Lu Xun (Eastern Wu)

Lu Xun (183–245), courtesy name Boyan, also sometimes referred to as Lu Yi, was a military general and politician of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period. He started his career as an official under the warlord Sun Quan in the late Eastern Han dynasty, steadily rising through the ranks until 219, when he assisted Sun Quan's general Lü Meng in an invasion of Jing Province, which led to the defeat of Liu Bei's general Guan Yu. In 222, he served as the field commander of the Wu armies in the Battle of Xiaoting against the forces of Liu Bei and scored a decisive victory over the enemy. Lu Xun reached the pinnacle of his career after this battle as he was highly regarded by Sun Quan, who promoted him to even higher positions and bestowed upon him unprecedented honours. Throughout the middle and the later parts of his career, Lu Xun oversaw and managed both civil and military affairs in Wu while participating in some battles against Wu's rival state Wei from time to time. In his final years, Lu Xun became involved in a succession struggle between Sun Quan's sons, and he fell out of Sun Quan's favour. He managed to retain his appointment as Chancellor – an office he assumed in 244 – but died a year later in anger and frustration. Lu Xun's role in the Wu government was likened to that of a custos morum as he believed firmly in and upheld Confucian ethics and values – from providing constant and timely advice to Sun Quan to exercise benevolence and consider the welfare of the people to vehemently objecting to Sun Quan's idea of replacing his legitimate heir apparent in favour of another son.

Family background

Lu Xun's original given name was "Yi" (議), and he was from a family of high social status in Wu County (吳縣), Wu Commandery (吳郡), which is in present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu. His grandfather Lu Yu (陸紆) and father Lu Jun (陸駿) both served as officials in the government of the Eastern Han dynasty. He was orphaned at a young age, so he was raised by his granduncle Lu Kang, who was serving as the Administrator (太守) of Lujiang Commandery (廬江郡). Lu Kang had disagreements with the Huainan warlord Yuan Shu, so when he heard that Yuan was planning to attack him, he immediately sent Lu Xun and his relatives back to Wu Commandery for their safety. Lu Xun became the head of the family after Lu Kang's death because he was older than Lu Ji (Lu Kang's son), even though Lu Ji was one generation older than him.

Early career

As a county-level official

In the early 200s, when Lu Xun was 20 years old, he came to serve the warlord Sun Quan, who was nominally a subject of the Han imperial court, but had full autonomy in governing the territories in Jiangdong (covering southeastern China) he inherited from his elder brother Sun Ce. Lu Xun started his career as a minor official in Sun Quan's office, then as a Foreman Clerk in the East and West Bureaus (東西曹令史) and as Agricultural Commandant (屯田都尉) of Haichang (海昌), before becoming a county-level official. When the county was plagued by consecutive years of drought, Lu Xun opened up the granaries and distributed food supplies to the people and promoted agriculture. The people benefited from his policies. At the time, there were many households in Wu, Kuaiji, and Danyang (丹楊) commanderies who were hiding from the government because they wanted to evade taxes and conscription. Lu Xun had them tracked down, registered and resettled. Some able-bodied young men were recruited for military service while others were sent to do agricultural labour.

Eliminating bandit forces

Early in his career, Lu Xun assisted in the elimination of bandit forces in the Jiangdong territories who had been terrorising the region for years and posed serious threats to Sun Quan's administration. He rallied a volunteer army to attack the bandits led by Pan Lin in Kuaiji Commandery, passing through treacherous territory and pacifying those who stood in his way. The number of troops under his command increased to over 2,000. When another bandit chief, You Tu (尤突), was causing trouble in Poyang (鄱陽), Lu Xun led an army to attack the bandits and achieved success. He was commissioned as "Colonel Who Establishes Might" (定威校尉) and ordered to garrison at Lipu (利浦).

Lu Xun once advised Sun Quan to eliminate local bandit forces in Jiangdong first because they would hinder him in his aims to achieve supremacy over China. Sun Quan heeded Lu Xun's words and appointed the latter as a "Commandant of the Right Section" (右部督) under him. Fei Zhan (費棧), a bandit chief in Danyang, had received an official appointment from Cao Cao – a leading warlord who was also the de facto head of the Han government – and was instructed to instigate the Shanyue tribes in Jiangdong to stir up trouble for Sun Quan. In response, Sun Quan sent Lu Xun to attack Fei Zhan. Lu Xun had a much smaller army as compared to Fei Zhan, but he deceived the enemy into thinking that he had more troops – he prepared more flags and banners, spread out his war drums, ordered his men to sneak into the valleys at night and beat the drums loudly, so as to create an illusion of an overwhelming army. He emerged victorious over Fei Zhan.

Lu Xun sent his troops into the three commanderies in eastern Jiangdong, where he recruited many able-bodied young men for military service while the less physically fit ones were called up for agricultural labour. He drafted tens of thousands of soldiers in total. He also cleared the region of opposing forces before returning to a garrison at Wuhu.

Conflict with Chunyu Shi

Chunyu Shi (淳于式), the Administrator of Kuaiji Commandery, once accused Lu Xun of oppressing and disturbing the common people. When Lu Xun travelled to Wu (the capital of Sun Quan's territories) to explain himself, he praised Chunyu Shi for being an excellent civil official. Sun Quan was puzzled so he asked Lu Xun, "Chunyu Shi made accusations against you, but yet you praise him. Why?" Lu Xun replied, "Chunyu Shi was concerned about the people's welfare when he made accusations against me. If I were to rebuke him, I would violate ethical norms, which is something I will not do." Sun Quan said, "This is something that a person with good morals will do and something which ordinary people are not capable of doing."

Invasion of Jing Province

Main article: Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province

Planning for the invasion

Around 215, about six years after the Battle of Red Cliffs, Sun Quan and his ally Liu Bei had territorial disputes over southern Jing Province and tensions between them nearly escalated to the point of armed conflict, but eventually both sides agreed to divide the province between their respective domains along the Xiang River. Liu Bei's territories in southern Jing Province were guarded by Guan Yu while Lü Meng was in charge of Sun Quan's.

In 219, Lü Meng came up with a plan to help Sun Quan seize control of Liu Bei's lands in Jing Province. He pretended to be ill and asked for permission to return to Jianye (建業; present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) to seek medical treatment, while Sun Quan played along by "agreeing" to the request. Lu Xun went to visit Lü Meng and he said, "Guan Yu is near the border. How can we remain far behind the border and not worry about having to defend against him?" Lü Meng replied, "What you've said is true, but I'm seriously ill now." Lu Xun then said, "Guan Yu is proud of his own valour and he scorns others. He may have made great achievements, but he is overly conceited. Besides, he is heading north and he has never regarded us highly. When he hears that you're sick, he'll definitely lower his defences. If we attack him when he lowers his guard, we can capture him. I came here to meet you and discuss a plan to attack him." Lü Meng replied, "Guan Yu is known for his bravery and ferocity in battle, and he is a formidable foe. Besides, he is in control of Jing Province, he governs with virtue and has made great accomplishments, while the morale of his army is at its peak. It won't be easy to defeat him."

Succeeding Lü Meng

When Lü Meng arrived in Jianye, Sun Quan asked him, "Who can replace you?" Lü Meng responded, "Lu Xun is careful and thoughtful. He has the ability to shoulder this important responsibility. Based on my observations of him, I feel that he is capable of taking up great appointments in the future. Besides, he is relatively unknown, so Guan Yu will not be wary of him. This cannot be better. If he is appointed, our enemies will be unaware of our intentions, while we can assess our forces better and seek an opportunity to launch the attack." Sun Quan followed Lü Meng's suggestion and commissioned Lu Xun as "Lieutenant-General" (偏將軍) and "Inspector of the Right Section" (右部督) to take up Lü Meng's post in Jing Province.

When Lu Xun arrived at Lukou (陸口) to assume his new office, he wrote to Guan Yu: "Previously, I had the privilege of witnessing you in action. You uphold good discipline in your army and achieved success with minimal effort. That is praiseworthy! Our enemy has been defeated, it is to our mutual benefit that we strengthen our alliance. Having received this piece of good news, I intend to pack up all my belongings and join you in striving to accomplish our lords' common goals. I am unintelligent, but I have received orders to take up this appointment in the west. I hope to catch a glimpse of your glory and obtain your good advice to bear in mind." Later, after Guan Yu's triumph over Yu Jin at the Battle of Fancheng, he wrote to Guan again: "Now that Yu Jin and others have been captured, everyone far and near rejoices, and your feat shall live in praise for generations. Neither can Duke Wen of Jin's victory at Chengpu nor the Marquis of Huaiyin's strategy in conquering Zhao be compared to your achievement. I heard that Xu Huang and his forces are approaching and preparing for an offensive. Cao Cao is very cunning and his intentions are difficult to predict. I am afraid he might secretly increase the number of troops (in Xu Huang's army) to achieve his aim. Even though the enemy is weary, they still have some fighting spirit in them. Every time after scoring a victory, there is a tendency for us to underestimate the enemy. The best military leaders in ancient times maintained their defences even after they won battles. I hope that you can make grander plans to secure a total victory. I am but a scholar, negligent and slow, and unworthy in many aspects. I am pleased to have a majestic and virtuous neighbour like you, and my joy cannot be contained. Even though we have not worked together yet, I always hope for such an opportunity. If close attention is required, I will pay my fullest attention."

Invasion of Jing Province

Upon receiving Lu Xun's letters, Guan Yu felt that Lu showed humility and was expressing his desire to rely on him, so he felt at ease and lowered his guard against Lu. When Lu Xun heard about that, he reported the situation to Sun Quan and provided crucial details on how to defeat Guan. Sun Quan secretly led an army towards Jing Province, with Lü Meng and Lu Xun serving as the vanguard commanders. Lü Meng employed infiltration tactics to disable the watchtowers set up by Guan Yu along the Yangtze River, rendering them unable to warn Guan about Sun Quan's advances, and then swiftly conquered Guan Yu's key bases in Jing Province – Gong'an (公安) and Nan Commandery (南郡). For his role in the conquest of Jing Province, Lu Xun was appointed as the Administrator (太守) of Yidu (宜都), promoted to "General Who Pacifies the Border" (撫邊將軍), and received the title "Marquis of Hua Village" (華亭侯). Fan You (樊友), the previous Administrator of Yidu under Guan Yu, abandoned his post and fled, while the officials and tribal chiefs in the commandery surrendered to Lu Xun. Lu Xun had official seals carved from gold, silver or bronze and given to these officials and tribal chiefs. This took place in around January 220.

Even after the annexation of Jing Province, there were still some areas which were still controlled by Liu Bei's forces or other hostile parties, so Lu Xun had to pacify those regions. He sent his subordinates Li Yi (李異), Xie Jing, and others to lead 3,000 troops to attack Liu Bei's generals Zhan Yan (詹晏) and Chen Feng (陳鳳). Li Yi led the naval forces while Xie Jing commanded the land army. They sealed the critical routes and defeated Zhan Yan and captured Chen Feng. They then attacked Deng Fu (鄧輔) and Guo Mu (郭睦), the Administrators of Fangling (房陵) and Nan District (南鄉) respectively, and defeated the enemy. Wen Bu (文布) and Deng Kai (鄧凱), two influential men in Zigui (秭歸), rallied thousands of local tribesmen to form an army to attack Lu Xun in the west. In response, Lu Xun sent Xie Jing to attack them. Wen Bu and Deng Kai were defeated and they fled to Shu Han (a state in western China founded by Liu Bei), where they became Shu officers. Lu Xun successfully induced Wen Bu into defecting to Sun Quan's side.

Aftermath

Throughout these campaigns in Jing Province, Lu Xun had killed, captured or recruited tens of thousands of enemies. In recognition of Lu Xun's efforts, Sun Quan promoted him to "Right Protector of the Army" (右護軍), "General Who Guards the West" (鎮西將軍), and awarded him the title of "Marquis of Lou" (婁侯). Sun Quan was very pleased with Lu Xun's achievements and wanted to give special honour to him. However, even though Lu Xun already held the rank of a general and a marquis title, he still had to pass through the standard protocol of receiving a recommendation by the chief administrating officer in his home province (Yang Province). Hence, Sun Quan ordered Lü Fan, the Governor of Yang Province, to employ Lu Xun as an Attendant-Assistant Officer (別駕從事) and recommend him as a maocai (茂才).

At the time, there were many educated men in Jing Province who had either obtained positions in the civil service or were unemployed, so Lu Xun wrote to Sun Quan: "In the past, Emperor Gao recruited people with extraordinary abilities, talents flocked to join Emperor Guangwu when he was reviving the Han dynasty. We should attract all Confucian-educated men into the civil service, regardless of how far away they are. Now, Jing Province has just been pacified and there are still many people and things yet to be in place. I humbly urge you to employ these potential talents and groom them, so that all within the Empire will be attracted by our great culture." Sun Quan accepted Lu Xun's proposal.

Battle of Xiaoting

Main article: Battle of Xiaoting

Historical background

In late 220, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne in his favour and ended the Han dynasty. He declared himself emperor and founded the state of Cao Wei, marking the start of the Three Kingdoms period. Two years later, Liu Bei proclaimed himself emperor and established the state of Shu Han. By then, Sun Quan had agreed to become a vassal under Wei, and was granted the title of "King of Wu" by Cao Pi. He declared independence from Wei in late 222 but retained his title "King of Wu".

Early stages

In early 222, Liu Bei personally led an army towards the western borders of the Wu territories. Sun Quan appointed Lu Xun as Chief Controller (大都督) and put him in command of 50,000 troops to resist the Shu forces, with Zhu Ran, Pan Zhang, Song Qian, Han Dang, Xu Sheng, Xianyu Dan (鮮于丹), Sun Huan and others serving as his subordinates. The Shu army passed through Wu Gorge (巫峽), Jianping (建平) and Lianping (連平) until they arrived on the outskirts of Yiling (夷陵; present-day Yichang, Hubei), where they laid siege and built several camps. Liu Bei bribed the local tribes in Yiling with gold and silk to support him. He appointed Feng Xi as his Chief Controller, Zhang Nan (張南) as the vanguard, and Fu Kuang (輔匡), Zhao Rong (趙融), Liao Chun (廖淳) and Fu Rong as the Controllers of the various divisions. He also sent Wu Ban to lead a few thousand men to construct camps on flat ground and provoke the Wu forces into attacking them.

When the Wu generals wanted to respond to the enemy's taunts, Lu Xun said, "This must be a trick. We should observe first." Earlier on, when the Shu army first arrived at Yiling, the Wu generals wanted to attack the enemy, but Lu Xun objected and said, "Liu Bei is leading an army east to attack us and his army's morale is very high. Besides, his forces are based in high and mountainous terrain, so it's difficult for us to attack them. Even if we manage to win them, we cannot completely defeat them. If we suffer any setback, our morale will be largely affected and this isn't a small issue. Now, we should raise our troops' morale and make plans while waiting for changes in the situation. If we're on plains and flat ground, we should be worrying about sustaining heavy losses in skirmishes and charges. However, since the enemy is on mountainous terrain, they cannot conduct an all-out assault because they are sandwiched between wood and rocks. We should take advantage of this weakness of theirs." The Wu generals did not understand Lu Xun's reasoning and thought that he feared the enemy so they were very disgruntled with him.

When Liu Bei realised that his plan to lure Wu forces into attacking him had failed, he led the 8,000 troops out of the valley, where they had been waiting in ambush earlier. When Lu Xun heard about it, he told his subordinates, "The reason why I did not follow your suggestions to attack the enemy is because I suspected there was something fishy about it." He then wrote a memorial to Sun Quan, "Yiling is a strategic location on the border of our domain. It can be easily conquered but it is also easily lost (to the enemy). If we lose Yiling, we lose not only one commandery, but also put the entire Jing Province in peril. Today, we're fighting over it and we must win. Liu Bei defies Heaven's will, leaves his bases unguarded, and dares to thrust himself into our hands. I may not be very talented, but I've received grand support to attack the enemy, and their destruction is near. Liu Bei has more defeats than victories throughout his military career, so, based on this assessment, I feel that he is not much of a threat. Initially, I thought he would advance from both land and water, but to my surprise, he abandoned his boats and chose the land route. He has been constructing camps everywhere and I do not think he will make any further changes to the current layout of his camps. I hope that you, my Lord, can be at ease and have no worries."

Burning of the Shu camps

The Wu generals said, "We should have attacked Liu Bei in the initial stages. Now, he has advanced further in by 500-600 li and we have been locked in a stalemate for seven to eight months. He has reinforced all his crucial positions, so even if we attack them it will yield nothing." Lu Xun replied, "Liu Bei is cunning and experienced. In the initial stage, his army was very focused and its morale was very high, so we could not defeat them then. Now, however, since it has been quite some time, they are already weary, low on morale, and out of ideas. Now is the time for us to launch a multi-pronged assault on them."

Lu Xun then targeted one enemy camp and attacked it but failed to capture it. The Wu officers complained, "We're sacrificing our soldiers' lives for nothing." Lu Xun replied, "I have devised a strategy for defeating the enemy." He then ordered his men to carry a pile of straw each and launch a fire attack on the enemy. Upon the commencement of the fire attack, Lu Xun led all the Wu units on an all-out assault on the Shu forces. The Shu generals Zhang Nan and Feng Xi, and the tribal king Shamoke (Liu Bei's ally) were killed in battle, while over 40 Shu camps were destroyed by the Wu forces.

The Shu officers Du Lu (杜路), Liu Ning (劉寧) and others surrendered when they saw they had no chance of escaping. Liu Bei and his remaining troops retreated to the Ma'an Hills (馬鞍山), where they continued to be fiercely assaulted by Wu forces from all directions. At the same time, landslides occurred at the Ma'an Hills and caused the Shu forces to sustain thousands of casualties. Liu Bei fled at night and ordered his men to pile up their armour and set them on fire to create barriers for the pursuing enemy. By the time Liu Bei reached the safety of Baidicheng, all his boats, military equipment and supplies had been captured by Wu forces. The dead bodies of Shu soldiers floated in the river and obstructed its flow. Liu Bei was extremely upset and furious with his defeat. He exclaimed, "Is it not the will of Heaven that I must be humiliated by Lu Xun?"

Incidents during the battle

During the preliminary stages of the Battle of Xiaoting, Sun Huan had led a separate force to attack the Shu vanguard force at Yidao (夷道) but ended up being besieged by the enemy. He requested for reinforcements from Lu Xun but was denied. The other Wu officers said, "General Sun is a relative of our lord. He is under siege, so shouldn't we help him?" Lu Xun replied, "He has the support of his men, his base is well defended, and he has sufficient supplies. There is nothing to worry. When my plans are in motion, even if we don't go to his aid, the siege on him will automatically be lifted." After the Wu victory, Sun Huan came to see Lu Xun and said, "Earlier on, I was indeed very resentful when you refused to help me. But now, after the victory, I see that you have your own way of doing things."

Many of the Wu officers who participated in the battle had either served in Wu since Sun Ce's time or were relatives of the Sun family, so they viewed themselves highly and were unwilling to follow Lu Xun's orders. Lu Xun placed his sword on the desk and said, "Liu Bei is well known throughout the Empire, and even Cao Cao feared him. Now, he is at our borders and we have a tough fight ahead. All of you gentlemen have received grace from the State, so you should cooperate harmoniously and work together to defeat the enemy in order to repay the State's kindness. You should not be behaving as you are now. I may be a mere scholar, but I have received orders from our Lord. The reason why the State asks you to lower yourselves and submit to my command is because I have a modicum of value and I can endure humiliation for the sake of fulfilling a greater task. Each of you has your own duties so you cannot excuse yourselves from them! Military rules are long established. You shouldn't break them." The Wu officers began to show greater respect towards Lu Xun after the Wu victory, which was largely due to his strategies. When Sun Quan heard about this incident, he asked Lu Xun, "Why didn't you report to me about the generals refusing to follow your orders?" Lu Xun replied, "I have received much grace from the state and have been appointed to a position beyond my capability. All the generals are either trustworthy men, capable military leaders, or men who have rendered meritorious service, so they are important people whom the state can rely on in order to achieve its goals. I may be weak and cowardly, but I would still like to learn from the virtues Xiangru and Kou Xun when they put up with disagreements they had with their colleagues and worked together for the common good of their states." Sun Quan laughed and praised Lu Xun. Lu Xun was promoted to "General Who Assists the State" (輔國將軍), appointed as Governor (牧) of Jing Province, and had his marquis title changed to "Marquis of Jiangling" (江陵侯).

Aftermath

After Liu Bei had retreated to Baidicheng, Xu Sheng, Pan Zhang, Song Qian and other Wu generals suggested to attack Baidicheng and capture Liu Bei. When Sun Quan asked Lu Xun for his opinion, Lu, along with Zhu Ran and Luo Tong, said that when Cao Pi amassed his forces and seemed like he was going to help Wu attack Shu, he was actually harbouring sinister intentions, so they should be cautious, abandon their pursuit of Liu Bei, and return to Wu. Not long later, Cao Pi did indeed lead the Wei armies to invade Wu from three directions. When Liu Bei heard of the Wei invasion of Wu, he wrote to Lu Xun: "The enemy (Wei) is at Jiangling now. If I launch another attack again, in your opinion, do you think I will succeed?" Lu Xun replied, "I am afraid your army has recently suffered defeats and has yet to recover. Now is the time for you to make reconciliations, rest and recuperate. This is not the time for you to launch another assault on us again. However, if you do not consider carefully and plan to despatch all your remaining forces on another attack, I assure you none of those you send here will return alive."

Liu Bei died in 223 and was succeeded by his son, Liu Shan, as the emperor of Shu. Zhuge Liang became Shu's head of government and he made peace with Wu and re-established the Wu–Shu alliance against Wei. Sun Quan granted permission to Lu Xun to reply to Zhuge Liang on his behalf, and had a duplicate of his own official seal made and sent to Lu's office. Whenever Sun Quan wrote to Liu Shan and Zhuge Liang, he would allow Lu Xun to read the letters, make the appropriate modifications, stamp his official seal on them and have them delivered to Shu.

Battle of Shiting

Main article: Battle of Shiting

In 228, Sun Quan instructed Zhou Fang, the Administrator (太守) of Poyang (鄱陽), to pretend to defect to Cao Xiu, the Grand Marshal (大司馬) of Wei, and lure Wei forces to attack Wu. Cao Xiu fell for the ruse and led his armies to attack the Wu garrison at Huan (皖). Sun Quan granted Lu Xun a yellow ceremonial axe, appointed him as "Chief Controller" (大都督) again, and put him in command of six Wu armies and the imperial guards to resist the Wei invaders. Lu Xun was hence granted the authority to act on Sun Quan's behalf. Sun Quan even waved a ceremonial whip and ordered all his subjects to pay respect to Lu Xun.

When Cao Xiu realised that he had been deceived by Zhou Fang, he felt humiliated but decided to continue the campaign anyway because he had superiority in numbers and his troops were well trained. During the Battle of Shiting, Lu Xun remained in the central command, with Zhu Huan and Quan Cong leading the armies on his left and right flanks respectively. Their three armies advanced together and defeated Cao Xiu's forces lying in ambush and drove them further northward until Jiashi (夾石). They killed and captured thousands of enemies and obtained much of the enemy's livestock, equipment and supplies. Cao Xiu died of illness after returning to Wei. Lu Xun and the victorious Wu forces returned to Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei), where they were received by Sun Quan. Sun Quan instructed his servants to shield Lu Xun with his imperial parasol when the latter was entering or leaving the palace, and rewarded Lu Xun with many gifts. The honour received by Lu Xun was unprecedented in his time. He moved to Xiling (西陵) after that.

Mid career

In 229, after Sun Quan declared himself "Emperor of Wu" in Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei), he appointed Lu Xun as "General-in-Chief" (大將軍) and "Right Defender of the Capital" (右都護). That year, Sun Quan embarked on an inspection tour of Jianye (建業; present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) in the east, leaving behind his crown prince Sun Deng, his other sons, and some high-ranking officials in charge of Wuchang. Lu Xun was instructed to assist Sun Deng and oversee all civil and military affairs in Jing Province and three other commanderies.

Treatment of Sun Lü and Sun Song

At the time, Sun Lü (孫慮; one of Sun Quan's sons), the Marquis of Jianchang (建昌侯), had a small shed built in front of his hall for the purpose of staging duck fights. When Lu Xun heard about it, he reprimanded Sun Lü sternly, "Marquis, you should be spending time reading the classics and enriching yourself with knowledge. Why are you doing this?" Sun Lü immediately had the shed torn down. Sun Song (孫松; Sun Yi's son), the "Colonel of Trainee Archers" (射聲校尉), who was one of Sun Quan's favourite relatives, allowed his men to fool around in camp and did not maintain good military discipline. Lu Xun punished Sun Song's subordinates by having their heads shaved. There was one Xie Jing (謝景) from Nanyang who admired Liu Yi (劉廙)'s discourse on punishment before civility. Lu Xun chided Xie Jing, "The idea of civility before punishment has been long promulgated and espoused. Liu Yi is wrong when he distorted the teachings of ancient sages through his sly manipulation of words. You're serving in the Crown Prince's residence, so you should advocate the principles of benevolence and righteousness in order to promote moral virtues. Ideas (like Liu Yi's) should never be discussed again."

Memorial on current affairs

Even though Lu Xun was stationed far away from the Wu capital, he was still very concerned about his state. He once wrote a memorial on current affairs to Sun Quan: "I feel that if the laws are too strict and harsh, there will be more offenders. In recent years, many military and civil officers have committed transgressions and they ought to be punished for their negligence. However, the Empire has yet to be unified, so we should focus more on achieving progress and pardon those who commit minor offences, so that Your Majesty can empathise with and build emotional ties with your subjects. Besides, there are more affairs to attend to as days pass by, so our top priority should be to tap into the abilities of talented people. If they did not commit any malicious crimes or unforgivable offences, they should be pardoned and provided with opportunities to display their skills again. This is what a wise ruler should do – forget his subjects' misdoings but remember their contributions, so they will do their best to help him achieve his aims. In the past, Emperor Gao ignored Chen Ping's flaws and employed his strategies, resulting in the accomplishment of a great task (the founding of the Han dynasty) which left a mark in history. Strict and harsh laws do not make an Empire more prosperous; justice not tempered with mercy does not serve as a cornerstone of the grand empire we envision."

Advising Sun Quan against the Yizhou and Zhuya campaigns

When Sun Quan was planning to send armies to conquer Yizhou (夷州; present-day Taiwan) and Zhuya (朱崖; present-day Hainan), he asked Lu Xun for his opinion. Lu Xun wrote a memorial to Sun Quan, advising the latter against the campaigns: "In my humble opinion, I feel that the Empire has yet to be pacified, so we should conserve manpower for future plans. We have been fighting battles for consecutive years and our forces are already weary. Your Majesty is already occupied with state affairs and has been sacrificing sleep and meal times, and now you are planning to conquer Yizhou? After serious consideration, I feel that there are no visible gains from this campaign. Besides, our troops will be travelling over long distances for the campaigns and the conditions ahead are unclear. They may not be well adjusted to changes in the climate and will fall sick. If Your Majesty proceeds with the campaign, our troops will be venturing into uncharted lands and we are likely to make more losses than gains. Zhuya is a dangerous place, its people are barbaric, so even if we force them to submit, they will be of no use to us and we cannot replenish our losses by recruiting soldiers from among them. As of now, Jiangdong has sufficient manpower and resources to sustain itself, so we should conserve our strengths and wait for opportunities to strike later. When Prince Huan (Sun Ce's posthumous title) built the foundation of our state, he did not have enough soldiers to form even one brigade, but yet he managed to accomplish this great task. Your Majesty established our state with blessings from Heaven. I heard that in order to pacify chaos and defeat enemies, military force is essential. The basic needs of the people are agriculture, food and clothing, but armed conflicts have yet to subside and the people are suffering from hunger and cold. In my humble opinion, I feel that we should nurture and educate the people, reduce taxes, maintain peace, and promote moral values and courage. In this way, the areas around the rivers can be pacified and we can unite the Nine Provinces." Sun Quan ignored Lu Xun's advice and launched the campaigns. Lu Xun's predictions were right as the losses incurred by Wu in the conquests outweighed the gains.

Advising Sun Quan against the Liaodong campaign

In 237, the Liaodong warlord Gongsun Yuan rebelled against Wu's rival state Wei and allied with Wu, but broke the alliance later. Sun Quan was angered and he wanted to personally lead an army to attack Liaodong. Lu Xun wrote another memorial to dissuade Sun Quan from the campaign: "Gongsun Yuan thinks that he is safe behind Liaodong's natural barriers, so he dares to detain our ambassador and refuse to send us fine steeds. His actions are indeed antagonising. These barbarians are cunning and uncivilised, they are like animals in the wild, and they still dare to defy our imperial might. Your Majesty is furious and intends to sail a long distance across the sea to attack them without considering the perils which lie ahead. Currently, the Empire is in a state of chaos, contending warlords fight each other, heroes glare and yell at each other. Your Majesty possesses divine martial might and has received Heaven's grace when you defeated Cao Cao at Wulin (烏林), thwarted Liu Bei's forces at Xiling (西陵), and captured Guan Yu in Jing Province. All three of them were heroes of their time but they still lost to you. Your Majesty's might has pacified many people, lands within thousands of li submit to you, but we still need a great plan to conquer the whole of China. Your Majesty does not tolerate this minor infringement on your authority, displays overwhelming rage, defies wise sayings by people in the past, and intends to thrust yourself into danger? This is something I cannot understand. I heard that those who want to travel thousands of li will not stop midway; one who intends to conquer the Empire will not be affected by a small setback. Powerful enemies are at our borders while barbarians have yet to submit to our rule. If Your Majesty departs on a long expedition, our enemies will take advantage of your absence to attack us, and it will be too late to regret by then. If we succeed in unifying the Empire, Gongsun Yuan will surrender to us without having to be coerced. Your Majesty may desire the military forces and fine steeds of Liaodong, but are you willing to forsake this stable foundation in Jiangdong in order to acquire those? I humbly urge you to allow our armies to relax and strike fear in our great enemies, so that we can conquer the Central Plains soon and achieve eternal glory." Sun Quan heeded his advice.

Xiangyang campaign

In 236, Sun Quan launched a campaign against Wei and he ordered Lu Xun and Zhuge Jin to lead an army to attack the Wei-controlled Xiangyang Commandery. Lu Xun sent a close aide, Han Bian (韓扁), to deliver a report to Sun Quan, but on the return journey, Han encountered the enemy at Mianzhong (沔中) and was captured. When Zhuge Jin received news of Han Bian's capture, he became fearful and he wrote to Lu Xun: "His Majesty has withdrawn his forces. The enemy has captured Han Bian and they know our situation. The rivers have dried up so we should make a hasty retreat." Lu Xun did not respond, and he instructed his men to plant turnips and peas, while he played weiqi and other games with his officers as though nothing had happened. Zhuge Jin said, "Boyan possesses intelligence and strategy, he knows what he's doing." He came to see Lu Xun, who told him, "The enemy knows that His Majesty has withdrawn his forces, so they have no worries and will concentrate their attacks on us. Besides, they have already stationed troops at critical positions and are poised to strike. Hence, we should remain composed and calm our men, after which we will have a change of plans and prepare to withdraw. If we display signs of retreat now, the enemy will think that we are afraid and will definitely attack us, resulting in defeat for us."

Lu Xun then secretly conveyed his plan to Zhuge Jin and ordered the latter to supervise the fleet of vessels on which they would sail back to Wu, while he gathered his troops and headed towards Xiangyang. The Wei forces had been wary of Lu Xun all this while so they immediately retreated back into the city when they saw Lu Xun's army approaching. Lu Xun organised his men in an orderly manner and instructed them to pretend to prepare for an attack on Xiangyang. By then, Zhuge Jin and the fleet had shown up, so Lu Xun and his forces progressively retreated to the vessels and left. The Wei forces in Xiangyang did not dare to make any move.

Raid in Shiyang

On their journey back to Wu, the fleet passed by Baiwei (白圍), where Lu Xun announced that they would be getting off their vessels to go ashore for a hunting expedition. However, he actually gave secret orders to his subordinates Zhou Jun (周峻) and Zhang Liang (張梁) to lead their men to attack the counties of Xinshi (新市), Anlu (安陸) and Shiyang (石陽) in Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡). Outside the city of Shiyang, the common people were doing their daily activities in the marketplace when Zhou Jun and his army appeared, so the people immediately packed their items and attempted to rush back into the city. The Wei soldiers in Shiyang wanted to close the city gates but the civilians were blocking the way, so they killed some people for the gates to be shut. Zhou Jun's army killed and captured over 1,000 civilians in Shiyang. The captives were resettled in Wu. Lu Xun gave orders to his men, forbidding them from harassing the people. Those captives who had their families with them were given due attention and care while those who lost their loved ones during the raid were provided with food and clothing and treated well before they were sent home. Many people were so touched by Lu Xun's acts of kindness that they decided to move to Wu. When news of Lu Xun's kindness spread to the neighbouring regions, two Wei officers, Zhao Zhuo (趙濯) and Fei Sheng (斐生), and a tribal king, Meiyi (梅頤), led their followers to join Lu Xun. Lu Xun distributed rewards to them generously.

Criticism

The historian Pei Songzhi, who annotated Lu Xun's biography in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, condemned the raid on Shiyang and deemed it unwarranted. He commented: "When Lu Xun heard that Sun Quan had retreated and knew that the Wei forces were going to concentrate their attacks on him, he put on a fake offensive stance, which successfully deterred the enemy from advancing. After that, he retreated safely and could sail back to Wu without having any worries. Why must he order his subordinates to raid a small county, cause the people in a busy marketplace to scurry in fear and panic, and inflict so much harm on a civilian population? The loss of 1,000 civilians may have had a negligible effect on Wei, but the slaughter of innocent people only demonstrated sheer brutality and cruelty. This was a stark contrast to what Zhuge Liang and the Shu forces did during the battles around the Wei River. The rules of war had been violated, and such crimes will not go unpunished. Eastern Wu did not last beyond three generations and ended up being conquered in Sun Hao's time. Is this not retribution?"

In response to Lu Xun's "acts of kindness" after the raid, Pei Songzhi remarked, "This is akin to saving one fledgling after destroying all the bird nests in a forest. How can such simple acts of kindness ever compensate for the losses in a brutal massacre?"

Later career

Eliminating Lu Shi

Lu Shi (逯式), the Administrator (太守) of the Wei-controlled Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡), often led his men to cause trouble at the border between Wu and Wei. When Lu Xun heard that Lu Shi could not get along with Wen Xiu (文休), a son of the veteran Wei general Wen Ping, he came up with a plan to stop Lu Shi. He pretended to have received a letter from Lu Shi and wrote a "reply" as such: "I can sense your sincerity and sorrow when you told me you have disagreements with Wen Xiu. You said both of you cannot exist together and you intend to defect to my side. I have delivered your letter to my lord and will gather my men to welcome you. You should make preparations soon and inform us of the date of your defection." He then left the "reply" letter at the border, and it was picked up by Lu Shi's men. When Lu Shi heard about it, he became afraid and immediately sent his family to the Wei capital Luoyang. His subordinates became distrustful of him and eventually he was dismissed from office.

Criticism

Commenting on this incident, the historian Pei Songzhi wrote: "It is normal for military commanders stationed at borders to create problems in the area for their enemies on the other side. Even though Lu Xun had successfully framed and eliminated Lu Shi, the person who replaces Lu will still continue to cause trouble at the border. Lu Shi's actions were not done with malicious intent, nor would they pose a serious threat to Wu. Lu Xun should not even bother about this, much less resort to using such a cunning trick. I do not agree (with Chen Shou) when he wrote about this incident as if it was praiseworthy."

Suppressing rebellions in Wu

In 237, Zhou Zhi (周祗), a General of the Household (中郎將), wanted to recruit soldiers from Poyang (鄱陽) so he sought Lu Xun's opinion. Lu Xun felt that the people in Poyang were very restless and should not be recruited for military service because they might rebel. Zhou Zhi ignored Lu Xun's advice and persisted. True to Lu Xun's expectations, the people in Poyang started a rebellion under the leadership of Wu Ju (吳遽) and they killed Zhou Zhi and seized control of many counties. The people nearby in Yuzhang (豫章) and Luling (廬陵) had a history of being rebellious, so they responded to Wu Ju's call and joined in the revolt. Lu Xun led his forces to suppress the rebellion and succeeded in forcing Wu Ju and the rebels to surrender. He recruited over 8,000 men into his army and pacified the three commanderies.

Incident of Lü Yi

At that time, Lü Yi (呂壹), the Chief Keeper of the Central Secretariat (中書典校), was abusing his authority and behaving wantonly. Lu Xun and the Minister of Ceremonies (太常), Pan Jun, expressed their worries about Lü Yi's behaviour to Sun Quan, to the point of shedding tears. Lü Yi's crimes were exposed later and he was executed by Sun Quan, after which Sun deeply regretted not listening to Lu Xun and Pan Jun.

Advice to Sun Quan on governance

Two officials, Xie Yuan (謝淵) and Xie Gong (謝厷), proposed implementing changes to policies to increase government revenue, so Sun Quan asked Lu Xun for his opinion on this issue. Lu Xun said, "The people form the foundation of a state. A state's prosperity is due to its people's efforts and its revenue comes from the people as well. There has never been a case where the people are wealthy but the state is weak, nor a situation where the people are weak but the state is powerful. Those who run a state need the support of their people in order to have a good administration, and if they lose the people's support there will be chaos. It is difficult to make people strive their best if they cannot even see the potential benefits of their labour. This is exactly as described in this line from the Classic of Poetry: 'One who helps the commoners and the people shall receive grace from Heaven.' I urge Your Majesty to show benevolence towards the people and help them. We should implement these changes only after the imperial treasury's revenue inflow has increased. This will happen some years later."

Chancellorship

In 244, Lu Xun succeeded Gu Yong as the Chancellor (丞相) of Wu. Sun Quan's imperial edict read: "I may be lacking in virtue, but by Heaven's grace I managed to ascend the throne. The Empire has yet to be unified, evil villains line the paths. I am filled with anxiety and I cannot rest well at night. You are endowed with great intelligence and wisdom, and your brilliance and moral virtues are clearly apparent. You have taken up military appointments and have defended the state well in times of peril. Those who have achieved unprecedented glory shall receive befitting honours and favours; those who possess talents in civil and military arts will certainly have to shoulder the responsibilities of administering a state. In the past, Yi Yin and Lü Shang assisted King Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou respectively. You are in charge of both internal and external affairs. Today, I appoint you as Chancellor and authorise Fu Chang (傅常), acting-Minister of Ceremonies and Bearer of the Imperial Scepter (使持節守太常), to bestow upon you the official seal of the Chancellor. You are expected to promote moral virtues, make achievements worthy of esteem, respect and follow imperial orders, and pacify the Empire. You are now overall-in-charge of the Three Excellencies's affairs, so you should maintain discipline among the officials and command respect from them! You will still continue to hold the following offices concurrently: Governor of Jing Province; Right Defender of the Capital; chief overseer of affairs in Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei)."

Role in the succession struggle

Once, there were vacancies in the appointments available in the residences (or offices) of two of Sun Quan's sons: Sun He, the Crown Prince; Sun Ba (孫霸), the Prince of Lu (魯王). Many officials then sent their relatives to fill up these positions in the hope of getting acquainted with the princes. When Quan Cong informed Lu Xun about this, the latter felt that many of those candidates were actually not up to standard. He argued that those officials were actually promoting nepotism and pursuing their personal interests. Besides, if their relatives turned out to be incompetent, it could lead to serious problems. Lu Xun also foresaw that conflict was bound to break out between the two princes because they were equally matched in terms of power and influence, and such situations were detrimental to a state's well being. Quan Cong's son Quan Ji (全寄) became a close aide to Sun Ba, helping the latter in the succession struggle against Sun He. Lu Xun wrote to Quan Cong to warn the latter: "If you don't learn from Ma Midi and choose to let (Quan) Ji have his way, you'll bring disaster upon yourself and your family." Quan Cong ignored Lu Xun's advice and their relationship became strained.

When there were rumours that Sun He could no longer secure his position as Crown Prince, Lu Xun wrote a memorial to Sun Quan: "The Crown Prince is the legitimate heir apparent so he should have a foundation as solid as hard rock. The Prince of Lu is a vassal and a subject of the state, so he should receive less favours than the Crown Prince. If both of them know their places, Your Majesty and all the subjects will have peace. I humbly kowtow and beg Your Majesty, to the point of bleeding (from my forehead), to consider this issue carefully." He sent several memorials to Sun Quan and even requested to leave Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei) and go to the capital to speak up on this problem. Sun Quan denied him permission. Lu Xun's maternal nephews Gu Tan, Gu Cheng (顧承) and Yao Xin (姚信), who supported Sun He during the succession struggle, were sent into exile. Wu Can, the Crown Prince's Tutor (太子太傅), who had been exchanging letters with Lu Xun, was imprisoned and later executed.

Death and aftermath

Sun Quan repeatedly sent emissaries to Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei) to reprimand Lu Xun for his involvement in the succession struggle. Lu Xun died in anger and frustration at the age of 63 (by East Asian age reckoning). Lu Xun was a thrifty man. His family did not have much wealthy when he died. He was later granted the posthumous title of "Marquis Zhao" (昭侯; literally "illustrious marquis") by Sun Xiu, the third emperor of Wu.

The succession struggle concluded in 250 (five years after Lu Xun's death) with Sun Quan deposing Sun He and replacing him with Sun Liang, and forcing Sun Ba to commit suicide. Many officials who were involved in the conflict (i.e., supported either Sun He or Sun Ba) met with unhappy ends.

In the winter of 251, about half a year before his death, Sun Quan regretted what he did to Lu Xun. When he was sending off Lu Xun's son Lu Kang back to Chaisang (柴桑), with tears in his eyes he told Lu Kang, "Previously, I believed slanderous rumours and failed to understand your father's well-meaning advice. I've let you down. I've burnt all the documents containing the allegations against your father so that nobody can ever see them."

Appraisal

When Ji Yan (曁豔) proposed introducing drastic reforms in the Wu administration (which included the dismissal of many officials he deemed "incompetent"), Lu Xun cautioned Sun Quan against that and accurately predicted that it would lead to problems. Lu Xun once told Zhuge Ke, "I respect those who are superior to me in position; I assist those subordinate to me. I see that you behave arrogantly in front of those superior to you, and you belittle those subordinate to you. This is not the way to build a stable career." In another incident, one Yang Zhu (楊笁) from Guangling (廣陵) became famous in his youth, but Lu Xun predicted that he was doomed to failure, so he advised Yang Zhu's elder brother, Yang Mu (楊穆), to break ties with Yang Zhu. Lu Xun's prediction came true as Yang Zhu later got into trouble during the Sun He-Sun Ba succession struggle.

The historian Chen Shou, who wrote Lu Xun's biography in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, commented on Lu Xun as such: "Liu Bei was a hero of his time and he was feared by many. Lu Xun, then in his prime years and being relatively unknown, succeeded in defeating Liu Bei. Lu Xun's brilliant strategies, when combined with Sun Quan's recognition of his talent, resulted in the accomplishment of a great task. Lu Xun was loyal, honest and sincere, he died worrying about his state, and was perhaps an important pillar of his state."

Family and relatives

Sometime after 216, when Lu Xun was commissioned as "Colonel Who Establishes Might" (定威校尉). Under Sun Quan's arrangement, Lu Xun married the eldest daughter of Sun Quan's elder brother and predecessor Sun Ce.

Lu Xun's eldest son, Lu Yan (陸延), whose mother's identity was unknown，died at a young age. Lu Xun's marquis title was inherited by his second son, Lu Kang (陸抗), who became a prominent general in Eastern Wu during the reign of the last Wu emperor Sun Hao. Lu Kang had six sons: Lu Yan (陸晏), Lu Jing (陸景), Lu Xuan (陸玄), Lu Ji (陸機), Lu Yun (陸雲) and Lu Dan (陸耽).

Lu Xun's younger brother, Lu Mao, also served as an official in Eastern Wu.

Lu Ji, a son of Lu Xun's granduncle Lu Kang (陸康), was one of the 24 Filial Exemplars and served as an official under Sun Quan.

Lu Kai, a distant nephew of Lu Xun, also served as a politician in Eastern Wu.

In fiction

Lu Xun appeared as a character in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong, which romanticises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. His most significant moment in the novel, apart from his role in the Battle of Xiaoting, is a fictional encounter he had after the battle.

Modern references

Lu Xun is featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors video game series, as well as Warriors Orochi, a crossover between Dynasty Warriors and Samurai Warriors. He also appears in Koei's strategy game series Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

In the trading card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a card called "Lu Xun, Scholar General" in the Portal Three Kingdoms set.

See also

• List of people of the Three Kingdoms

References

Citations from the Sanguozhi

• Chen Shou. Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).

Citations from annotations in the Sanguozhi

• Pei Songzhi. Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).

Other sources

• Fan Ye. Book of the Later Han (Houhanshu).
• Luo Guanzhong. Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
• Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian.
• Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian (Shi Ji).