Ca (Indic)

Comparison of Ca in different scripts

Aramaic - Kharoṣṭhī 𐨕 Ashoka Brahmi Kushana Brahmi Tocharian Gupta Brahmi Pallava - Kadamba - Bhaiksuki 𑰓 Siddhaṃ Grantha 𑌚 Cham ꨌ Sinhala ච Pyu / Old Mon - Tibetan  / ཙ Newa 𑐔 Ahom - Malayalam ച Telugu చ Burmese စ Lepcha ᰆ Ranjana - Saurashtra ꢗ Dives Akuru 𑤑 Kannada ಚ Kayah Li - Limbu Soyombo 𑩡 Khmer ច Tamil Chakma 𑄌 Tai Tham ᨧ Meitei Mayek ꯆ Gaudi - Thai จ Lao ຈ Tai Le ᥓ Marchen 𑱶 Tirhuta 𑒔 New Tai Lue ᦈ Tai Viet ꪊ / ꪋ Aksara Kawi - 'Phags-pa ꡄ / ꡐ Odia ଚ Sharada 𑆖 Rejang ꤹ Batak ᯡ Buginese ᨌ Zanabazar Square 𑨐 Bengali-Assamese Takri 𑚏 Javanese ꦕ Balinese ᬘ Makasar 𑻩 Hangul - Northern Nagari - Dogri 𑠏 Laṇḍā - Sundanese ᮎ Baybayin - Modi 𑘓 Gujarati ચ Khojki 𑈎 Khudabadi 𑋀 Mahajani 𑅙 Tagbanwa - Devanagari Nandinagari 𑦳 Kaithi 𑂒 Gurmukhi ਚ Multani 𑊊 Buhid - Canadian Syllabics - Soyombo 𑩡 Sylheti Nagari ꠌ Gunjala Gondi 𑵻 Masaram Gondi 𑴑 Hanuno'o - Notes

Ca is the sixth consonant of Indic abugidas. In modern Indic scripts, ca is derived from the early "Ashoka" Brahmi letter , which is probably derived from the North Semitic letter tsade (reflected in the Aramaic , "ts"), with an inversion seen in several other derivatives, after having gone through the Gupta letter .

Āryabhaṭa numeration

Further information: Āryabhaṭa numeration

Aryabhata used Devanagari letters for numbers, very similar to the Greek numerals, even after the invention of Indian numerals. The values of the different forms of च are:

• च [t͡ʃə] = 6 (६)
• चि [t͡ʃɪ] = 600 (६००)
• चु [t͡ʃʊ] = 60,000 (६० ०००)
• चृ [t͡ʃri] = 6,000,000 (६० ०० ०००)
• चॢ [t͡ʃlə] = 6×10⁸ (६०^८)
• चे [t͡ʃe] = 6×10¹⁰ (६०^१०)
• चै [t͡ʃɛː] = 6×10¹² (६०^१२)
• चो [t͡ʃoː] = 6×10¹⁴ (६०^१४)
• चौ [t͡ʃɔː] = 6×10¹⁶ (६०^१६)

Historic Ca

There are three different general early historic scripts - Brahmi and its variants, Kharoṣṭhī, and Tocharian, the so-called slanting Brahmi. Ca as found in standard Brahmi, was a simple geometric shape, with variations toward more flowing forms by the Gupta . The Tocharian Ca did not have an alterante Fremdzeichen form. The third form of ca, in Kharoshthi () was probably derived from Aramaic separately from the Brahmi letter.

Brahmi Ca

The Brahmi letter , Ca, is probably derived from the Aramaic Tsade , and is thus related to the Greek San. Several identifiable styles of writing the Brahmi Ca can be found, most associated with a specific set of inscriptions from an artifact or diverse records from an historic period. As the earliest and most geometric style of Brahmi, the letters found on the Edicts of Ashoka and other records from around that time are normally the reference form for Brahmi letters, with vowel marks not attested until later forms of Brahmi back-formed to match the geometric writing style.

Brahmi Ca historic forms

Ashoka (3rd-1st c. BCE)	Girnar (~150 BCE)	Kushana (~150-250 CE)	Gujarat (~250 CE)	Gupta (~350 CE)

Tocharian Ca

The Tocharian letter is derived from the Brahmi , but does not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form.

Tocharian Ca with vowel marks

Ca	Cā	Ci	Cī	Cu	Cū	Cr	Cr̄	Ce	Cai	Co	Cau	Cä

Kharoṣṭhī Ca

The Kharoṣṭhī letter is generally accepted as being derived from the Aramaic Tsade , and is thus related to San (letter), in addition to the Brahmi Ca.

Devanagari script

Main article: Devanagari ca

Ca (च) is the sixth consonant of the Devanagari abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , after having gone through the Gupta letter . In Marathi, च is sometimes pronounced as [t͡sə] or [t͡s] in addition to [t͡ʃə] or [t͡ʃ]. Letters that derive from it are the Gujarati letter ચ and the Modi letter 𑘓.

Devanagari-using Languages

In all languages, च is pronounced as [t͡ʃə] or [t͡ʃ] when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Devanagari uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

Devanagari च with vowel marks

Ca	Cā	Ci	Cī	Cu	Cū	Cr	Cr̄	Cl	Cl̄	Ce	Cai	Co	Cau	C
च	चा	चि	ची	चु	चू	चृ	चॄ	चॢ	चॣ	चे	चै	चो	चौ	च्

Conjuncts with च

Half form of Ca.

Devanagari exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. In modern Devanagari texts, most conjuncts are formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". Some conjunct clusters are always represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters. Vertically stacked conjuncts are ubiquitous in older texts, while only a few are still used routinely in modern Devanagari texts. The use of ligatures and vertical conjuncts may vary across languages using the Devanagari script, with Marathi in particular preferring the use of half forms where texts in other languages would show ligatures and vertical stacks.

Ligature conjuncts of च

True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Devanagari are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra. Nepali and Marathi texts use the "eyelash" Ra half form for an initial "R" instead of repha.

• Repha र্ (r) + च (ca) gives us the ligature rca: ^note

• Eyelash र্ (r) + च (ca) gives us the ligature rca:

• च্ (c) + rakar र (ra) gives us the ligature cra:

• च্ (c) + न (na) gives us the ligature cna:

Stacked conjuncts of च

Vertically stacked ligatures are the most common conjunct forms found in Devanagari text. Although the constituent characters may need to be stretched and moved slightly in order to stack neatly, stacked conjuncts can be broken down into recognizable base letters, or a letter and an otherwise standard ligature.

• ब্ (b) + च (ca) gives us the ligature bca:

• भ্ (bʰ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature bʰca:

• च্ (c) + ब (ba) gives us the ligature cba:

• च্ (c) + च (ca) gives us the ligature cca:

• च্ (c) + ड (ḍa) gives us the ligature cḍa:

• छ্ (cʰ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature cʰca:

• च্ (c) + ज (ja) gives us the ligature cja:

• च্ (c) + ज্ (j) + ञ (ña) gives us the ligature cjña:

• च্ (c) + क (ka) gives us the ligature cka:

• च্ (c) + ल (la) gives us the ligature cla:

• च্ (c) + ङ (ŋa) gives us the ligature cŋa:

• च্ (c) + ञ (ña) gives us the ligature cña:

• च্ (c) + व (va) gives us the ligature cva:

• द্ (d) + च (ca) gives us the ligature dca:

• ड্ (ḍ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature ḍca:

• ढ্ (ḍʱ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature ḍʱca:

• ध্ (dʱ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature dʱca:

• घ্ (ɡʱ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature ɡʱca:

• ह্ (h) + च (ca) gives us the ligature hca:

• ज্ (j) + च (ca) gives us the ligature jca:

• झ্ (jʰ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature jʰca:

• क্ (k) + च (ca) gives us the ligature kca:

• ख্ (kʰ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature kʰca:

• ल্ (l) + च (ca) gives us the ligature lca:

• ळ্ (ḷ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature ḷca:

• म্ (m) + च (ca) gives us the ligature mca:

• न্ (n) + च (ca) gives us the ligature nca:

• ङ্ (ŋ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature ŋca:

• ञ্ (ñ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature ñca:

• प্ (p) + च (ca) gives us the ligature pca:

• फ্ (pʰ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature pʰca:

• स্ (s) + च (ca) gives us the ligature sca:

• श্ (ʃ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature ʃca:

• ष্ (ṣ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature ṣca:

• त্ (t) + च (ca) gives us the ligature tca:

• थ্ (tʰ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature tʰca:

• ट্ (ṭ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature ṭca:

• ठ্ (ṭʰ) + च (ca) gives us the ligature ṭʰca:

• व্ (v) + च (ca) gives us the ligature vca:

• य্ (y) + च (ca) gives us the ligature yca:

Bengali script

The Bengali script চ is derived from the Siddhaṃ , and is marked by a similar horizontal head line, but less geometric shape, than its Devanagari counterpart, च. The inherent vowel of Bengali consonant letters is /ɔ/, so the bare letter চ will sometimes be transliterated as "co" instead of "ca". Adding okar, the "o" vowel mark, gives a reading of /t͡ʃo/.

Like all Indic consonants, চ can be modified by marks to indicate another (or no) vowel than its inherent "a".

Bengali চ with vowel marks

ca	cā	ci	cī	cu	cū	cr	cr̄	ce	cai	co	cau	c
চ	চা	চি	চী	চু	চূ	চৃ	চৄ	চে	চৈ	চো	চৌ	চ্

চ in Bengali-using languages

চ is used as a basic consonant character in all of the major Bengali script orthographies, including Bengali and Assamese.

Conjuncts with চ

Bengali চ exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. Unlike other Bengali letters, Ca does not tend towards stacked ligatures.

• চ্ (c) + চ (ca) gives us the ligature cca:

• চ্ (c) + ছ (cʰa) gives us the ligature ccʰa:

• চ্ (c) + ছ্ (cʰ) + র (ra) gives us the ligature ccʰra, with the ra phala suffix:

• চ্ (c) + ছ্ (cʰ) + র (ra) gives us the ligature ccʰra, with the ra phala suffix:

• চ্ (c) + ঞ (ña) gives us the ligature cña:

• চ্ (c) + ব (va) gives us the ligature cva, with the va phala suffix:

• চ্ (c) + য (ya) gives us the ligature cya, with the ya phala suffix:

• ঞ (ñ) + চ (ca) gives us the ligature ñca:

• র্ (r) + চ (ca) gives us the ligature rca, with the repha prefix:

• র্ (r) + চ্ (c) + য (ya) gives us the ligature rcya, with the repha prefix and ya phala suffix:

• শ্ (ʃ) + চ (ca) gives us the ligature ʃca:

Gurmukhi script

Chachaa [t͡ʃət͡ʃːɑ] (ਚ) is the eleventh letter of the Gurmukhi alphabet. Its name is [t͡ʃət͡ʃːɑ] and is pronounced as /t͡ʃ/ when used in words. It is derived from the Laṇḍā letter ca, and ultimately from the Brahmi ca. Gurmukhi chachaa does not have a special pairin or addha (reduced) form for making conjuncts, and in modern Punjabi texts do not take a half form or halant to indicate the bare consonant /t͡ʃ/, although Gurmukhi Sanskrit texts may use an explicit halant.

Gujarati Ca

Gujarati Ca.

Ca (ચ) is the sixth consonant of the Gujarati abugida. It is derived from the 16th century Devanagari Ca with the top bar (shiro rekha) removed, and ultimately from the Brahmi letter . The Gujarati letter Ca (ચ) should not be confused with the Gujarati vowel A (અ), and care should be taken when reading Gujarati script texts not to confuse the two.

Gujarati-using Languages

The Gujarati script is used to write the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. In both languages, ચ is pronounced as [cə] or [c] when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Gujarati uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

Ca	Cā	Ci	Cī	Cu	Cū	Cr	Cl	Cr̄	Cl̄	Cĕ	Ce	Cai	Cŏ	Co	Cau	C
Gujarati Ca syllables, with vowel marks in red.

Conjuncts with ચ

Half form of Ca.

Gujarati ચ exhibits conjunct ligatures, much like its parent Devanagari Script. Most Gujarati conjuncts can only be formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". A few conjunct clusters can be represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters, and vertically stacked conjuncts can also be found in Gujarati, although much less commonly than in Devanagari.

True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Gujarati are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra.

• ર્ (r) + ચ (ca) gives us the ligature RCa:

• ચ્ (c) + ર (ra) gives us the ligature CRa:

• ચ્ (c) + ન (na) gives us the ligature CNa:

• શ્ (ʃ) + ચ (ca) gives us the ligature ŚCa:

Thai script

Cho chan (จ) is the eighth letter of the Thai script. It falls under the middle class of Thai consonants. In IPA, cho chan is pronounced as [tɕ] at the beginning of a syllable and is pronounced as [t̚] at the end of a syllable. The ninth letter of the alphabet, cho ching (ฉ), is also named cho and falls under the high class of Thai consonants. The tenth and twelfth letters of the alphabet, cho chang (ช) and cho choe (ฌ), are also named cho, however, they all fall under the low class of Thai consonants. Unlike many Indic scripts, Thai consonants do not form conjunct ligatures, and use the pinthu—an explicit virama with a dot shape—to indicate bare consonants. In the acrophony of the Thai script, chan (จาน) means ‘plate’. Cho chan corresponds to the Sanskrit character ‘च’.

Javanese script

Main article: Ca (Javanese)

Telugu Ca

Telugu independent and subjoined Ca.

Ca (చ) is a consonant of the Telugu abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter . It is closely related to the Kannada letter ಚ. Most Telugu consonants contain a v-shaped headstroke that is related to the horizontal headline found in other Indic scripts, although headstrokes do not connect adjacent letters in Telugu. The headstroke is normally lost when adding vowel matras.

Telugu conjuncts are created by reducing trailing letters to a subjoined form that appears below the initial consonant of the conjunct. Many subjoined forms are created by dropping their headline, with many extending the end of the stroke of the main letter body to form an extended tail reaching up to the right of the preceding consonant. This subjoining of trailing letters to create conjuncts is in contrast to the leading half forms of Devanagari and Bengali letters. Ligature conjuncts are not a feature in Telugu, with the only non-standard construction being an alternate subjoined form of Ṣa (borrowed from Kannada) in the KṢa conjunct.

Malayalam Ca

Malayalam letter Ca

Ca (ച) is a consonant of the Malayalam abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Grantha letter Ca. Like in other Indic scripts, Malayalam consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Malayalam Ca matras: Ca, Cā, Ci, Cī, Cu, Cū, Cr̥, Cr̥̄, Cl̥, Cl̥̄, Ce, Cē, Cai, Co, Cō, Cau, and C.

Conjuncts of ച

As is common in Indic scripts, Malayalam joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. There are several ways in which conjuncts are formed in Malayalam texts: using a post-base form of a trailing consonant placed under the initial consonant of a conjunct, a combined ligature of two or more consonants joined together, a conjoining form that appears as a combining mark on the rest of the conjunct, the use of an explicit candrakkala mark to suppress the inherent "a" vowel, or a special consonant form called a "chillu" letter, representing a bare consonant without the inherent "a" vowel. Texts written with the modern reformed Malayalam orthography, put̪iya lipi, may favor more regular conjunct forms than older texts in paḻaya lipi, due to changes undertaken in the 1970s by the Government of Kerala.

• ച് (c) + ച (ca) gives us the ligature cca:

• ഞ് (ñ) + ച (ca) gives us the ligature ñca:

Odia Ca

Odia independent and subjoined letter Ca.

Ca (ଚ) is a consonant of the Odia abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Siddhaṃ letter Ca. Like in other Indic scripts, Odia consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Odia Ca with vowel matras

Ca	Cā	Ci	Cī	Cu	Cū	Cr̥	Cr̥̄	Cl̥	Cl̥̄	Ce	Cai	Co	Cau	C
ଚ	ଚା	ଚି	ଚୀ	ଚୁ	ଚୂ	ଚୃ	ଚୄ	ଚୢ	ଚୣ	ଚେ	ଚୈ	ଚୋ	ଚୌ	ଚ୍

Conjuncts of ଚ

As is common in Indic scripts, Odia joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a small subjoined form of trailing consonants. Most consonants' subjoined forms are identical to the full form, just reduced in size, although a few drop the curved headline or have a subjoined form not directly related to the full form of the consonant. The second type of conjunct formation is through pure ligatures, where the constituent consonants are written together in a single graphic form. This ligature may be recognizable as being a combination of two characters or it can have a conjunct ligature unrelated to its constituent characters.

• ଚ୍ (c) + ଚ (ca) gives us the ligature cca:

• ଚ୍ (c) + ଛ (cʰa) gives us the ligature ccʰa:

• ଞ୍ (ñ) + ଚ (ca) gives us the ligature ñca:

See also

• Kaph

References

^note Conjuncts are identified by IAST transliteration, except aspirated consonants are indicated with a superscript "h" to distinguish from an unaspirated cononant + Ha, and the use of the IPA "ŋ" and "ʃ" instead of the less dinstinctive "ṅ" and "ś".

Further reading

• Kurt Elfering: Die Mathematik des Aryabhata I. Text, Übersetzung aus dem Sanskrit und Kommentar. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1975, ISBN 3-7705-1326-6
• Georges Ifrah: The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000, ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
• B. L. van der Waerden: Erwachende Wissenschaft. Ägyptische, babylonische und griechische Mathematik. Birkhäuser-Verlag, Basel Stuttgart, 1966, ISBN 3-7643-0399-9
• Fleet, J. F. (January 1911). "Aryabhata's System of Expressing Numbers". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 43: 109–126. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00040995. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25189823.
• Fleet, J. F. (1911). "Aryabhata's System of Expressing Numbers". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 43. Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: 109–126. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00040995. JSTOR 25189823.