Soviet space program

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File:Sputnik1.png

Sputnik 1 weighed less than 90 kg and orbited the Earth for less than three months. Its launch began the space race.

Having learned a bitter lesson during World War II at a cost of 20 million lost lives and the devastation of its most populated region, the Soviet Union undertook projects to modernize its defense -- to build rockets, nuclear weapons, and instruments to resist attack of any potential enemy. Global delivery capabilities of the first intercontinental ballistic missile rocket (R-7 Semyorka) soon opened the era of space exploration.

Being a primarily military program, the early Soviet space program was understandably classified. Sergey Korolyov was the head of the Soviet space program - his official title was called "chief designer" (standard title for similar positions in USSR). Similar to the U.S., announcements of success were delayed until success was certain, and failures sometimes were kept secret. During Gorbachev's policy of glasnost many facts about the space program (which was heavily interrelated to military space program) became declassified.

The Soviet Space Program dissolved along with the fall of the Soviet Union. Russia continued the space program by creating the Russian Aviation and Space Agency, which is now known as the Russian Federal Space Agency, abbreviated RKA.

Origins

The theory of space exploration was well-established in the USSR before the First World War by the writings of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (published in late 19 and beginning 20 century), and by early experiments of the reactive propulsion study group, GIRD. The breakthrough advances were made by Hermann Oberth and Werner von Braun in Germany during the war, which in turn were founded on the work of Robert Goddard before the war. During a victorious sweep over Germany the USSR even reached the V-2 production sites (after the Americans secretly moved most Nazi scientists to the US - see Operation Paperclip along with several V2 rockets) and tropheyed some drawings of V2. Under the direction of Dimitri Ustinov, the designer and engineer Sergey Korolyov inspected the drawings; aided by the German prisoners, they built a replica of the V-2 called the R-1. The weight of the Soviet nuclear warheads required a much more powerful booster. Also, Korolyov was dedicated to the use of liquid-fuelled cryogenic rockets he was experimenting with in late 1930s. This resulted in the design of the R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) which was successfully tested in August of 1957. Because of its global range and large payload capability (~5 tons) the reliable R7 was not only effective as a heavy nuclear charge strategic delivery system, but also as an excellent basis for a space launch vehicle.

The Soviet space program was tied into the USSR's Five-Year Plans and from the start was reliant on support from the Soviet military. In January 1956, plans were approved for Earth-orbiting satellites to gain knowledge of the space environment (Sputnik) and for unmanned military reconnaissance satellites (Zenit), with development work for a manned earth orbiting flight by 1964 and a lunar mission at an earlier date. Following the global propaganda success of the first Sputnik, Korolyov was charged to accelerate the manned program, the design of which was combined with the Zenit program to produce the Vostok spacecraft.

Firsts

Two days after the United States announced its intention to launch a satellite, on July 31, 1956, the Soviet Union announced its intention to do the same. Sputnik 1 became the first satellite with its launch October 4, 1957. It stunned citizens the world over.

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Laika became the first living being in orbit on Sputnik 2

The Soviet space program led the space race from 1957 through 1967 setting up many records:

First intercontinental ballistic missile, the R-7 Semyorka (1957)
First satellite, Sputnik 1 (1957)
First animal to enter Earth orbit, Laika on Sputnik 2 (1957)
First person in space (International definition) and in Earth orbit, Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1, Vostok programme (1961)
First person to spend over a day in space Gherman Titov, Vostok 2 (1961)
First dual manned spaceflight and approach, Vostok 3 and Vostok 4, (1962) While considered by some to be the first rendezvous, Vostok 3 and 4 were 5km apart, and on different orbital planes. American Gemini 6A and Gemini 7 were the first true rendezvous, three years later.
First woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova, Vostok 6 (1963)
First multi-man crew (3), Voskhod 1 (1964)
First EVA, by Aleksei Leonov, Voskhod 2 (1965)
First unmanned rendezvous and docking (1966) [As of 2006, this remains the only major space achievement that the Americans have NOT duplicated.]
First docking between two manned craft in Earth orbit and exchange of crews, Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 (1969)
First firing of a rocket in Earth Orbit, Luna 1 (1959)
First object in Solar orbit, Luna 1 (1959)
First probe to impact the moon, Luna 2 (1959)
First images of the moon's far side, Luna 3 (1959)
First probe launched to Mars (1960)
First probe launched to Venus (1961)
First probe to hit another planet (Venus), Venera 3 (1965)
First probe to transmit from the surface of the moon, Luna 9 (1966)
First probe in lunar orbit, Luna 10 (1966)
First samples automatically returned to Earth from another body, Luna 16 (1970)
First robotic space rover, Lunokhod 1 (1970)
First data received from the surface of another planet (Venus), Venera 7 (1970)
First space station, Salyut 1 (1971)
First probe to orbit another planet (Mars), first probe to reach surface of Mars, Mars 2 (1971)
First probe to orbit Venus, first photos from surface of Venus, Venera 9, (1975)
First woman to walk in space, Svetlana Savitskaya (Salyut 7 space station) (1984)
First crew to visit two separate space stations (Mir and Salyut 7), (1986)
First crew to spend over one year in space, Vladimir Titov and Musa Manarov on board of TM-4 - Mir Dec 12 1987
First permanently manned space station, Mir, which orbited the Earth from 1986 until 2001

- In addition, except for the period following Korolyov's death in 1965 through the end of the Skylab program in 1974, virtually all manned duration records have been set by the Russians, due largely to their Salyut/Mir series of space stations.

Internal competition

Unlike the American Space programme which had NASA as a single coordinating structure directed by former German scientist Wernher von Braun, the USSR's program was split between several competing design groups lead by Sergey Korolyov, Mikhail Yangel, Valentin Glushko and Vladimir Chelomei.

Following the remarkable successes of Sputniks in 1957-1961 and Vostoks in 1961-1964 Korolyov's OKB-1 design bureau was in the ascent and planned to move forward with the Soyuz craft and N-1 heavy booster that would be the basis of a permanent manned space station and manned exploration of the moon, but Ustinov directed him to focus on near-Earth missions using the very reliable Voskhod spacecraft, a modified Vostok, as well as on interplanetary unmanned missions to nearby planets Venus and Mars. Yangel had been Korolyov's assistant but with the support of the military was given his own design bureau in 1954 to work primarily on the military space program. This had the stronger rocket engine design team including the use of hypergolic fuels but following the Nedelin catastrophe in 1960 Yangel was directed to concentrate on ICBM development. He also continued to develop his own heavy booster designs similar to Korolyov's N-1 both for military applications and for cargo flights into space to build future space stations.

Glushko was the chief rocket engine designer but had a personal frictions with Korolyov and refused to develop the large single chamber cryogenic engines that Korolyov needed to built heavy boosters. Chelomei benefited from the patronage of Khrushchev and in 1960 was given the plum jobs of developing a rocket to send a manned craft around the moon and a manned military space station - but with limited experience his development was slow.

At one stage in the early 1960s the Soviet space program was actively developing 30 projects for launchers and spacecraft. With the fall of Krushchev in 1964 Korolyov was given complete control of the manned space program.

After Korolyov

Korolyov died following a routine operation that uncovered colon cancer and from complications from heart disease and severe hemorraging in January 1966 and leadership of the OKB-1 design bureau was given to Vasili Mishin who had the unenviable task of sending a man around the moon in 1967 and landing a man on it in 1968. Mishin lacked Korolyov's political authority and still faced competition from the other chief designers. Under pressure Mishin approved the launch of the ambitious Soyuz 1 flight in 1967 even though the craft had never been successfully tested on an un-manned flight. The mission launched with known design problems and ended a troubled flight by crashing to the ground killing Vladimir Komarov in the first in-flight fatality. Following this disaster and under new pressures Mishin developed a drinking problem. The Soviets were narrowly beaten to sending the first manned flight around the moon in 1968 by Apollo 8 and Mishin pressed ahead with the N-1 despite major design flaws in the hope that the Americans would have a setback. There was a success with the joint flight of Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 in January 1969 that tested the rendezvous, docking and crew transfer techniques that would be used for the landing but the failures of the N-1 unmanned test flights meant that the US inevitably beat the Soviets to the moon.

Following this set back Chelomei convinced Ustinov to approve a crash program in 1970 to advance his Almaz military space station as a means of beating the US's announced Skylab. Mishin remained in control of the project that became Salyut but the decision backed by Mishin to fly a three man crew without pressure suits rather than a two man crew with suits to Salyut 1 in 1971 proved fatal when the re-entry capsule depressurized killing the crew on their return to earth. Mishin was removed from many projects with Chelomei regaining control of Salyut. After the experience of working with NASA on the Apollo Soyuz Test Project the Soviet leadership decided a new management approach was needed and in 1974 the N-1 was cancelled and Mishin was dismissed. A single design bureau was created NPO Energia with Glushko as Chief Designer.

Failures

Like the US space program, the Soviet program also suffered many incidents and set-backs.

The Soviet space program was tied to the central planning of the USSR's five year plans. This made it difficult for the Chief Designers to respond in 1961 to the US launching a crash program for a manned lunar landing as the next five year plan would not start until 1964. Centralised planning and the concentration on production targets also made it difficult for middle management and engineers to highlight defects in equipment leading to poor quality control.

The Soviet space program produced the first cosmonaut fatality on March 23, 1961 when Valentin Bondarenko died in a fire within a low pressure, high oxygen atmosphere.

The Voskhod program was cancelled after two manned flights due to the change of Soviet leadership and the near fatality of the second mission. Had the planned further flights gone ahead they could have given the Soviet space program further 'firsts' including a long duration flight of 20 days, a spacewalk by a woman and an untethered spacewalk.

The deaths of Korolyov (heart attack), Komarov (in the Soyuz 1 crash) and Gagarin (on routine fighter jet mission) within two years of each other understandably made some negative impact on the Soviet program.

The Soviets continued striving for the first lunar mission with the huge N-1 rocket which exploded on each of four unmanned tests. The Americans won the race to land on the moon with Apollo 11 in July, 1969.

On April 5, 1975, the second stage of a Soyuz rocket carrying 2 cosmonauts to the Salyut 4 space station malfunctioned, resulting in the first manned launch abort. The cosmonauts were carried several thousand miles downrange and became worried that they would land in China, which the Soviet Union was then having difficult relations with. The capsule hit a mountain, sliding down a slope and almost slid off a cliff; fortunately the parachute lines snagged on trees and kept this from happening. As it was, the two suffered severe injuries and the commander, Lazerev, never flew again.

On March 18, 1980 a Vostok rocket exploded on its launch pad during a fueling operation killing 48 people.

In September, 1983, a Soyuz rocket being launched to carry cosmonauts to the Salyut 7 space station exploded on the pad, causing the Soyuz capsule's abort system to engage, saving the two cosmonauts on board.

The Soviet space program produced the Space Shuttle Buran based on the Energia launcher. Energia would be used as the base for a manned Mars mission. Buran was intended to operate in support of large space based military platforms as a response first to the US Space Shuttle and then the Strategic Defense Initiative. By the time the system was operational in 1988 strategic arms reduction treaties and the end of the Cold War meant that Buran was redundant. Several vehicles were built, but only one flew an unmanned test flight; it was found too expensive to operate as a civilian launcher.

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Buran-Energia on the launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome.

See also the complete list of space disasters.

Projects

The Soviet space program has undertaken a number of projects, including:

External links