NY: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17386-5.
  32. ^ Rashid, Ahmed (March 1, 2001). Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (Paperback ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08902-8.
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  35. ^ Human Rights Watch (2001). "Afghanistan: massacres of Hazaras". hrw.org. Retrieved December 27, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  36. ^ a b Larson, Marisa (Jun 17, 2008). "Hazara People". National Geographic. Retrieved 2012-08-09.
  37. ^ Sappenfield, Mark (August 6, 2007). "Afghanistan's success story: The liberated Hazara minority". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved December 27, 2007.
  38. ^ "Many Karzai rivals find way to Parliament". Pajhwok.com. 2011-01-22. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
  39. ^ (27 Feb, 2012) Afghanistan set to host second national ski race wanderlust.co.uk
  40. ^ Levinson, Charles (March 6, 2012) Since Skiing Came to Afghanistan, It Has Been Pretty Much All Downhill wsj.com
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  44. ^ Monsutti, Alessandro (2005) War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan Routledge, New York, ISBN 0-415-97508-5
  45. ^ Monsutti, Alessandro (2005). War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan (in English and translated by Patrick Camiller). Routledge, New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-97508-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
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  49. ^ "Balochistan's Hazaras speak out — Qurat ul ain Siddiqui interviews Secretary-General of the Hazara Democratic Party, Abdul Khaliq Hazara". Dawn.com. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
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Further reading

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