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{{Expert|date=October 2008}}
{{Refimprove|article|date=February 2008}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
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{{otheruses}}{{wiktionarypar|bacon}}
{{otheruses4|the philosophical concept of the meaning of life}}
[[Image:Woher kommen wir Wer sind wir Wohin gehen wir.jpg|thumb|right|355px|''[[Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?]]''<br>One of Post-Impressionist [[Paul Gauguin]]'s most famous paintings.]]


[[Image:Bacon.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Uncooked streaky bacon]]
The [[meaning of life]] constitutes a philosophical question concerning the [[purpose]] and [[Intrinsic value (ethics)|significance]] of [[human]] [[existence]]. The [[concept]] can be expressed through a variety of related questions, such as ''Why are we here?'', ''What's life all about?'' and ''What is the meaning of it all?''. It has been the subject of much [[philosophy|philosophical]], [[science|scientific]], and [[theology|theological]] speculation throughout history and there have been a large number of answers from many different [[cultural]] and [[ideological]] backgrounds.
'''Bacon''' is a cut of [[meat]] taken from the sides, belly, or back of a [[pig]] that has been [[Curing (food preservation)|cured]], [[Smoking (food)|smoked]], or both. Meat from other animals, such as [[beef]], [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]], [[chicken]], [[goat]] or [[turkey (bird)|turkey]], may also be cut, cured, or otherwise prepared to resemble bacon. Bacon may be eaten fried, baked, or grilled, or used as a minor ingredient to flavor dishes. The word is derived from
the [[Old High German]] ''bacho'', meaning "back", "ham", or "bacon".


The [[USDA]] defines bacon as "the cured belly of a swine carcass"; other cuts and characteristics must be separately qualified (e.g., "smoked pork loin bacon").<ref name=fsis>United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service. [http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Help/glossary-B/index.asp USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service: Glossary B]. Retrieved 2007-07-09.</ref> "USDA Certified" bacon means that it has been treated for [[trichinella]].
The meaning of life is deeply mixed with the philosophical and religious conceptions of [[existence]], [[consciousness]], and [[eudaimonia|happiness]], and touches on many other issues, such as [[Linguistic meaning|symbolic meaning]], [[ontology]], [[Value (philosophy)|value]], [[purpose]], [[ethics]], [[good and evil]], [[free will]], [[conceptions of God]], the [[existence of God]], the [[soul]] and the [[afterlife]]. Scientific contributions are more indirect; by describing the [[empiricism|empirical]] [[fact]]s about the [[universe]], science provides some context and sets parameters for conversations on related topics. An alternative, human-centric, and not a cosmic/religious approach is the question "What is the meaning of ''my'' life?"


In continental [[Europe]], bacon is used primarily in cubes ([[lardon]]s) as a cooking ingredient, valued both as a source of [[fat]] and for its flavour. In [[Italy]], bacon is called [[pancetta]] and usually cooked in small cubes or served uncooked and thinly sliced as part of an [[antipasto]]. Bacon is also used for [[barding and larding]] roasts, especially game birds. Many people prefer to have bacon smoked using various types of woods or turf. This process can take up to ten hours depending on the intensity of the flavour desired.


== Introduction ==
==Cuts of bacon==
[[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 038-crop.jpg|thumb|150px|right|''Philosopher in Meditation'' (detail) by [[Rembrandt]]]]
[[Image:NCI bacon.jpg|thumb|right|Cooked rasher of streaky bacon]]
[[Image:Bacon.JPG|thumb|right|Uncooked back bacon]]
Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed in a broad variety of ways, including, but not limited to, the following:
Rashers or slices differ depending where they are cut from:


*'''Streaky bacon''' comes from the belly of a pig. It is very fatty with long veins of fat running parallel to the rind. This is the most common form of bacon in the United States. [[Pancetta]] is [[Italy|Italian]] streaky bacon, smoked or aqua (unsmoked), with a strong flavour. It is generally rolled up into cylinders after curing.
* ''What is the meaning of life?'' ''What's it all about?'' <ref name="Westphal">{{cite book |author=Jonathan Westphal |title=Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=0415170532}}</ref><ref name="Nozick">{{cite book |author=[[Robert Nozick]] |title=[[Philosophical Explanations]] |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1981 |isbn=0674664795}}</ref><ref name="Jewell">{{cite book |author=Albert Jewell |title=Ageing, Spirituality and Well-Being |publisher=Jessica Kingsley
*'''Back bacon''' comes from the [[loin]] in the middle of the back of the pig. It is a lean meaty cut of bacon, with relatively less [[fat]] compared to other cuts and has a [[ham]]-like texture and flavour. Most bacon consumed in the [[United Kingdom]] is back bacon. <ref name=dbmc>Danish Bacon Company. [http://www.dbmc.co.uk/downloads/DBMC_Info-stats_2005.pdf Information and Statistics 2005]. Retrieved 2007-07-20.</ref>
Publishers |year=2003 |isbn=184310167X}}</ref><ref name="WITMOL">{{cite web |title=Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning Of Life? |work=[[Philosophy Now]] |publisher=Issue 59 |url=http://www.philosophynow.org/issue59/59question.htm |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref name="Yeffeth">{{cite book |author=Glenn Yeffeth |title=The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy |publisher=BenBella Books, Inc |year=2005 |isbn=1932100563}}</ref><ref name="Seaman" /><ref name="Baggini" />
*'''Middle bacon''' is much like back bacon but is cheaper and somewhat fattier, with a richer flavour.
*'''Cottage bacon''', thinly sliced lean pork meat from a shoulder cut that is typically oval shaped and meaty. It is cured and then sliced into round pieces for baking or frying.
*'''Jowl bacon''' is cured and smoked cheeks of pork


Bacon joints include the following:
* ''Why are we here?'' ''What are we here for?'' <ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Thiemann & Placher">{{cite book |author=[[Ronald F. Thiemann]]; William Carl Placher |title=Why Are We Here?: Everyday Questions and the Christian Life |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=1998 |isbn=1563382369}}</ref><ref name="Marcellino">{{cite book |author=Dennis Marcellino |title=Why Are We Here?: The Scientific Answer to this Age-old Question (that you don't need to be a scientist to understand) |publisher=Lighthouse Pub |year=1996 |isbn=0945272103}}</ref><ref name="Curtiss">{{cite book |author=F. Homer Curtiss |title=Why Are We Here |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=0766138992}}</ref><ref name="Badke">{{cite book |author= William B. Badke |title=The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Meaning of Everything |publisher=Kregel Publications |year=2005 |isbn=0825420695}}</ref><ref name="Hua">{{cite book |author=Hsuan Hua |title=Words of Wisdom: Beginning Buddhism |publisher=Dharma Realm Buddhist Association |year=2003 |isbn=0881393029}}</ref>
*'''Collar bacon''' is taken from the back of a pig near the head.
*'''Hock''', from the hog ankle joint between the ham and the foot.
*'''Gammon''', from the hind leg, traditionally "Wiltshire cured".
*'''Picnic bacon''' is from the picnic cut, which includes the shoulder beneath the blade.<ref name=urmis /> It is fairly lean, but tougher than most pork cuts.


==In the English-speaking world==
* ''What is the origin of life?'' <ref name="Davies">{{cite book |author=[[Paul Davies]] |title=The Fifth Miracle: The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life |publisher=Simon & Schuster |date=March 2000 |url=http://www.simonsays.com/content/book.cfm?tab=1&pid=410133 |accessdate=2007-07-26 |isbn=0-684-86309-X}}</ref><ref name="Fadul">{{cite book |author=[[Jose Fadul]] |title=Lessons in Chess, Lessons in Life: Application of the Psychology of the Game in Real Life |publisher=Lulu Press |date= 2008 |isbn=978-0-557-02158-1}}</ref>
A side of unsliced bacon is a ''flitch'',<ref>Merriam-Webster Online - Flitch [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/flitch] Retrieved 2008-03-29.</ref> while an individual slice of bacon is a ''rasher'' (United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Australia and New Zealand) or simply a ''slice'' or ''strip'' (North America). Slices of bacon are also known as ''[[collops]]''. Traditionally, the [[skin]] is left on the cut and is known as ''bacon rind'', but rindless bacon is also common. In the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Republic of Ireland]], bacon comes in a wide variety of cuts and flavours. In the [[United States]], ordinary bacon is made only from the [[pork belly]], yielding what is known in Britain as "streaky bacon", or "streaky rashers". In Britain, bacon made from the meat on the back of the pig is referred to as ''back bacon'' or ''back rashers''. It usually includes a streaky bit and a lean ovoid bit, and is part of traditional [[full breakfast]] commonly eaten in [[Great Britain|Britain]] and [[Ireland]]. In the United States, back bacon is called ''Canadian-style bacon'' or ''Canadian bacon'', but this term refers usually to the lean ovoid portion.<ref name=urmis>Cattleman's Beef Board & National Cattlemen's Beef Association. [http://www.beefretail.org/uDocs/urmis/contents/pork.pdf Uniform Retail Meat Identity Standards]. Retrieved 2007-07-09.</ref> In Canada, it is called ''peameal bacon'', whereas ''bacon'' is used generally to refer to strip bacon, which is more common to the Canadian diet.


==In Asia==
* ''What is the nature of life?'' ''What is the nature of reality?'' <ref name="Davies" /><ref name="Christiansen & Baum & Bass-Haugen">{{cite book |author=Charles Christiansen; Carolyn Manville Baum; Julie Bass-Haugen |title=Occupational Therapy: Performance, Participation, and Well-Being |publisher=SLACK Incorporated |year=2005 |isbn=1556425309}}</ref><ref name="Walker">{{cite book |author=[[Evan Harris Walker]] |title=The Physics of Consciousness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Perseus Books |year=2000 |isbn=0738204366}}</ref>
[[Image:Korean barbecue-Samgyeopsal-07.jpg|thumb|Korean ''[[samgyeopsal]]'']]
In [[Korea]], one of the most popular cooked meats is grilled unsmoked pork belly called ''[[samgyeopsal]]'' (삼겹살), literally "three layered meat". Like most traditional meat dishes in Korea, it is grilled at the table, cut into small pieces with scissors when partly or wholly cooked, and eaten communally. Koreans prize samgyeopsal meat with a high fat content, and pay a premium for meat that is especially fatty.


==Bacon used as a topping==
* ''What is the purpose of life?'' ''What is one's purpose in life?'' <ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="WITMOL" /><ref name="Christiansen & Baum & Bass-Haugen" /><ref name="warren">{{cite book |author=[[Rick Warren]] |title=[[The Purpose Driven Life|The Purpose Driven Life: What on Earth Am I Here For?]] |publisher=Zondervan |year=2002 |isbn=0310255252}}</ref><ref name="Krishnamurti">{{cite book |author=[[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] |title=What Are You Doing With Your Life? |publisher=Krishnamurti Foundation of America |year=2001 |isbn=188800424X}}</ref>
[[Image:Baconchilidog.jpg|thumb|Chili Dogs topped with bacon]]
In the U.S. and Europe, bacon is often used as a [[condiment]] or topping on other foods. Streaky bacon is more commonly used as a topping in the U.S., on items such as [[pizza]], [[salads]], [[sandwiches]], [[hamburgers]], [[baked potatoes]], [[hot dogs]], and [[soups]]. Back bacon is used less frequently in the [[United States]], but can sometimes be found on [[pizza]], [[salads]] and [[omelets]]. [[Bacon bits]] are chopped pieces of pre-cooked bacon intended to be sprinkled over foods, particularly salads. Imitation "bacon bits" made of [[texturized vegetable protein]] flavoured to resemble authentic bacon bits are also available.


==Health concerns==
* ''What is the significance of life?'' <ref name="Krishnamurti" />
{{Expand|date=February 2008}}
A 2007 study by [[Columbia University]] suggests a link between eating [[cured meat]]s (such as bacon) and [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]. The preservative [[sodium nitrite]] is the probable cause.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6560121.stm Too much bacon 'bad for lungs']. ''BBC News''. [[2007-04-17]]. Retrieved [[2008-04-09]].</ref>


==Nutrients==
* ''What is meaningful and valuable in life?'' <ref name="UIUC">{{cite web |last=Puolimatka |first=Tapio | coauthors=Airaksinen, Timo |title=Education and the Meaning of Life |work=Philosophy of Education |publisher=[[University of Helsinki]] |date=2002 |url=http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf |format=PDF | accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref name="Fadul" />
Select nutritional data from types of bacon in the USDA National Nutrient Database:<ref>USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Nutrient Data Laboratory. [http://riley.nal.usda.gov/NDL/cgi-bin/nut_search_new.pl USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference]. Retrieved 2007-07-12.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
* ''What is the value of life?'' <ref name="Van Hooft">{{cite book |author=Stan Van Hooft |title=Life, Death, and Subjectivity: Moral Sources in Bioethics |publisher=Rodopi |year=2004 |isbn=9042019123}}</ref><ref name="Fadul" />
|-

! !! Streaky bacon,<br /> raw !! Streaky bacon,<br /> cooked !! Canadian style<br /> bacon, cooked !! Hormel Canadian<br />Style Bacon
* ''What is the reason to live?'' ''What are we living for?'' <ref name="Shafer-Landau & Cuneo">{{cite book |author=Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo |title=Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=1405129514}}</ref><ref name="Hua" /><ref name="Fadul" />

In general, these questions arise from dissatisfaction with life, some aspect of it: where people have difficulty understanding why particular things happen or why the world is the way it is, they seek broader understandings that might help them make meaning out of it. They may even turn to philosophy or theology to provide broad, universal responses to these dissatisfactions. The emphasis of particular questions, and of the answers given to them, are heavily influenced by cultural and philosophical preconceptions, but usually fall into one or more of the following groups:

;Attempts to find meaning in subjective sensory experience:This may involve a focus on immediate experience and gratification, as in various forms of [[hedonism]] or ''[[carpe diem]]'' philosophies, or in long-term efforts at the creation of an aesthetically pleasing life, as with [[#epicurian view|epicurianism]].
;Attempts to understand, emulate, or instantiate ideal types or states:In some cases this involves purification of the self or other objects, or renunciation of behaviors or objects considered to be imperfect, in order to 'make oneself worthy' of the solution. This often involves practices or rituals, as in Catholicism's practices of communion and confession or the ritual offerings offered in Hindu practice, but may be simple idealization, as in the ancient Greek notion of ''[[arete]]'' and modern self-help practices of visualizing positive outcomes. In some cases, this may entail imitation or emulation of divine figures: the repetition of Christ's torments in [[Flaggelation#Christianity|flagellation]], or the presence of [[avatars]] in Hindu thought.
;Attempts to create a civic society:Conceptions of brotherly love, universal tolerance, mutual respect, and similar constructs are often advanced as a way to structure a meaningful life for all. Similarly, moral codes and moral structures are often advanced by faiths as a way of maintaining peace and civility. Often these conceptions are connected with some notion of an afterlife where society is perfect and non-problematic; they are practiced in this life in order to ensure entry into the next.
;Freedom from innate restrictions or conditions:This asserts that there is an 'authentic' or 'natural' way of life which obviates the dissatisfaction of normal (inauthentic or unnatural) existence. Sometimes this is envisioned as submission to a divine or natural order, as in [[taoism]]'s encouragement to follow the [[tao]] or Christian references to God's plan. In other cases, it reflects complete liberation: freedom from all karmic influences in [[dharmic]] faiths, or the freedom from social constraints suggested by [[nihilism]]

== Perspectives from antiquity ==
{{see|Ancient philosophy|Indian religions|Indian philosophy|Chinese philosophy|Abrahamic religion|Iranian philosophy}}

Prior to the expansion of the major [[universal religion]]s - from the first or second centuries BCE to the sixth century CE, depending on the faith - the meaning of life was investigated in terms of human potential and the relationship of individuals to the natural world. Devotion to god or gods was an important aspect of some traditions, but was generally viewed in terms of personal development (as in the [[#Hindu views|Hindu]] relationship between atman and brahman, or as a social relationship, as in the [[#jewish view|Jewish covenant]]). Other traditions relied heavily on reason, discipline, or the development of other human faculties, either as meaningful in their own right, or as tools to reach other decisions.

==== Hinduism ====
{{see|Hinduism|Hindu philosophy|Dharma}}
[[Image:Golden Aum.png|left|thumb|110px|A golden [[Aum]] written in [[Devanagari]]. The Aum is sacred in [[Hinduism|Hindu]], [[Jainism|Jain]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] religions.]]

[[Hinduism]] is a diverse religion: there are some tenets accepted by most Hindus, but no doctrines that are universally accepted by all.<ref name=weightman>{{Harvard reference | author= Simon Weightman | year=1998 | title=The new Penguin handbook of living religions |editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.) | publisher= [[Penguin books]] |chapter= Hinduism | isbn=0-140-51480-5}}</ref> Most believe that the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]] (spirit, soul) — the person's true ''self'' — is eternal.<ref name="monierwilliams">{{Harvard reference | author= [[Monier Monier-Williams]] | year=1974 | title=Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus | publisher= Adamant Media Corporation |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C&dq=isbn:1421265311 |accessdate=2007-07-08 |series=Elibron Classics | isbn=1421265311}}</ref> In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual. There are four possible aims to human life, known as the [[purusharthas]] (ordered from least to greatest): ''[[Kāma]]'' (love and sensual pleasure), ''[[Artha]]'' (wealth), ''[[Dharma]]'' (righteousness, morality), and ''[[Moksha]]'' (liberation from the [[reincarnation]] cycle).<ref>For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17.</ref><ref>For the ''Dharma Śāstras'' as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, {{IAST|kāma}}, and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78.</ref><ref>For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ ({{IAST|puruṣa-artha}}) as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. {{lang|sa|धर्म}}, {{lang|sa|अर्थ}}, {{lang|sa|काम}}, and {{lang|sa|मोक्ष}}" see: Apte, p. 626, middle column, compound #1.</ref>

In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of [[karma]], [[samsara]] and [[moksha]] (causal action, the cycle of birth and rebirth, and liberation). Existence is conceived as the progression of the [[atman]] (similar to the western concept of a [[soul]]) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader [[yoga]]s (practices) or [[dharma]] (correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship [[Devas]] which are manifestations of [[Ishvara]] (a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement.

[[Image:ReligionSymbolAbr.PNG|thumb|120px|right|Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions – Judaism, Christianity and Islam]]

==== Judaism ====
[[Judaism]]'s most important feature is belief in a single, [[Omniscience|omniscient]], [[omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]], [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] [[God in Judaism|God]], who [[Creation according to Genesis|created the universe]] and governs it. Per traditional Judaism, God established a [[Covenant (Israel)|covenant]] with the [[Jewish people]], at [[Mount Sinai]], revealing his laws and [[613 mitzvot|commandments]] in the [[Torah]]. In [[Rabbinic Judaism]], the Torah comprises the written [[Pentateuch]] (Torah) and the oral law tradition (later transcribed as sacred writing).

In the Judaic world view, '''the purpose of life is to serve God and to prepare for the world to come.'''<ref name="Cohn-Sherbok">{{cite book |author=Dan Cohn-Sherbok |title=Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0415236614}}</ref><ref name="Heschel">{{cite book |author=Abraham Joshua Heschel |title=Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2005 |isbn=0826408028}}</ref> The "[[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba (the "world to come")|Olam Haba]]"<ref name="Shuchat">{{cite book |author=Wilfred Shuchat |title=The Garden of Eden & the Struggle to Be Human: According to the Midrash Rabbah |publisher=Devora Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=1932687319}}</ref> thought is about elevating oneself spiritually, connecting to God in preparing for "Olam Haba"; Jewish thought is to use "Olam Hazeh" (this world) to elevate oneself.
<ref name="Braham">{{cite book |author=Randolph L. Braham |title=Contemporary Views on the Holocaust |publisher=Springer |year=1983 |isbn=089838141X}}</ref>

==== Zoroastrianism ====
[[Zoroastrianism]] is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet [[Zoroaster]], after whom the religion is named. Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendental God, [[Ahura Mazda]], to whom all worship is ultimately directed. Azhura Mazda's creation is ''[[asha]]'', truth and order, and it is in conflict with its [[antithesis]], ''druj'', falsehood and disorder. Malevolent force is represented by [[Angra Mainyu]], the "Destructive Principle", while the benevolent is represented through Ahura Mazda's [[Amesha Spenta|Spenta Mainyu]], the instrument or "Bounteous Principle" of the act of creation.

Since humanity possesses [[free will]], '''people must be responsible for their moral choices'''. By using free will, people must take active role to play in the universal conflict, where good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay.

Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail, at which point the universe will undergo a cosmic renovation and time will end (''cf:'' [[Zoroastrian eschatology]]). In the final renovation, all of creation — even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to "darkness" — will be reunited in Ahura Mazda. At the end of time a savior-figure [a [[Saoshyant]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> will bring about a final renovation of the world, and in which the dead will be revived.

[[Image:Jain hand.svg|right|thumb|120px|The Jainist Vow of [[Ahimsa in Jainism|Ahimsa]]. The [[dharmacakra]] (wheel) is the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation via truth and non-violence.]]

==== Jainism ====
{{See|Jainism|Jain philosophy}}
[[Jainism]] is a religion originating in [[Iron Age India|ancient India]], its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the [[asceticism|ascetic]] teachings of [[Tirthankara|Jina]], a [[human]] achieves [[Moksa (Jainism)|enlightenment (perfect knowledge)]]. Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the non-living become attached to the living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. '''The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.'''<ref>Shah, Natubhai. ''Jainism: The World of Conquerors.'' Sussex Academic Press, 1998.</ref>

Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal [[soul]], ''[[jiva|jīva]]''. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining [[Moksa (Jainism)|Moksha]]. The [[Karma in Jainism|Jain view of karma]] is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect on the soul.

Jainism includes strict adherence to [[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]] (or ''ahinsā''), a form of [[nonviolence]] that goes far beyond [[vegetarianism]]. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to [[Veganism]] due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude [[root vegetable]]s from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.retoday.org.uk/pdfs/dre/viren.pdf |title=Viren, Jain |accessdate=2007-06-14 |publisher=[http://www.retoday.org.uk/ RE Today] |format=PDF}}</ref>

==== Early Buddhism ====
[[Buddhism]] is a [[nondual]] worldview, in which subject, object, and action are all seen as illusory. Buddhists believe that life is suffering. The suffering is caused by attachment to objects material or non-material. '''The meaning of life is to end suffering through detaching oneself from cravings and conceptual attachments.''' Suffering can be overcome through human activity, simply by removing the cause of suffering. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana. Nirvana means freedom from all worries, troubles, complexes, Fabrications, and ideas.<ref>http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html</ref>
[[Image:Dharma wheel.svg|thumb|120px|left|The eight-spoked [[Dharmacakra]]]]
[[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept of [[Vibhajjavada]] ([[Pāli|Pali]]), literally "Teaching of Analysis", which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the [[Four Noble Truths]]. This is attained in the achievement of [[Nibbana]], or Unbinding which also ends the [[reincarnation|repeated cycle]] of birth, old age, sickness and death.

[[Image:Yin yang.svg|right|thumb|120px|In Taoism, the ''[[Taijitu]]'' symbolizes the [[unity of opposites]] between yin and yang, described in the theory of the [[Taiji]].]]

==== Taoism ====
The [[Taoists]]' [[cosmogony]] emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the ''primordial'' or to rejoin with the ''Oneness'' of the Universe by way of self-correction and self realization. It is the objective for all adherents to understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.

Within the theology of Taoism, all men were originally a being called yuanling from [[Taiji]] and [[Tao]], '''the meaning in life for the adherents is to realise the temporal nature of the existence''', and all adherents are expected to practise, hone and conduct their mortal lives by way of [[Xiuzhen]] and [[Xiushen]], as a preparation for the spiritual transcendence thereafter. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living...the simple answer is here within ourselves."<ref name="Ming-Dao">{{cite book |author=Ming-Dao Deng |title=Scholar Warrior: An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1990}}</ref>

==== Confucianism ====
[[Confucianism]] recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because mankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving the good nature through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative energy. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar [[Tu Wei-Ming]]'s quote, "we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."<ref>Tu, Wei-Ming. ''Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation.'' Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.</ref>

==== Tengriism ====
[[Tengriism]] was the major belief of the Turkic peoples and Mongols before the vast majority joined the established world religions. Tengriism advocates [[cooperation]] between conflicting groups and '''the meaning of life is seen as living in [[harmony]] with the surrounding world'''. In their reverence of the sky deity [[Tengri]], Tengriists crave for the sublime and are compelled to be proud and intransigent and to profess a philosophy incompatibe with a slave mentality. As they worship [[Umay|Mother Earth]], they also have a strong belief in the sanctity of one's patrimony and the succour of good spirits.<ref name="Ro'i">{{cite book |author=Yaacov Ro'i |title=Democracy and Pluralism in Muslim Eurasia: Of the Former Soviet Union |publisher= Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=0714652253}}</ref>

=== Greek philosophy ===
[[Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|160px|right|Plato and Aristotle in ''[[The School of Athens]]'' fresco, by [[Raphael]].]]

==== Platonism ====
{{main|Platonism}}

[[Plato]] was the earliest, most influential Western philosopher — mostly for [[Philosophical realism|realism]] about the existence of [[universals (metaphysics)|universals]]. In the [[Theory of Forms]], universals do not physically exist, like objects, but exist as ghostly, heavenly forms. In ''[[Plato's Republic|The Republic]]'', the [[Socrates]] character's [[dialogue]] describes the [[Form of the Good]]. The Idea of the Good is ''ekgonos'' (offspring) of the Good, the ideal, perfect nature of goodness, hence an absolute measure of [[justice]].

In Platonism, '''the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge''', which is the [[Platonic idealism|Idea]] ([[Platonic realism|Form]]) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value. Human beings are duty-bound to pursue the good, but no one can succeed in that pursuit without [[reasoning|philosophical reasoning]], which allows for true knowledge.

==== Aristotelianism ====

{{main|Aristotelian ethics}}

[[Aristotle]], an apprentice of [[Plato]], was another, early, most influential Western philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not ''certain'' knowledge (like [[metaphysics]] and [[epistemology]]), but is ''general knowledge''. Because it is not a [[theory|theoretical]] discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become 'good', thus if the person were to become [[virtue|virtuous]], he could not simply study what virtue ''is'', he had to be virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous: ''Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor'' ([[Nicomachean Ethics|NE]] 1.1) '''Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is 'good'.'''

Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped its [[infinite regression]]. Aristotle's solution is the ''[[Summum bonum|Highest Good]]'', which is desirable for its own sake, it is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other ‘goods’ desirable for its sake. This involves achieving [[eudaemonia]], usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence".

''What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness.'' ([[Nicomachean Ethics|NE]] 1.4)

==== Cynicism ====

In the [[Hellenistic period]], the [[Cynic]] philosophers said that the purpose of life is living a life of [[Virtue]] that agrees with [[Nature]]. Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negative [[emotions]] and a concomitant vicious character.

The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for [[wealth]], [[Power (sociology)|power]], [[health]], and [[Celebrity|fame]], by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional.<ref>Kidd, I., "''Cynicism''," in ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy.'' (ed. [[J. O. Urmson]] and [[Jonathan Rée]]), Routledge. (2005)</ref><ref>Long, A. A., "''The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics,''" in ''The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy.'' (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).</ref> As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to [[human]] beings. The [[world]] equally belongs to everyone, so [[suffering]] is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the [[Tradition|customs]] and [[Convention (norm)|conventions]] of [[society]].

==== Cyrenaicism ====

[[Cyrenaicism]], founded by [[Aristippus of Cyrene]], was an early Socratic school that emphasised only one side of Socrates's teachings — that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a [[hedonism|hedonistic]] world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.<ref>"Cyrenaics." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The University of Tennessee At Martin. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/>.</ref><ref>"The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism." Hedonism.org. BLTC. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.hedonism.org>.</ref>

==== Epicureanism ====
{{main|Epicurianism}}
[[Image:Epicurus Louvre.jpg|left|thumb|132px|Bust of [[Epicurus]] leaning against his disciple [[Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)|Metrodorus]] in the [[Louvre|Louvre Museum]].]]

To [[Epicurus]], the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear ([[ataraxia]]) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain ([[aponia]]) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus's lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures, is quasi-ascetic ''abstention'' from sex and the appetites:

<blockquote>When we say . . . that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul.<ref>[[Epicurus]], "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, <em>Lives of Eminent Philosophers</em>, Book X</ref></blockquote>

The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no [[afterlife]], yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."<ref name="Russel">[[Bertrand Russell]] (1946). ''[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|A History of Western Philosophy]]'', New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George Allen and Unwin</ref>

==== Stoicism ====

[[Stoicism]] teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal ''[[logos]]'' (reason), an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is ''freedom from [[suffering]]'' through ''apatheia'' (Gr: απαθεια), that is, being [[objectivity|objective]], having "clear judgement", ''not'' indifference.

Stoicism's prime directives are [[virtue]], [[reason]], and [[natural law]], abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive [[emotion]]s. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgement and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration.

The Stoic ethical foundation is that ''good lies in the state of the soul'', itself, exemplified in [[wisdom]] and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "''Virtue'' consists in a ''will'' which is in agreement with Nature."<ref name="Russel" /> The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".<ref name="Russel" />

== Pre-modern perspectives ==
The rise of [[universal religion]]s marks a shift from concerns about personal potential and relationships to the natural world, to a focus on more profound forms of devotion and all-inclusive salvation. In the Christian, Muslim, and Sikh faiths, this manifested as subjection to God: salvation was not a personal achievement, but rather a token of God's grace to be earned by the devout. Eastern traditions like Buddhism and Hinduism, likewise, moved from their primary focus on individual liberation to more abstract ideals of liberation for all. In all, this era magnified and generalized ideals of love, compassion, and relief of human suffering that had little or no place in earlier philosophy.

==== Christianity ====
[[Image:MemlingJudgementOpen.jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[Hans Memling]]'s ''[[The Last Judgment (Memling)|The Last Judgment]]'', which depicts [[Michael (archangel)|St Michael the Archangel]] weighing souls and driving the [[Damned]] towards [[Hell]].]]

Though Christianity has its roots in [[#jewish view|Judaism]], and shares much of the latter faith's ontology, its central beliefs derive from the teachings of [[Jesus Christ]], as presented in the [[New Testament]]. Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine salvation through the grace of God and intercession of Christ. The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one's [[Atonement|sins are forgiven]] ({{bibleverse||John|3:16-21}}, {{bibleverse||2Peter|3:9}}). In the Christian view humankind is inherently and innately sinful, but Christ's death and resurrection provide the means for transcending that impure state ({{bibleverse||Romans|6:23}}). The means for doing so varies between different groupings of Christians, but all rely on one form or another of subjugation to God's will. The Bible teaches in some of its main passages in the New Testament that salvation is acquired solely through faith in Jesus Christ, but a faith that does not show in your deeds is dead faith. ({{bibleverse||James|2:17}} & {{bibleverse||Romans|5:1}})
[[Image:Jérôme Bosch-Les 7 Péchés Capitaux .jpg|thumb|left|160px|''[[The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things]]'', by [[Hieronymus Bosch]]. God, in center watches the world.]]
Under the Christian view, the main purpose in life is to live like Christ did, to give glory to God in all that we do, and to serve and love Him.

[[Catholics]] believe that [[penance]] is required in earning forgiveness of sin, especially [[mortal sin]]. Orthodox [[Protestants]] and [[Evangelicalism|evangelicals]] do not believe that one's actions, in themselves, have an impact upon one's personal [[salvation]] and entry to Heaven; instead, one's ''acceptance of Christ as saviour'' and ''repentance'' of sin determine existential fate.

In the ''[[Westminster Shorter Catechism]]'', the first question is: ''What is the chief end of Man?'', that is, ''What is Man's main purpose?''. The answer is: ''Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever''. God requires one to obey the revealed moral law saying: ''love the Lord our God with all our heart, with all our soul, with all our strength, and with all our mind; and our neighbour as ourselves''.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Westminster Shorter Catechism |url=http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html |accessdate=2008-03-21}}</ref> The ''[[Baltimore Catechism]]'' answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Baltimore Catechism |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/balt/balt1.htm |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref>

====Mahayana Buddhism====
{{see|Mahayana}}

[[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhist]] schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced in [[Theravada]]) of the release from individual [[dukkha|Suffering]] ([[Dukkha]]) and attainment of [[nirvana|Awakening]] ([[Nirvana]]). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based around the possibility of universal [[liberation]] from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent [[Buddha-nature]], which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.

Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism, such as [[zen|Chan/Zen]] and the [[vajrayana]] Tibetan and Shingon schools, explicitly teach that [[boddhisattva]]s should refrain from full liberation, allowing themselves to be reincarnated into the world until all beings achieve enlightenment. Devotional schools such as [[Pure Land]] buddhism seek the aid of celestial buddhas - individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all.

====Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism====
{{see|Advaita Vedanta|Dvaita}}

Hinduism made a resurgence in India in the 7th century CE, after several centuries of Buddhist predominance. While retaining earlier Hindu theosophy, new schools reinterpreted the [[vedas]] to focus on [[Brahman]], "The One Without a Second",<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential>{{Harvard reference | last=Bhaskarananda | first=Swami | year=1994 | title=The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion | place=Seattle, WA | publisher=Viveka Press | isbn=1-884852-02-5}}</ref> as a central God-like figure. The two main schools of the time are the [[Monism|monist]] [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] and the [[dualist]] [[Dvaita]]. The main distinction between the schools is their understanding of the nature of [[atman]].

In Advaita, atman is ultimately indistinguishable from brahman, and '''the goal of life is to know or realize that one's [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]] (soul) is identical to [[Brahman]]'''.<ref>{{Harvard reference | last= Vivekananda | first=Swami | authorlink=Swami Vivekananda | year=1987 | title=Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda | place=Calcutta | publisher= Advaita Ashrama | isbn=81-85301-75-1}}</ref> To the [[Upanishads]], whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman, as one's core of self, realises identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves [[Moksha]] (liberation, freedom).<ref name="monierwilliams"/><ref name="werner">{{Harvard reference | last= Werner | first=Karel | year=1994 | title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism | place=Richmond, Surrey | editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.) | publisher= Curzon Press | chapter= Hinduism | isbn=0-7007-0279-2}}</ref><ref>See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] is [[Brahman]])</ref> Brahman is conceived as a divinity without characteristics or qualities, and moksha is pursued by separating oneself from the characteristics and qualities inherent in being a living entity. The notion of [[lila]] (play) denotes the universe as cosmic game, wherein meaning is a "play of significance".<ref name=Schechner>{{cite book |author=Richard Schechner |year=2002 |title=Performance Studies: An Introduction |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0415146208}}</ref> Lila is manifest in the inexhaustible richness of being and event that are the keys to the meaning of life.<ref name=Merton>{{cite book |author=Thomas Merton |year=1995 |title=Thoughts on the East |publisher=New Directions Publishing |isbn=0811212939}}</ref>

[[Dvaita|Dvaita Vedanta]] and other [[bhakti]] schools have a [[Dualism#Consciousness/Matter dualism|dualist]] interpretation. [[Brahman]] is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities. The ātman depends upon brahman for its existence; '''the meaning of life is achieving Moksha''' through love of God and upon his grace.<ref name="werner" />

==== Islam ====
In [[Islam]], Man's ultimate life objective is to seek the pleasure of [[Allah]] (the Arabic equivalent for "God") by abiding by the Divine guidelines revealed in the [[Qur'an]] and the Tradition of the [[Muhammad|Prophet]]. Earthly life, is merely a test, determining one's afterlife, either in ''Jannah'' (paradise) or in ''Jahannum'' (Hell).

For the pleasure of Allah, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his [[Angels in Islam|angels]], his [[Prophets in Islam|messengers]], and in the "[[Qiyamah|Day of Judgment]]".<ref>{{cite quran|2|4|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|2|285|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|4|136|style=ref}}</ref> '''The purpose to the creation of man was for glorifying and worshipping Allah''':<ref name="Markham & Özdemir">{{cite book |author=Ian Markham; İbrahim Özdemir |title=Globalization, Ethics and Islam: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2005 |isbn=0754650154}}</ref> ''I only created [[jinn]] and man to worship Me'' (Qur'an 51:56). Worship testifies to the [[oneness of God]] in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one ''acts'' (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to [[Jannah]] (Heaven) or to [[Jahannam]] (Hell).

The [[Five Pillars of Islam]] are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are: [[Shahadah]] (profession of faith); [[Salah]] (ritual prayer); [[Zakah]] (charity); [[Sawm]] (fasting during [[Ramadan]]), and [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Pillars of Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> They derive from the [[Hadith]] works, notably of [[Sahih Al-Bukhari]] and [[Sahih Muslim]].

Beliefs differ among the [[Kalam]]. The [[Sunni]] concept of pre-destination is [[Qadr (doctrine)|divine decree]];<ref>{{Muslim|1|1}}</ref> like-wise, the [[Shi'a]] concept of pre-destination is [[Adalah|divine justice]]; in the [[esoteric]] view of the [[Sufi]]s, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize.<ref name="Yusuf Ali">{{cite book |author=[[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]] |title=[[Qur'an|The Holy Qur'an]] |publisher=Wordsworth Editions |year=2000 |isbn=1853267821}}</ref><ref name="Yusuf Ali" />

==== Sikhism ====
The monastic [[Sikhism|Sikh]] religion was founded by [[Guru Nanak Dev]], the term "sikh" means student, which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning. This system of religious [[philosophy]] and expression has been traditionally known as the [[Gurmat]] (literally ''the counsel of the gurus'') or the Sikh Dharma. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten [[The Sikh Gurus|Sikh gurus]], or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the ''[[Guru Granth Sahib|Gurū Granth Sāhib]]'', which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.

[[Image:Khanda1.svg|thumb|110px|left|The [[Khanda (religious symbol)|Khanda]], an important symbol of [[Sikhism]].]]
The Sikh Gurus tell us that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths. Therefore, Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."<ref name="Singh">{{cite book |author=Daljeet Singh |title=Guru Tegh Bahadur |publisher=Language Dept., Punjab |year=1971}}</ref> Sikhs do not consider they have an "exclusive" right to salvation. Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before [[Waheguru|God]].<ref name="Mayled">{{cite book |author=Jon Mayled |title=Modern World Religions: Sikhism |publisher=Harcourt Heinemann |year=2002 |isbn=0435336266}}</ref> Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.<ref>[http://www.sikhcoalition.org The Sikh Coalition]</ref>

A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-[[Anthropomorphism#In religions and mythologies|anthropomorphic]] concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the [[Universe]] itself ([[pantheism]]). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,<ref name="p252">{{cite book | last=Parrinder | first=Geoffrey | authorlink=Geoffrey Parrinder | year=1971 | title=World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present | publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited | location=United States | isbn = 0-87196-129-6}}</ref> [[Guru Nanak Dev|Nanak]] described God as not wholly unknowable. God is omnipresent (''[[sarav viāpak]]'') in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened. Nanak stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must [[meditate]] to progress towards enlightenment. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.<ref name="p252"/>

According to Sikhism, every creature has a [[soul]]. In death, the soul passes from one body to another until final [[liberation]]. The journey of the soul is governed by the [[karma]] of the deeds and actions we perform during our lives, and depending on the goodness or wrongdoings committed by a person in their life they will either be rewarded or punished in their [[reincarnation|next life]]. As the spirit of God is found in all life and matter, a soul can be passed onto other life forms, such as plants and insects - not just human bodies. A person who has evolved to achieve spiritual perfection in his lifetimes attains salvation – union with God and liberation from rebirth in the material world.

==== Shinto ====
[[Image:Torii,Vermilion.svg|thumb|right|120px|A [[torii]] is a traditional Japanese gate commonly found at the entry to a Shinto shrine.]]
[[Shinto]] is the native religion of Japan. Shinto means "the path of the [[kami]]", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean "the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way". The 'divine' crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation of [[free will]], choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process.

Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.<ref name="Mason">{{cite book |author=J. W. T. Mason |title=The Meaning of Shinto |publisher= Trafford Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1412245516}}</ref>

== Early modern perspectives ==
{{see|Enlightenment philosophy}}
The [[colonialism|colonial era]] and the [[Enlightenment]] both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of natural (God-given) rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship. The meaning of life changed as well, focussing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order.

====Classical liberalism====

[[Classical liberalism]] is a set of ideas that arose in the 17th and 18th centuries, out of conflicts between a growing, wealthy, propertied class and the established aristocratic and religious orders that dominated Europe. Liberalism cast humans as beings with inalienable, God-given [[individual rights|rights]] (including the right to retain the wealth generated by one's own work), and sought out means to balance rights across society. Broadly speaking, it '''considers [[individualism|individual]] [[liberty]] to be the most important goal''',<ref>A: "'Liberalism' is defined as a social ethic that advocates liberty, and equality in general." – [[C. A. J. (Tony) Coady]] ''Distributive Justice'', A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.440. B: "Liberty is not a means to a higher political end. It is itself the highest political end." – [[John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton|Lord Acton]]</ref> because only through ensured liberty are the other inherent rights protected.

There are many forms and derivations of liberalism, but their central conceptions of the meaning of life trace back to three main ideas. Early thinkers such as [[John Locke]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and [[Adam Smith]] saw humankind beginning in the [[state of nature]], then finding meaning for existence through labor and property, and using [[social contract]]s to create an environment that supports those efforts.

====Kantianism====
[[Image:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|right|125px|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]] is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of the late [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]].]]

[[Kantianism]] is a philosophy based on the [[ethics|ethical]], [[epistemology|epistemological]] and [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] works of [[Immanuel Kant]]. Kant is known for his [[deontology|deontological]] theory where '''there is a single moral obligation, the "[[Categorical Imperative]]"''', derived from the concept of [[duty]]. Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying [[Maxim (philosophy)|maxim]] or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative.

Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world. In ''Groundwork'', Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty).

Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside our full control and thus we cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it.

==== Utilitarianism ====
[[Image:Bentham.jpg|left|thumb|120px|Jeremy Bentham]]

The origins of [[Utilitarianism]] can be traced back as far as [[Epicurus]], but, as a school of thought, it is credited to [[Jeremy Bentham]],<ref>Rosen, Frederick (2003). ''Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill''. Routledge, pg. 28. ISBN 0415220947 "It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice."</ref> who found that ''nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure'', then, from that moral insight, deriving '''the Rule of Utility:''' ''that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people''. Later, on grasping the conflict of principles inherent to that formulation, he revised it and dropped the second part, limiting his definition of '''the meaning of life''' to the [[felicific calculus|"greatest happiness" principle]].

[[Jeremy Bentham]]'s foremost proponent was [[James Mill]], a significant philosopher in his day, and father of [[John Stuart Mill]]. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarising much of his father's work.<ref name="Mill">Mill, John Stuart. 'On Liberty', ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, Ed.'s introduction, p.11.</ref> In ''[[Utilitarianism (book)|Utilitarianism]]'', J.S. Mill argued that cultural, intellectual, and spiritual pleasures are of greater value than physical pleasure, because the former would be valued more highly, by competent judges, than the latter; a competent judge being anyone experienced in the low pleasures and the high pleasures.<ref>John Stuart Mill (1863). ''[[Utilitarianism (book)|Utilitarianism]]''.</ref>

==== Nihilism ====
[[Image:MARTIN John Great Day of His Wrath.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The End of the World (painting)|The End of the World]]'', by John Martin.]]

[[Nihilism]] rejects any authority's claims to [[knowledge]] and [[truth]], and so explores the significance of [[existence]] without knowable truth. Rather than insisting that values are subjective, and might be warrantless, the nihilist says: '''Nothing is of value''', morals are valueless, they only serve as society's false ideals. Despite tending towards [[defeatism]] or [[fatalism]], one can find strength and reason in the varied, unique human relations nihilism explores.

[[Friedrich Nietzsche]] characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of "the devaluing of the highest values".<ref name="Bindé">{{cite book|author=Jérôme Bindé|title=The Future Of Values: 21st-Century Talks|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2004|isbn=1571814426}}</ref> Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that [[God is dead]], and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values, returned meaning to the Earth.<ref name="Reginster">{{cite book |author=Bernard Reginster |title=The Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0674021991}}</ref>

To [[Martin Heidegger]], nihilism is the movement whereby "[[being]]" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.<ref name="Bindé" /> Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "[[God is dead|death of God]]" a potential source for nihilism:
<blockquote>If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself.<ref>Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche," 61.</ref></blockquote>

The existentialist [[Albert Camus]] asserts that the absurdity of the [[Human Condition]] is that we search for external values and meaning in a world which has none, and is indifferent to us. Camus writes of value-nihilists such as Meusrault<ref>Camus (1946) ''L'Etranger''</ref>, but also of values in a nihilistic world, that we can instead strive to be "heroic nihilists", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with "secular saintliness", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference<ref>Camus (1955) ''The Myth of Sisyphus''</ref>.

==== Bahá'í Faith ====
The [[Bahá'í Faith]], founded by [[Bahá'u'lláh]], emphasizes the unity of humanity.<ref>{{Citation | year = 2007 | title = "Bahaism." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | volume = Fourth Edition | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bahaism}}</ref> To Bahá'ís, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. Our lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, and the [[Manifestation of God|prophets]] were sent by God to facilitate this.<ref>{{cite book |last = Smith |first = P. |year = 1999 |title = A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher = Oneworld Publications |location = Oxford, UK |pages = 325–328|isbn = 1851681841 }}</ref>

== Contemporary perspectives ==
{{see|20th century philosophy}}
The current era has seen radical changes in conceptions of human nature. Modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world, advances in medicine and technology have freed us from the limitations and ailments of previous eras, and philosophy —particularly following the [[linguistic turn]]— altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other is conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have seen equally radical changes, from attempts to re-evaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in [[#pragmatism|pragmatism]] and [[#logical positivism|logical positivism]]), to efforts to meta-theorize about meaning-making as an activity ([[#existentialism|existentialism]], [[#humanism|humanism]]), to a broad assortment of [[#The meaning of life in pop culture|popular aphorisms and beliefs]] designed to give some small measure of meaning to existence.

==== Pragmatism ====
[[Pragmatism]], originated in the late-nineteenth-century U.S., to concern itself (mostly) with [[truth]], positing that ''only in struggling with the environment'' do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that ''consequences'', like utility and practicality, also are components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that ''anything'' useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be ''practically verifiable'', i.e. one should be able to predict and test claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of mankind should guide human intellectual inquiry.

Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life. [[William James]] argued that truth could be made, but not sought.<ref name="James">{{cite book|author=[[William James]]|title=The Meaning of Truth|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=1909|isbn=1-57392-138-6}}</ref><ref name="Corti">{{cite book|author=Walter Robert Corti|title=The Philosophy of William James|publisher=Meiner Verlag|year=1976|isbn=3787303529}}</ref> To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience.

==== Existentialism ====
{{main|Meaning (existential)}}
[[Image:The Scream.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Edvard Munch]]'s ''[[The Scream]]'', a representation of existential [[angst]].]]

Each man and each woman creates the essence (meaning) of his and her life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are ''action'', ''freedom'', and ''decision'', thus, [[Existentialism]] counters [[rationalism]] and [[positivism (philosophy)|positivism]]. In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; the insufficiency gives rise to the emotions of [[anxiety]] and [[angst|dread]], felt in facing one's radical [[Freedom (philosophy)|freedom]], and the concomitant awareness of death. To the existentialist, [[existence precedes essence]]; the ([[essence]]) of one's life arises ''only'' after one comes to [[existence]].

[[Søren Kierkegaard]] coined the term "[[leap of faith]]", arguing that [[Absurdism|life is full of absurdity]], and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite, and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so.<ref name="Hall">{{cite book|author=Amy Laura Hall|title=Kierkegaard and the Treachery of Love|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0521893119}}</ref>

[[Arthur Schopenhauer]] answered: "What is the meaning of life?" by determining that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and [[asceticism]].<ref name="Jacquette">{{cite book|author=Dale Jacquette|title=Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and the Arts|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=0521473888}}</ref><ref name="Murray">{{cite book|author=Durno Murray|title=Nietzsche's Affirmative Morality|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1999|isbn=3110166011}}</ref>

For Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw Nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") as without goals. He discredited asceticism, because it denies one's living in the world; denied that values are objective facts, that are rationally unnecessary, universally-binding commitments: Our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, [[perspectivism|all ideations take place from a particular perspective]].<ref name="Reginster" />

==== Humanism ====
{{See|Humanism (life stance)}}
[[Image:HumanismSymbol.PNG|120px|left|thumb|The "[[Happy Human]]" symbol representing [[Humanism]].]]

Per [[Humanism]], the [[human race]] came to be by reproducing in a progression of unguided [[evolution]] as an integral part of [[nature]], which is self-existing.<ref name=humanifesto1>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto I]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html | url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html |work=American Humanist Association |year=1933 |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref name=humanifesto2>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto II]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html |work=American Humanist Association |year=1973 |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref> Knowledge does not come from supernatural sources, but from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the [[scientific method]]): the nature of the [[universe]] is what people discern it to be.<ref name=humanifesto1 /> Like-wise, "[[Intrinsic value (ethics)|values]] and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"<ref name=humanifesto1 /> and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by [[Critical thinking|critical intelligence]].<ref name=humanifesto3>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto III]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php |work=American Humanist Association |year=2003 |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref><ref name=CDSH>{{cite web |title=[[A Secular Humanist Declaration]]] [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration |work=Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism) |year=1980 |url=http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref> "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."<ref name=humanifesto2 />

'''People determine human purpose, without supernatural influence'''; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life; humanism seeks to develop and fulfill:<ref name=humanifesto1 /> "Humanism affirms our ability, and responsibility, to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity".<ref name=humanifesto3 /> Humanists promote [[enlightened self-interest]] and the [[common good]] for all people. The [[happiness]] of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of humanity, as a whole, in part, because we are social animals, who find meaning in [[interpersonal relationship|personal relations]], and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the [[culture]].<ref name=humanifesto2 /><ref name=humanifesto3 />

The philosophical sub-genres [[posthumanism]] and [[transhumanism]] (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of [[human race|humanity]] and of [[Biocentrism|all life]] to the greatest degree feasible, to reconcile [[Renaissance humanism]] with the twenty-first century's [[technoscientific]] culture, thus, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life".<ref>{{Cite web| author=[[Nick Bostrom]] |title=Transhumanist Values |work=[[Oxford University]] |year=2005 |url=http://www.nickbostrom.com/ethics/values.html |accessdate=2007-07-28}}</ref>

From a humanistic-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could also be reinterpreted as "What is the meaning of ''my'' life?"<ref>Irvin Yalom, ''Existential Psychotherapy'', 1980 </ref> Instead of becoming bogged down in cosmic or religious question about overarching purpose, this approach suggests that the question is intensely personal. There are many therapeutic responses to this question, for example [[Viktor Frankl]] argues for "Dereflection", which largely translates as ceasing to endlessly reflect on the self, instead of engaging in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question of meaning of life evaporates if one is fully engaged in life. The question then morphs into more specific worries such as "What delusions am I under?", "What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?", "Why do I neglect loved-ones?". See also [[Existential Therapy]], [[Irvin Yalom]].

==== Logical positivism ====
[[Logical positivists]] ask: ''What is the meaning of life?'' and ''What is the meaning in asking?''<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Richard Taylor (philosopher)|Richard Taylor]] |title=Good and Evil |pages="The Meaning of Life" (Chapter 5) |publisher=Macmillan Publishing Company |month=January | year=1970 |isbn=0026166909}}</ref><ref>Wohlgennant, Rudolph. (1981). "Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning?" (Chapter 4). In E. Morscher, ed., ''Philosophie als Wissenschaft''.</ref> ''If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?''<ref>{{cite book |last=McNaughton |first=David |month=August | year=1988 |title=Moral Vision: An Introduction to Ethics |pages="Moral Freedom and the Meaning of Life" (Section 1.5) |publisher=Oxford: Blackwell Publishing |isbn=0631159452}}</ref> [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] and the [[logical positivism|logical positivists]] said: '''Expressed in language, the question is meaningless'''; because, ''in'' life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes the ''consequences'' of x, or the ''significance'' of x, or ''what is notable'' about x, et cetera, thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomes [[recursion|recursive]], and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life.

The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for himself, others) as the life events resulting from his achievements, legacy, family, et cetera, but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only ''in'' life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous. [[Bertrand Russell]] wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:<ref name="Russel"/>

<blockquote> When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case — or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall rouse similar emotions in others . . . Questions as to "values" — that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects — lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has "value", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.<ref>[[Bertrand Russell]] (1961). [http://www.solstice.us/russell/science-ethics.html ''Science and Ethics'']</ref></blockquote>

====Postmodernism====
{{Expand-section|date=October 2008}}
{{see|Postmodernism}}
Postmodernist thought - broadly speaking - sees human nature as constructed by language, or by structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out [[a priori]] or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing ''given'' meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a 'meaning of life', in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework, and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists see [[awareness]] of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in [[deconstructionism]]) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in [[poststructuralism]]). In general, postmodernism seeks meaning by looking at the underlying structures that create or impose meaning, rather than the [[epiphenomenal]] appearances of the world.

== Scientific approaches ==
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[[Image:DNA Overview.png|thumb|left|140px|[[DNA]], the substance containing the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all known [[life|living organisms]].]]

Claims that descriptive science can shed light on normative issues such as the meaning of life are highly disputed within the scientific and [[Philosophy of science|philosophy-of-science]] communities. Nevertheless, [[science]] may be able to provide some context and sets some parameters for conversations on related topics.

===Psychological significance and value in life===

Science may or may not be able to tell us what is of [[essential value]] in life, but some studies bear on related questions: researchers in [[positive psychology]] (and, earlier and less rigorously, in [[humanistic psychology]]) study factors that lead to life satisfaction,<ref>E. Diener, J.J. Sapyta, E. Suh (1998). "Subjective Well-Being Is Essential to Well-Being." ''Psychological Inquiry'', Lawrence Earlbaum</ref> full [[Flow (psychology)|engagement]] in activities,<ref>Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). ''Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience''. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-092043-2.</ref> making a fuller contribution by utilizing one's personal strengths,<ref>Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin (2004). ''Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516701-5.</ref> and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self.<ref>Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). ''Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment.'' New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-2297-0 (Paperback edition, 2004, Free Press, ISBN 0-7432-2298-9)</ref> One value system suggested by [[Social psychology (psychology)|social psychologists]], broadly called [[Terror Management Theory |Terror Management Theory]], states that all human meaning is derived out of a fundamental fear of death, whereby values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death.

[[Neuroscience]] has produced theories of [[reward]], [[pleasure]] and [[motivation]] in terms of physical entities such as neurotransmitter activity, especially in the [[limbic system]] and the [[ventral tegmental area]] in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure, then these theories give normative predictions about how to act to achieve this.

[[Economics|Economists]] have learned a great deal about what is [[Value (economics)|valued]] in the marketplace; and [[sociology]] examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as [[Value theory#Sociology|value theory]], norms, [[anomie]], etc.

===Origin and nature of biological life===
The exact mechanisms of [[abiogenesis]] are unknown: notable theories include the [[RNA world hypothesis]] (RNA-based replicators) and the [[iron-sulfur world theory]] (metabolism without genetics). The theory of [[evolution]] explains the process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via [[gene]]tic [[mutation]] and [[natural selection]].<ref>[[Charles Darwin]] (1859). ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.</ref> At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the [[gene-centered view of evolution]], biologists [[George C. Williams]], [[Richard Dawkins]], [[David Haig (biologist)|David Haig]], among others, conclude that if there is a '''primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes'''.<ref name="Dawkins selfish gene">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[The Selfish Gene]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |isbn=019857519X}}</ref><ref name="Dawkins river">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[River out of Eden]] |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=1995 |isbn=0-465-06990-8}}</ref>

However, though scientists have intensively studied [[organism|life on Earth]], defining [[life]] in unequivocal terms is still a challenge.<ref>[http://www.astrobio.net/news/article226 Defining Life :: Astrobiology Magazine - earth science - evolution distribution Origin of life universe - life beyond :: Astrobiology is study of earth science evolution distribution Origin of life in universe terrestrial<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html Defining Life, Explaining Emergence<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Physically, one may say that life "feeds on [[negentropy|negative entropy]]"<ref>{{cite book | last = Schrödinger | first = Erwin | title = What is Life? | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1944 | isbn = 0-521-42708-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Margulis | first = Lynn | coauthors = Sagan, Dorion | title = What is Life? | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-520-22021-8}}</ref> which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal [[entropy]] at the expense of some form of [[energy]] taken in from the environment.<ref>{{cite book | last = Lovelock | first = James | title = Gaia – a New Look at Life on Earth | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-19-286218-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Avery | first = John | title = Information Theory and Evolution | publisher = World Scientific | year = 2003 | isbn = 9812383999}}</ref> Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are [[self-organization|self-organizing]] systems [[homeostasis|regulating the internal environment as to maintain this organized state]], [[metabolism]] serves to provide energy, and [[reproduction]] allows life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information tends to change from generation to generation as to allow adaptation through evolution, these characteristics optimalizing the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm |title=How to Define Life |accessdate=2008-10-17 |last=Davison |first=Paul G. |publisher=The University of North Alabama }}</ref><ref>Witzany, G. (2007). The Logos of the Bios 2. Bio-Communication. Helsinki, Umweb.</ref>
Non-cellular replicating agents, notably [[virus]]es, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of "independent" reproduction or metabolism. This controversy is problematic, though, since some [[parasite]]s and [[endosymbiont]]s are also incapable of independent life.
[[Astrobiology]] studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, such as replicating structures made from materials other than DNA.

===The Big Bang and humanity's fate in this universe===
[[Image:CMB Timeline75.jpg|right|268px|thumb|The [[metric expansion of space]]. The [[inflationary epoch]] is the expansion of the [[metric tensor]] at left. ([[WMAP]] image, 2006)]]
Though the [[Big Bang]] model was met with much scepticism when first introduced, partially because of a connection to the religious concept of [[creation]], it has become well supported by several independent observations.<ref>{{cite book | author = Helge Kragh | title = Cosmology and Controversy | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1996 | isbn=069100546X}}</ref> However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 10<sup>-43</sup> seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature), a theory of [[quantum gravity]] would be required to go further back in time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how our universe came into being.<ref name="Prantzos & Lyle">{{cite book |author=Nikos Prantzos; Stephen Lyle |title=Our Cosmic Future: Humanity's Fate in the Universe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=052177098X}}</ref> They generally agree amongst themselves that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the [[anthropic principle]], it is most often interpreted as implying the existence of a [[multiverse]].<ref name="Edwards">{{cite book |author=Rem B. Edwards |title=What Caused the Big Bang? |publisher=Rodopi |year=2001 |isbn=9042014075}}</ref>

However, no matter how the universe came into existence, humanity's fate in this universe appears to be doomed as —even if humanity would survive that long— biological life will eventually become unsustainable, be it through a [[Big Freeze]], [[Big Rip]] or [[Big Crunch]]. It would seem that the only way to survive indefinitely, would be by directing the flow of energy on a cosmic scale and altering the [[ultimate fate of the universe|fate of the universe]].<ref name="Prantzos & Lyle" />

===Scientific questions about the mind===
The true nature and origin of [[consciousness]] and the [[mind]] itself are also widely debated in science, the [[explanatory gap]] is generally equated with the [[hard problem of consciousness]], and the question of [[free will]] is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of [[cognitive science]], [[neuroscience]] and [[philosophy of mind]], though some [[evolutionary biology|evolutionary biologists]] and [[theoretical physics|theoretical physicists]] have also made several allusions to the subject.<ref name="Whitehouse">{{cite book |author=Harvey Whitehouse |title=The Debated Mind: Evolutionary Psychology Versus Ethnography |publisher=Berg Publishers |year=2001 |isbn=1859734278}}</ref><ref name="Gray">{{cite book |author=[[Jeffrey Alan Gray]] |title=Consciousness: Creeping Up on the Hard Problem |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0198520905}}</ref>

[[Image:Ascent of the Blessed.jpg|125px|right|thumb|[[Hieronymus Bosch]]'s ''[[Ascent of the Blessed]]'' depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures, often described in reports of [[near-death experience]]s.]]
[[Reductionism|Reductionistic]] and [[eliminative materialism|eliminative materialistic]] approaches, for example the [[Multiple Drafts Model]], hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the [[brain]] and its [[neuron]]s, thus adhering to [[biological naturalism]].<ref name="Churchland">{{cite book |author=[[Paul Churchland|Paul M. Churchland]] |title=A Neurocomputational Perspective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science |publisher= MIT Press |year=1989 |isbn=0262531062}}</ref><ref name="Dennett">{{cite book |author=[[Daniel Dennett|Daniel Clement Dennett]] |title=[[Consciousness Explained]] |publisher=Little, Brown and Co. |year=1991 |isbn=0316180661}}</ref><ref name="Block">{{cite book |author=Ned Joel Block |title=Consciousness, Function, and Representation |publisher=MIT Press |year=2007 |isbn=0262026031}}</ref><ref name="Brook & Akins">{{cite book |author=Andrew Brook; Kathleen Akins |title=Cognition and the Brain: The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0521836425}}</ref><ref name="Dehaene">{{cite book |author=Stanislas Dehaene |title=The Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness |publisher=MIT Press |year=2001 |isbn=0262541319}}</ref><ref name="Gray" />

On the other hand, some scientists, like [[Andrei Linde]], have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that our perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.<ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper">{{cite book |author=[[John D. Barrow]]; [[Paul Davies|Paul C. W. Davies]]; Charles L. Harper |title=Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=052183113X}}</ref> Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements"<ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper" />, often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.<ref name="Millay, Heinze">{{cite book |author=Jean Millay; Ruth-Inge Heinze |title=Multidimensional Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace |publisher=North Atlantic Books |year=1999 |isbn=1556433069}}</ref> [[Electromagnetic theories of consciousness]] solve the [[binding problem]] of consciousness in saying that the [[electromagnetic field]] generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience, there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.<ref>J. McFadden (2002) "[http://www.mindcontrolforums.com/news/electromagnetic-field-theory-of-consciousness.htm Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness]". ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'' '''9''' (4) pp. 23-50.</ref><ref name="Buccheri & Di Gesù & Saniga">{{cite book |author=R. Buccheri; V. Di Gesù; Metod Saniga |title=Studies on the Structure of Time: From Physics to Psycho(patho)logy |publisher=Springer |year=2000 |isbn=030646439X}}</ref> [[Quantum mind]] theories use [[quantum theory]] in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of [[free will]] through [[quantum]] phenomena is a popular alternative to [[determinism]], such postulations may variously relate free will to [[quantum fluctuation]]s,<ref name="Bohm & Hiley">{{cite book |author=[[David Bohm]]; Basil J. Hiley |title=The Undivided Universe: An Ontological Interpretation of Quantum Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1993 |isbn=0415065887}}</ref> quantum amplification,<ref name="Bruce">{{cite book |author=Alexandra Bruce |title=Beyond the Bleep: The Definitive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know!? |publisher=The Disinformation Company |year=2005 |isbn=1932857222}}</ref> quantum potential<ref name="Bohm & Hiley" /> and quantum probability.<ref name="Libet, Freeman, Sutherland">{{cite book |author=Benjamin Libet; Anthony Freeman; Keith Sutherland |title=The Volitional Brain: Towards a Neuroscience of Free Will |publisher=Imprint Academic |year=1999 |isbn=0907845118}}</ref>

Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a [[cosmic consciousness]], asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being".<ref name="Bruce" /><ref name="Ho">{{cite book |author=[[Mae-Wan Ho]] |title=The Rainbow and the Worm: The Physics of Organisms |publisher=World Scientific |year=1998 |pages=218–231 |isbn=9810234279}}</ref><ref name="Walker">{{cite book |author=[[Evan Harris Walker]] |title=The Physics of Consciousness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Perseus Books |year=2000 |isbn=0738204366}}</ref> Proponents of this view cite accounts of [[paranormal]] phenomena, primarily [[extrasensory perception]]s and [[psychic]] powers, as evidence for an [[incorporeal]] [[higher consciousness]]. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, [[Parapsychology|parapsychologists]] have orchestrated various experiments. Meta-analyses of these experiments indicate that the effect size (though very small) has been relatively consistent, resulting in an overall [[statistical significance]].<ref name=Radnin97>{{cite book |last=Radin |first=Dean |authorlink = |title=The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1997 |isbn=0062515020}}</ref><ref name=Dunne>{{cite journal |last=Dunne |first=Brenda |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer |journal=Journal of Scientific Exploration |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=207–241 |year=2003 |url=http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/abstracts/v17n2a1.php |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref><ref name=Dunne85>{{cite journal |last=Dunne |first=Brenda J. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=On the quantum mechanics of consciousness, with application to anomalous phenomena |journal=Foundations of Physics |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=721–772 |year=1985 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/vtrr87tg356154r7/ |doi=10.1007/BF00735378|accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> Although some critical analysts feel that parapsychological study is [[scientific]], they are not satisfied with its experimental results.<ref name=Alcock03>{{cite journal |last=Alcock |first=James E. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |volume=10 |issue=6-7 |pages=29–50 |year=2003 |url=http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Alcock-editorial.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref name=Hyman>{{cite journal |last=Hyman |first=Ray |title=Evaluation of the program on anomalous mental phenomena |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |volume=59 |issue=1 |year=1995 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600 |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref> Skeptical reviewers contend that apparently successful results are more likely due to sloppy procedures, poorly trained researchers, or methodological flaws than to actual effects.<ref name=Akers>{{cite paper |author=Akers, C. |title=Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |year=1986 |url=http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances4/7_Methodological_Criticisms.html
|accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper |author=Child, I.L.
|title=Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 5 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |year=1987 |url= http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html |accessdate=2007-07-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=Richard |authorlink= |coauthors=Smith, Matthew, et al. |title=Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments - Psychophysical Research Laboratories |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |year=1996 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809 |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lobach |first=E. |coauthors=Bierman, D. |title=The Invisible Gaze: Three Attempts to Replicate Sheldrake's Staring Effects |work=Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention |url=http://www.parapsych.org/papers/07.pdf |year=2004 |pages=pp. 77–90 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref>

==The meaning of life in pop culture==
The mystery of life and its meaning is an often recurring subject in [[popular culture]], featured in [[mass media|entertainment media]] and [[the arts|various forms]] of [[art]]:
[[Image:Allisvanity.jpg|thumb|120px|[[Charles Allan Gilbert]]'s ''All is Vanity'' depicts a young [[woman]] gazing at her reflection in a [[mirror]], but all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a [[skull]] appear.]]
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{{col-break|width=400}}
*in songs: [[The Offspring]]'s "[[The Meaning of Life (The Offspring song)|The Meaning of Life]]", [[Nas]]' "[[Life's a Bitch (song)|Life's a Bitch]]", [[Kiss (band)|Kiss]]' "[[Reason to Live]]", [[George Harrison]]'s "[[All Things Must Pass (song)|All Things Must Pass]]" and "[[What Is Life]]", [[Frank Sinatra]]'s "[[That's Life (song)|That's Life]]" and "[[If You Are but a Dream]]", [[Eric Idle]]'s "[[Always Look on the Bright Side of Life]]", [[Bobby McFerrin]]'s "[[Don't Worry, Be Happy]]", [[Evanescence]]'s "[[Bring Me to Life]]", "[[Sweet Sacrifice]]" and "All That I'm Living For", [[Nelly Furtado]]'s "[[All Good Things (Come To An End)]]" and "[[In God's Hands (song)|In God's Hands]]", [[30 Seconds to Mars]]' "[[A Beautiful Lie (song)|A Beautiful Lie]]", [[Good Charlotte]]'s "[[I Just Wanna Live]]" and "[[The Chronicles of Life and Death]]", [[Linkin Park]]'s "[[In the End]]" and "[[Breaking the Habit]]", [[Anti-Flag]]'s "[[Born To Die]]", [[Creed]]'s "[[What's This Life For]]", [[Meat Loaf]]'s "Life Is a Lemon and I Want My Money Back", [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]]' "This Is Your Life", [[Metallica]]'s "[[…And Justice for All (song)|…And Justice for All]]";
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*in books: [[A. C. Grayling|Anthony C. Grayling]]'s ''[[The Meaning of Things]]'', [[Viktor Frankl]]'s ''[[Man's Search for Meaning]]'', [[Robert Nozick]]'s ''[[Philosophical Explanations]]'' and ''[[The Examined Life]]'', [[Ken Wilber]]'s ''[[Sex, Ecology, Spirituality]]'', [[Julian Baggini]]'s ''What's it All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life'', [[Rick Warren]]'s ''[[The Purpose Driven Life]]'', [[Norman O. Brown]]'s ''[[Life Against Death: The Psychoanalytic Meaning of History]]'', [[Oswald Spengler]]'s ''[[The Decline of the West]]'', [[Daniel Dennett]]'s ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea|Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life]]'', [[Richard Dawkins]]' ''[[Unweaving the Rainbow]]'' and ''[[River out of Eden]]'', [[Alister McGrath]]'s ''[[Dawkins' God: Genes, Memes, and the Meaning of Life]]'';
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*in paintings/illustrations: [[Paul Gauguin]]'s ''[[Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?]]'', [[Edvard Munch]]'s ''[[The Scream]]'', [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]]'s ''[[The End of the World (painting)|The End of the World]]'', [[Charles Allan Gilbert]]'s ''All is Vanity'', [[Rembrandt]]'s ''Philosopher in Meditation'', [[Hieronymus Bosch]]'s ''[[Ascent of the Blessed]]'' and ''[[The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things]]'', [[Hans Memling]]'s ''[[The Last Judgment (Memling)|The Last Judgment]]'' triptych, [[Gustave Doré]]'s illustrations for the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'', [[Thomas Cole]]'s ''[[The Voyage of Life]]'' series.
{{col-end}}
<center><gallery>
Image:Cole Thomas The Voyage of Life Childhood 1842.jpg|''[[The Voyage of Life]]<br>Childhood''
Image:Cole Thomas The Voyage of Life Youth 1842.jpg|''[[The Voyage of Life]]<br>Youth''
Image:Cole Thomas The Voyage of Life Manhood 1840.jpg|''[[The Voyage of Life]]<br>Manhood''
Image:Cole Thomas The Voyage of Life Old Age 1842.jpg|''[[The Voyage of Life]]<br>Old Age''
</gallery></center>

[[Image:Answer to Life.png|thumb|right|150px|The Ultimate Answer to Life, The Universe and Everything in ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' and illustration of the bizarre and humorous nature of the universe described in Douglas Adams' series]]
In [[Douglas Adams]]' popular comedy book series ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', the [[Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything|Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything]] has the numeric solution of [[42 (number)|42]], which was derived over seven and a half million years by a giant [[supercomputer]] called [[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Deep Thought|Deep Thought]]. After much confusion from the descendants of his creators, Deep Thought explains that the problem is that they do not know the [[Ultimate Question]], and they would have to build an even more powerful computer to determine what that is. This computer is revealed to be [[Earth]], which, after 10 million years of calculating, is destroyed to make way for a [[galaxy|galactic]] [[bypass]] moments before it finishes calculations.<ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Adams H2G2 book1">{{cite book|title=[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1979|isbn=0-330-25864-8}}</ref><ref name="Yeffeth">{{cite book |author=Glenn Yeffeth |title=The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy |publisher=BenBella Books, Inc |year=2005 |isbn=1932100563}}</ref><ref name="Badke">{{cite book |author= William B. Badke |title=The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Meaning of Everything |publisher=Kregel Publications |year=2005 |isbn=0825420695}}</ref> In ''[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]'', it is confirmed that 42 is indeed the Ultimate Answer, and that it is impossible for both the Ultimate Answer and the Ultimate Question to be known about in the same universe, as they will cancel each other out and take the universe with them, to be replaced by something even more bizarre, and that this may have already happened.<ref name="Adams H2G2 book3">{{cite book|isbn=0-330-26738-8|title=[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1982}}</ref> Subsequently, in the hopes that his [[subconscious]] holds the question, [[Arthur Dent]] guesses at a question, coming up with "What do you get when you multiply six by nine?", probably an incorrect guess, as the arrival of the [[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Golgafrinchans|Golgafrinchans]] on prehistoric Earth would have disrupted the computation process.<ref name="Adams H2G2 book2">{{cite book|title=[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|date=1 January 1980|isbn=0-345-39181-0}}</ref> However, Dent, [[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Fenchurch|Fenchurch]], and a dying [[Marvin the Paranoid Android|Marvin]] did see God's final message to his creation: "We apologise for the inconvenience".<ref name="Adams H2G2 book4">{{cite book|isbn=0-330-28700-1|title=[[So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1984}}</ref>

In ''[[Monty Python's The Meaning of Life]]'', there are several allusions to the meaning of life. In "Part VI B: The Meaning of Life" a cleaning lady explains "Life's a game, you sometimes win or lose" and later a waiter describes his personal philosophy "The world is a beautiful place. You must go into it, and love everyone, not hate people. You must try and make everyone happy, and bring peace and contentment everywhere you go."<ref name="useless website">[http://www.intriguing.com/mp/_scripts/meanlife.asp Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning Of Life: Complete Script]</ref> At the end of the film, we can see [[Michael Palin]] being handed an envelope, he opens it, and provides the viewers with 'the meaning of life': "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations."<ref name="useless website" /><ref name="Burnham">{{cite book |author=Terry Burnham |title=Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2005 |isbn=0471716952}}</ref><ref name="Fernandez">{{cite book |author=Yolanda Fernandez |title=In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders |publisher=Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1885473486}}</ref>

{| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" style="width:250px; float:right; border: 2px solid #aaa; font-size:90%; padding:4px; margin: 0.5em 0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; background-color: #f9f9f9;clear:right;"
|-
|-
|align="left"| '''Amount''' ||align=right| 1 slice &nbsp; &nbsp; ||align=right| 1 slice &nbsp; &nbsp; ||align=right| 2 slices &nbsp; &nbsp; ||align=right| 1 serving &nbsp; &nbsp;
|align="left"|
|-
:'''Homer:''' God, what's the meaning of life?
|align="left"| '''Total Weight (g)''' ||align=right| 29 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 8 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 47 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 56 &nbsp; &nbsp;
:'''God:''' Homer, I can't tell you that.
|-
:'''Homer:''' Why not?
|align="left"| &nbsp; Water (g) || align=right| 3.57 (12%) &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 0.99 (12%) &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 29 (62%) &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 40.85 (73%) &nbsp; &nbsp;
:'''God:''' You'll find out when you die.
|-
:'''Homer:''' Oh, I can't wait that long.
|align="left"| '''Calories''' || align=right| 157 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 43 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 87 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 68 &nbsp; &nbsp;
:'''God:''' You can't wait 6 months?
|-
:'''Homer:''' No, tell me now...
|align="left"| '''Total Fat (g)''' || align=right| 12.12 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 3.34 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 3.97 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 9.45 &nbsp; &nbsp;
:'''God:''' Oh, OK... The meaning of life is...
|-
|align="left"| &nbsp; Saturated Fat (g) || align=right| 3.984 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 1.099 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 1.335 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 1.025 &nbsp; &nbsp;
|-
|align="left"| '''Cholesterol (mg)''' || align=right| 32 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 9 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 27 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 27 &nbsp; &nbsp;
|-
|align="left"| '''Sodium (mg)''' || align=right| 670 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 185 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 727 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 569 &nbsp; &nbsp;
|-
|align="left"| '''Protein (g)''' || align=right| 10.74 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 2.96 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 11.39 &nbsp; &nbsp; || align=right| 9.45 &nbsp; &nbsp;
|}
|}
In ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode "[[Homer the Heretic]]", a representation of God tells Homer what the meaning of life is, but as usual the one who really wanted to know (the viewer) is left disappointed. Just before God tells Homer the meaning of life, the credits music starts and the show ends, interrupting God's explanation to humorous effect. The dialogue is noted in the box to the right:<br>Earlier in the episode, Homer founds his own religion, in which he tries to worship God in his own way, later pointing out to Moe that it has no hell and no kneeling. However, Homer quickly abandons his self-indulgent personal religion after his house almost burns down, taking the fire as a sign of divine retribution, and exclaiming "O Spiteful One, show me who to smite, and he shall be smoten." Ned assures Homer that the fire was not God's vengeance and Lovejoy explains that God was "working in the hearts of your friends and neighbors when they came to your aid."<ref name="Pinsky">{{cite book|author=Mark I. Pinsky|title=The Gospel According To The Simpsons: The Spiritual Life Of The World's Most Animated Family|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=2001|isbn=0664224199}}</ref>

At the end of ''[[The Matrix Revolutions]]'', [[Agent Smith|Smith]] concludes that "the purpose of life is to end" and is determined to move that purpose along.<ref name="Lawrence">{{cite book|author=Matt Lawrence|title=Like a Splinter in Your Mind: The Philosophy Behind the Matrix Trilogy|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=1405125241}}</ref> [[The Matrix (series)|''The Matrix'' series]] also presents the idea of "living in a [[simulated reality]]" and the associated question whether such an existence should be considered meaningless, in a way that may be compared to Plato's [[allegory of the cave]] and how certain belief systems view our reality, like [[Buddhism]] or [[Gnosticism]].<ref name="Grau" />

In ''[[Peanuts]]'', Charlie Brown explains he thinks the purpose of life is to make others happy, to which Lucy responds that she doesn't think she is making anyone happy, and—more importantly—no one is making her happy, so someone isn't doing their job, eventually she asks him "You say we're put on this earth to make others happy? ... What are the others put here for?"<ref name="Pregnant">[http://mypregnantpauses.blogspot.com/2007/08/charlie-lucy.html Pregnant Pauses: Charlie & Lucy]</ref> On several other occasions, Charlie has asserted several other things in relation to life and its meaning: "In the book of life, the answers aren't in the back."<ref name="Pregnant" /><ref>[http://www.allgreatquotes.com/charlie_brown_quotes.shtml AllGreatQuotes: Charlie Brown Quotes]</ref>, "That's the secret to life... replace one worry with another."<ref name="Pregnant" /><ref>[http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/14129.html Quote Details: Charles M. Schulz: That's the secret to life... replace one worry with another....]</ref>, "Happiness is anyone and anything at all that's loved by you."<ref>[http://www.hamienet.com/lyrics90055.html HamieNET.com [You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown<nowiki>]</nowiki> Happiness Lyrics]</ref> and "Life is like an ice cream cone...you have to lick it one day at a time."<ref>[http://www.quotationspage.com/quote/14129.html Quote Details: Charles M. Schulz: Life is like an ice cream cone...you have to lick it one day at a time.]</ref> Lucy has also declared "Life is too short to waste it listening to some person who doesn't know when to shut up! Time is too valuable!"<ref name="Pregnant" /> and "All you really need is love, but a little chocolate now and then doesn't hurt."<ref name="Pregnant" /><ref>[http://www.allgreatquotes.com/lucy_van_pelt_quotes.shtml AllGreatQuotes: Lucy Van Pelt Quotes]</ref>

In ''[[Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey]]'', Bill and Ted end up meeting God. Before being admitted into his presence, [[St. Peter]] asks them what the meaning of life is, and they reply with the lyrics to the song "[[Every Rose Has Its Thorn]]" by [[Poison (band)|Poison]].

In ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'', a seminal science fiction novel by [[Frank Herbert]], the meaning of life is defined as "not a question to be answered, but a reality to be experienced".

In ''[[A Man Without a Country]]'', author [[Kurt Vonnegut]] sums up life with the words: "We're all here to fart around. Don't let anyone tell you any different!" In Vonnegut's novel ''[[Breakfast of Champions]]'', "To be the eyes and ears and conscience of the Creator of the Universe, you fool." is [[Kilgore Trout]]'s unwritten reply to the question "What is the purpose of life?"

A quotation by [[Anton Chekhov]] states "You ask "What is life?" That is the same as asking "What is a carrot?" A carrot is a carrot and we know nothing more." He also professed "All of life and human relations have become so incomprehensibly complex that, when you think about it, it becomes terrifying and your heart stands still."<ref>[http://www.enotes.com/famous-quotes/author/anton-pavlovich-chekhov eNotes: Famous Quotes by Anton Pavlovich Chekhov]</ref>

[[Leo Tolstoy]] expressed "Faith is the sense of life, that sense by virtue of which man does not destroy himself, but continues to live on. It is the force whereby we live." and "The sole meaning of life is to serve humanity."<ref>[http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/l/leo_tolstoy.html BrainyQuote: Leo Tolstoy Quotes]</ref>

[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] asserted "The greatest happiness is to know the source of unhappiness." and "To live without hope is to cease to live."<ref>[http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/f/fyodor_dostoevsky.html BrainyQuote: Fyodor Dostoevsky Quotes]</ref>

[[Oscar Wilde]] has declared "Life is far too important a thing ever to talk seriously about." and "Keep love in your heart. A life without it is like a sunless garden when the flowers are dead."<ref>[http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/o/oscar_wilde.html BrainyQuote: Oscar Wilde Quotes]</ref>

[[Image:HamletSkullHCSealous.jpg|thumb|150px|Hamlet with Yorick's skull]]
In [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Hamlet]]'', [[Prince Hamlet]] states: "[[To be, or not to be|To be or not to be]], that is the question." Though many may connect this statement with the action of Hamlet thoughtfully holding a skull, the monologue associated with [[Yorick]]'s skull is actually "Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio; a fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy; he hath borne me on his back a thousand times; and now, how abhorred in my imagination it is! my gorge rises at it. Here hung those lips that I have kissed I know not how oft. Where be your gibes now?" The phrase "[[What a piece of work is a man]]" also comes from the play ''Hamlet'', it appears in Act II, scene II, where Hamlet praises man and yet he cannot be delighted, asking "What is this quintessence of dust?"<ref>{{cite book|author=Harley Granville-Barker|title=Hamlet|publisher=Nick Hern Books|year=2004|isbn=1854597868}}</ref><br>And in the play ''[[Macbeth]]'', Macbeth, in his darkest hours, proclaims: "Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player, that struts and frets his hour upon the stage, and then is heard no more. It is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing."<ref>{{cite book|author=Allardyce Nicoll|title=Shakespeare Survey|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0521523524}}</ref>

Additionally, a multitude of various films and novels make use of existential themes: Films like ''[[Requiem for a Dream]]'', ''[[Vanilla Sky]]'' and ''[[Waking Life]]'' treat the issue of how illusions can cloud the mind to an apparently negative or meaningless reality. ''[[The Alchemist (novel)|The Alchemist]]'' and ''[[City Slickers]]'' both present the meaning of life as an individual journey to find one's own "path", which is best explained simply as ''the overall way one chooses to lead their life''.

=== Popular views ===
<!--Please do not add 42 in this section. It is covered under the section titled "The meaning of life in pop culture". Thank you.-->

"What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?"<ref name="WITMOL">{{cite web |title=Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning Of Life? |work=[[Philosophy Now]] |publisher=Issue 59 |url=http://www.philosophynow.org/issue59/59question.htm |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref> Here are some of the life goals people choose, and some of their beliefs on what the purpose of life is:
{{refbegin|3}}
==== ...to realize one's potential and ideals ====
<!--views specificly treating one ideal are found in the sections below-->
* ...to live life to the fullest.<ref name="Kelly" />
* ...to lead a full and productive life.<ref name="Nozick">{{cite book |author=[[Robert Nozick]] |title=[[Philosophical Explanations]] |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1981 |isbn=0674664795}}</ref>
* ...to chase dreams.<ref name="Seaman" /><br>...to live one's dreams.<ref name="Ellerton" />
* ...to spend it for something that will outlast it.<ref name="Cook" />
* ...to matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all.<ref name="Cook" />
* ...to expand one's potential in life.<ref name="Ellerton" />
* ...to become the person you've always wanted to be.<ref name="Chandler">{{cite book |author=Steve Chandler |title=Reinventing Yourself: How to Become the Person You've Always Wanted to Be |publisher=Career Press |year=2005 |isbn=1564148173}}</ref>
* ...to become the best version of yourself.<ref name="Kelly">{{cite book |author=Matthew Kelly |title=The Rhythm of Life: Living Every Day with Passion and Purpose |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2005 |isbn=0743265106}}</ref>
* ...to seek happiness<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lee |first=Dong Yul |coauthors=Park, Sung Hee; Uhlemann, Max R.; Patsult, Philip |title =What Makes You Happy?: A Comparison of Self-reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures |journal=Social Indicators Research |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=351–362 |month=June | year=2000 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/q5m68401859l2320/ |doi=10.1023/A:1004647517069 |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref>[https://portal.acm.org/poplogin.cfm?dl=GUIDE&coll=GUIDE&comp_id=320261&want_href=delivery%2Ecfm%3Fid%3D320261%26type%3Dpdf%26CFID%3D28988131%26CFTOKEN%3D50367582&CFID=28988131&CFTOKEN=50367582&td=1184895603779 Social perspectives], [[Association for Computing Machinery#Digital_Library|ACM Digital Library]]</ref> and flourish.<ref name="Baggini">{{cite book |author=[[Julian Baggini]] |title=What's It All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Granta Books |month=September | year=2004 |location=USA |isbn=1862076618}}</ref>
* ...to be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs.<ref name="Cook" />
* ...to follow our destiny.<ref name="Cappannelli" /><br>...to submit to our destiny.<ref name="West" />
* ...to shape your own destiny.<ref name="Kahaner">{{cite book |author=Larry Kahaner |title=Values, Prosperity, and the Talmud: Business Lessons from the Ancient Rabbis |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2003 |isbn=0471444413}}</ref>
* ...to fight life's game(s) and win, or draw, or ,at the very least, lose with dignity.<ref name="Fadul">{{cite book |author=[[Jose Fadul]] |title=Lessons in Chess, Lessons in Life: Application of the Psychology of the Game in Real Life |publisher=Lulu Press |date= 2008 |isbn=978-0-557-02158-1}}</ref>
*...to create your own reality.<ref name="Icke">{{cite book |author=[[David Icke]] |title=The Biggest Secret: The Book That Will Change the World |publisher=Bridge of Love Publications |year=1999 |isbn=0952614766}}</ref>

==== ...to achieve biological perfection ====
* ...to survive,<ref>{{cite web |last=Lopez |first=Mike |title=Episode III: Relativism? A Jedi craves not these things |work=The Michigan Daily |date=September 22, 1999 |url=http://www.pub.umich.edu/daily/1999/sep/09-22-99/edit/edit2.html |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref> that is, to live as long as possible,<ref>{{cite book |last=Lovatt |first=Stephen C. |title=New Skins for Old Wine |publisher=Universal Publishers |year=2007 |pages=The Meaning of Life |url=http://homepage.ntlworld.com/pharseas.world/Life.html |isbn=1581129602 |nopp=true}}</ref> including pursuit of [[immortality]] (through scientific means).<ref name="Kurweil & Grossmann">{{cite book |author=[[Raymond Kurzweil]]; [[Terry Grossman]] |title=[[Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever]] [http://www.fantastic-voyage.net/] |publisher=Holtzbrinck Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=1-57954-954-3}}</ref><br>...to [[Indefinite lifespan|live forever]]<ref name="Kurweil & Grossmann" /> or die [[Life extension|trying]].<ref name="Appleyard">{{cite book |author=Bryan Appleyard |title=How to Live Forever Or Die Trying: On the New Immortality |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2007 |isbn=0743268687}}</ref>
* ...to evolve<ref>{{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Donald |title=The Purpose of Life |publisher=Woodhill Publishing |year=2001 |url=http://www.woodhillpublishing.co.uk/ |isbn=0-9540291-0-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Wayne |first=Larry |coauthors=Johnson, Grace |title=Expanding The Oneness |work=SelfGrowth.com |url=http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Johnston7.html |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref> into something more.<ref name="Lloyd">{{cite book |author=[[Alfred Henry Lloyd]] |title=The Will to Doubt: An Essay in Philosophy for the General Thinker |publisher=Swan Sonnenschein |year=1907}}</ref>
* ...to evolve into the most harmonious state.<ref name="Seaman">{{cite book |author=David Seaman |title=The Real Meaning of Life |publisher=New World Library |year=2005 |isbn=1577315146}}</ref>
* ...to replicate, to reproduce.<ref name="Seaman" /> "The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells."<ref name="Lane">{{cite book |author=[[Nick Lane]] |title=Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0192804812}}</ref><ref name="Weiss & Buchanan">{{cite book |author=Kenneth M. Weiss; Anne V. Buchanan |title=Genetics and the Logic of Evolution |publisher=Wiley-IEEE |year=2004 |isbn=0471238058}}</ref><ref name="Ackerman">{{cite book |author=Jennifer Ackerman |title=Chance in the House of Fate: A Natural History of Heredity |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Books |year=2001 |isbn=0618219099}}</ref><ref name="Rensberger">{{cite book |author=Boyce Rensberger |title=Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=0195125002}}</ref>
*...to be fruitful and multiply.<ref name="Burke">{{cite book |author=Thomas Patrick Burke |title=The Major Religions: An Introduction with Texts |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=140511049X}}</ref> ({{bibleverse||Genesis|1:28}})

==== ...to seek wisdom and knowledge ====
* ...to expand one's perception of the world.<ref name="Ellerton">{{cite book |author=Roger Ellerton PhD, CMC |title=Live Your Dreams... Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You |publisher=Trafford Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=1412047099}}</ref>
* ...to follow the clues and walk out the exit.<ref name="Grau">{{cite book |author=Christopher Grau |title=Philosophers Explore the Matrix |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780195181074}}</ref>
* ...to learn as many things as possible in life.<ref name="Cooper & Hutchinson">{{cite book |author=John M. Cooper; D. S. Hutchinson |title=Plato: Complete Works |publisher=Hackett Publishing |year=1997 |isbn=0-87220-349-2}}</ref><br>...to know as much as possible about as many things as possible.<ref name="Findling & Thackeray">{{cite book |author=John E. Findling, Frank W. Thackeray |title=Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2001 |isbn=0313290792}}</ref>
* ...to seek [[wisdom]] and [[knowledge]] and to tame the [[mind]], as to avoid [[suffering]] caused by [[ignorance]] and find [[happiness]].<ref name="Dalai Lama">{{cite book |author=[[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama]] |title=The Meaning of Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect |publisher=Doubleday |year=1954}}</ref>
* ...to face our [[fear]]s and accept the [[lesson]]s life offers us.<ref name="Cappannelli">{{cite book |author=George Cappannelli; Sedena Cappannelli |title=Authenticity: Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home |publisher=Emmis Books |year=2004 |isbn=1578601487}}</ref>
* ...to find the meaning of life.<ref name="Simmons">{{cite book |author=Ernest Joseph Simmons |title=Tolstoy |publisher=Routledge |year=1973 |isbn=071007395X}}</ref><br>...to find the purpose of life.<ref name="Bowell">{{cite book |author=Richard A. Bowell |title=The Seven Steps Of Spiritual Intelligence: The Practical Pursuit of Purpose, Success and Happiness |publisher=Nicholas Brealey Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1857883446}}</ref><br>...to find a reason to live.<ref name="Gibbs & Basinger & Fuller">{{cite book |author=John C. Gibbs; Karen S. Basinger; Dick Fuller |title=Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |year=1992 |isbn=0805804250}}</ref>
* ...to resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality.<ref name="Tang">{{cite book |author=Timothy Tang |title=Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness |publisher=iUniverse |year=2007 |isbn=9780595459414}}</ref>

==== ...to do good, to do the right thing ====
* ...to leave the world a better place than you found it.<ref name="Seaman" /><br>...to do your best to leave every situation better than you found it.<ref name="Seaman" />
* ...to benefit others.<ref name="Hua">{{cite book |author=Hsuan Hua |title=Words of Wisdom: Beginning Buddhism |publisher=Dharma Realm Buddhist Association |year=2003 |isbn=0881393029}}</ref>
* ...to give more than you take.<ref name="Seaman" />
* ...to end suffering.<ref name="Roberts">{{cite book |author=Tyler T. Roberts |title=Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affirmation, Religion |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0691001278}}</ref><ref name="Costigan">{{cite book |author=Lucy Costigan |title=What Is the Meaning of Your Life: A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning |publisher=iUniverse |year=2004 |isbn=0595338801}}</ref><ref name="Jeffers & Smith">{{cite book |author=Steven L. Jeffers; Harold Ivan Smith |title=Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief: A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care |publisher=Radcliffe Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=1846191815}}</ref>
* ...to create equality.<ref name="Jeffrey">{{cite book |author=David L. Jeffrey |title=A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1992 |isbn=0802836348}}</ref><ref name="Williams">{{cite book |author=Dana A. Williams |title="In the Light of Likeness-transformed": The Literary Art of Leon Forrest |publisher=Ohio State University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0814209947}}</ref><ref name="Muller">{{cite book |author=Jerry Z. Muller |title=Conservatism: An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0691037116}}</ref>
* ...to challenge oppression.<ref name="Nash & Stewart">{{cite book |author=Mary Nash; Bruce Stewart |title=Spirituality and Social Care: Contributing to Personal and Community Well-being |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=184310024X}}</ref>
* ...to distribute wealth.<ref name="Yao">{{cite book |author=Xinzhong Yao |title=An Introduction to Confucianism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0521644305}}</ref><ref name="Turner & Rojek">{{cite book |author=Bryan S. Turner; Chris Rojek |title=Society and Culture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity |publisher=SAGE |year=2001 |isbn=0761970495}}</ref>
* ...to be generous.<ref name="Goonewardene">{{cite book |author=Anil Goonewardene |title=Buddhist Scriptures |publisher=Harcourt Heinemann |year=1994 |isbn=0435303554}}</ref><ref name="Ferry">{{cite book |author=Luc Ferry |title=Man Made God: The Meaning of Life |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2002 |isbn=0226244849}}</ref>
* ...to contribute to the well-being and spirit of others.<ref name="Stephan & Pace">{{cite book |author=Eric G. Stephan; R. Wayne Pace |title=Powerful Leadership: How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life |publisher=FT Press |year=2002 |isbn=0130668362}}</ref>
* ...to help others,<ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Ferry" /> to help one another.<ref name="Steinberg">{{cite book |name=Dominique Moyse Steinberg|title=The Mutual-aid Approach to Working with Groups: Helping People Help One Another |publisher=Haworth Press |year=2004 |isbn=0789014629}}</ref><br>...to take every chance to help another while on your journey here.<ref name="Seaman" />
* ...to be creative and innovative.<ref name="Stephan & Pace" />
* ...to forgive.<ref name="Seaman" /><br>...to accept and forgive human flaws.<ref name="Caunt">{{cite book |author=John Caunt |title=Boost Your Self-Esteem |publisher=Kogan Page |year=2002 |isbn=0749438711}}</ref>
* ...to be emotionally sincere.<ref name="Cook">{{cite book |author=John Cook |title=The Book of Positive Quotations |publisher=Fairview Press |year=2007 |isbn=1577491696}}</ref>
* ...to be responsible.<ref name="Cook" />
* ...to be honorable.<ref name="Cook" />
* ...to seek peace.<ref name="Cook" />
* ...to be a true authentic human being.<ref name="Kultgen">{{cite book |author=John Kultgen |title=Autonomy and Intervention: Parentalism in the Caring Life |publisher=Oxford University Press US |year=1995 |isbn=0195085310}}</ref>

==== ...to love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living ====
* ...to love more.<ref name="Seaman" />
* ...to love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back.<ref name="Seaman" />
* ...to be glad of life.<ref name="Cook" />
* ...to treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.<ref name="Seaman" />
* ...to seek [[beauty]] in all its forms.<ref name="Seaman" />
* ...to have fun.<ref name="Stephan & Pace" /><br>...to enjoy life.<ref name="Cappannelli" />
* ...to seek pleasure<ref name="Cook" /> and avoid pain.<ref name="Mitchell">{{cite book |author=T. W. Mitchell |title=Problems in Psychopathology |publisher=Harcourt, Brace & company, inc. |year=1927}}</ref>
* ...to be compassionate.<ref name="Cook" />
* ...to be moved by the pain and sorrow of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion.<ref name="Seaman" />
* ...to love others as best we possibly can.<ref name="Seaman" />
* ...to love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.<ref name="Seaman" />
* ...to love God<ref name="Girard" /> and all of his creations.<ref name="Scully">{{cite book |author=John T. Scully |title=The Five Commandments |publisher=Trafford Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=1425119107}}</ref>
* ...to glorify God by enjoying him forever.<ref name="Piper">{{cite book |author=John Piper |title=Desiring God |publisher=Multnomah Books |year=2006 |isbn=1590521196}}</ref>

==== ...to attain spiritual enlightenment ====
[[Image:Paradiso Canto 31.jpg|thumb|120px|Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels; from [[Gustave Doré]]'s illustrations for the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'']]
* ...to reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine.<ref name="Halevi">{{cite book |author=[[Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi]] |title=The Work of the Kabbalist |publisher=Weiser |year=1993 |isbn=087728637X}}</ref>
* ...to have a pure soul and experience God.<ref name="Cook" />
* ...to understand the mystery of God.<ref name="Cappannelli" />
* ...to know God.<ref name="Girard">{{cite book |author=Michael Joachim Girard |title=Essential Believing for the Christian Soul |publisher=Xulon Press |year=2006 |isbn=1597815969}}</ref>
* ...to know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.<ref name="Mahadevan">{{cite book |author=T. M. P. Mahadevan |title=Philosophy: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy) |publisher=Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy, University of Madras |year=1974}}</ref>
* ...to attain union with God.<ref name="Kashmir Shaivism">{{cite book |author=Jaideva Singh |title=Vijñanabhairava|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2003 |isbn=8120808207}}</ref>

==== ...to have power, to be better ====
* ...to [[will to power|strive for power]]<ref name="Reginster" /> and superiority.<ref name="Mitchell" />
* ...to rule the world.<ref name="West">{{cite book |author=John G. West |title=Celebrating Middle-Earth: The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization |publisher=Inkling Books |year=2002 |isbn=1587420120}}</ref>
* ...to know and master the world.<ref name="Harrison">{{cite book |author=Peter Harrison |title=The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0521000963}}</ref><ref name="Dillon">{{cite book |author=Steven Dillon |title=The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2006 |isbn=0292713452}}</ref><br>...to know and master nature.<ref name="Aron">{{cite book |author=Raymond Aron |title=The Century of Total War |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2000 |isbn=0861711734}}</ref>
* ...to fill the Earth and subdue it.<ref name="Burke" /> ({{bibleverse||Genesis|1:28}})

==== One should not seek to know the meaning of life ====
* The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.<ref name="Tang" />
* You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.<ref name="Seaman" />
* To live a meaningful life, one must forget about the search for the meaning of life.<ref name="Seaman" />
* It's best to just get on with life and stop worrying about what it means.<ref name="Baggini" />

==== Life has no meaning ====
* Life or human existence has [[no real meaning]] or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.<ref name="Tang" />

* Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.<ref name="Seaman" />
* There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.<ref name="Seaman" />

<h4><small>Or its minimal counterpart:</small> Life has meaning</h4>
* ...uncertain, but there must be [[ietsism|something]]<ref>[http://richarddawkins.net/userComments,page1,6333 richarddawkins.net - Comments by John A. Michon]</ref><ref name="Fadul" />
{{refend}}


== See also ==
==Grease==
[[Image:Bacongrease.jpg|thumb|200px|Bacon frying in its own [[grease]]]]
<!-- Please insert links in alphabetical order and avoid repeating from the text above any but the most on-topic links. Thank you. -->
Bacon grease, also known as bacon drippings, is the [[Fat|grease]] created by cooking [[bacon]]. When bacon is cooked, its fat naturally melts, releasing a highly flavorful grease. Bacon grease is traditionally saved in [[southern U.S. cuisine]] and used as an all-purpose flavoring for everything from [[gravy]] to [[cornbread]]<ref name="Cornbread Gravy">{{citation | title=[[The Joy of Cooking]] | contribution=Pan Gravy | first=Irma | last=Rombauer | first2= Marion | last2 = Rombauer Becker| publisher=[[Penguin Group]] | year=1964 | pages = 322 | isbn = 0-452-26332-8 | location = USA}}</ref> to [[salad dressing]].<ref name="Bacon Vinaigrette">{{citation | first=Alton | last=Brown | title=Bacon Vinaigrette with Grilled Radicchio|url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,1977,FOOD_9936_17619,00.html | accessdate=2008-01-13}}</ref>
{{wikiquote|Life}}
{{wiktionary|meaning of life}}
{{portalpar|Personal life|Logo sociology.svg}}
{{portalpar|Philosophy|P philosophy.png}}
{{portalpar|Spirituality|P religion world.svg}}
{{col-begin|width=auto}}
{{col-break|width=400}}
==== Origin and nature of life and reality ====
<div class="thumbcaption">
* [[Awareness]]
* [[Being]]
* [[Entropy]]
** [[Entropy and life]]
** [[Self-organization]]
* [[Evolution]]
** [[Evolutionary psychology]]
** [[Gene-centered view of evolution]]
* [[Existence]]
* [[Life]]
** [[Abiogenesis]] &ndash; the origins of biological life
** [[Biosemiotics]]
** [[Vitalism]] &ndash; the doctrine that life springs from a '[[Élan vital|vital impetus]]' or 'spark', opposed by [[Mechanism (philosophy)|mechanism]]
* [[Logos]]
* [[Nature]]
** [[Metaphysical naturalism]]
** [[Teleology]]
* [[Perception]]
* [[Reality]]
** [[Cosmos]]
*** [[Cosmogony]]
** [[Multiverse]]
** [[Omniverse]]
** [[Simulated reality]]
** [[Universe]]
*** [[Big bang]]
*** [[Ultimate fate of the universe]]
</div>
{{col-break|width=300}}
==== Significance of life ====
<div class="thumbcaption">
* [[History]]
* [[Semiotics]]
</div>
==== Value in and of life ====
<div class="thumbcaption">
* [[Culture of life]]
* [[Bioethics]]
* [[Pro-life]] versus [[Pro-choice]]
* [[Quality of life]]
* [[Right to life]] versus [[Right to die]]
* [[Value of life]]
</div>


One [[teaspoon]] ({{convert|4|g|disp=/}}) of bacon grease has {{convert|38|Cal}}.<ref name = "Nutrition Data"/> It is composed almost completely of [[fat]], with very little additional nutritional value. Bacon fat is roughly 40% [[saturated fat|saturated]].<ref name="Nutrition Data">{{citation | title=Nutritional Summary for Animal fat, bacon grease | url=http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-C00001-01c21ru.html | access-date=2008-01-13}}</ref> Despite the health consequences of excessive bacon grease consumption, it remains popular in the cuisine of the [[American South]].
==== Purpose of life ====
<div class="thumbcaption">
* [[Destiny]]
* [[Ethical living]]
* [[Intentional living]]
* [[Life extension]]
* [[Means to an end]]
* [[Purpose]]
* [[Simple living]]
* [[Sustainable living]]
</div>
==== Miscellaneous ====
<div class="thumbcaption">
* [[Ideology]]
* [[Life stance]]
* [[Perennial philosophy]] &ndash; the universal recurrence of philosophical principles
* [[World riddle]]
* [[World view]]
</div>
{{col-end}}


== References ==
==See also==
{{reflist|3}}
{{commons|Bacon}}
*[[Back bacon]]
*[[Guanciale]]
*[[Lard]]
*[[Pancetta]]
*[[Salt pork]]
*[[Salo (food)|Salo]]


==References==
== External links ==
{{reflist}}
=== General ===
* http://www.imeanlife.com On this website you can help to find the meaning of life and you can read the opinion of other people.
* [http://www.meaningsoflife.com/ Meaningsoflife.com]
* [http://meaningoflife.tv/ Meaningsoflife.tv] &ndash; Video discussions on the ultimate meaning of life with various religious and philosophical leaders.
* [http://yudkowsky.net/tmol-faq/meaningoflife.html Frequently Asked Questions about the Meaning of Life]
* [http://onemancan.ca/2007/11/25/gods-will-meaning-life-love/ God's Will and The Meaning of Life: Creation is Love] &ndash; A highly-trafficked blog-post which suggests simplifying and synthesizing the possibility of science and spiritual teachings being accurate... and then some.
<!-- * [http://sysopmind.com/tmol-faq/tmol-faq.html The FAQ of life] &ndash; by [[Eliezer S. Yudkowsky]], [[Transhumanism|transhumanist]] &ndash; dead link, temporarily dead? Needs further checking. -->
* [http://www.rapidtables.com/tmol/index.htm The Meaning of Life and other questions]
* [http://users.aristotle.net/~diogenes/meaning1.htm The Meaning of Life (or, What's it all about?)] But first, let's consider... Why do you want to know the meaning of life?
* [http://www.scienceofsoulmates.com/meaning.htm Soulmates as The Meaning of Life]
* [http://www.theonequestion.com/ The One Question] &ndash; Free articles, exercises and tests on discovering purpose in life.
* [http://www.meaningoflifeis.com/ Answer to the meaning of life in one word] &ndash; followed by an explanation
* [http://soler7.com/IFAQ/MOLForum.html Some thoughtful answers to the question]


==External links==
=== Scientific ===
* [http://www.cookingforengineers.com/article.php?id=3&title=Bacon+%28Part+I%29 Cooking For Engineers - Cooking Tests: Bacon (Part I)] | [http://www.cookingforengineers.com/article.php?id=110&title=Bacon+%28Part+II%29 (Part II)]
* [http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/ Meaning and Happiness] &ndash; Research on meaning and happiness from the perspective of [[Positive psychology]].
* [http://homecooking.about.com/library/weekly/aa082701a.htm About.com- History of Bacon Part III]
* [http://richarddawkins.net/article,325,The-Big-Question-Why-are-we-here,Discovery-Science The Big Question: Why are we here?] &ndash; by [[Richard Dawkins]] <!-- Requires QuickTime Player 7 -->


{{Fatsandoils}}
=== Philosophical ===
* [http://www.rationalists.org/rc/1998_summer/einstein.htm Einstein's credo]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life-meaning/ "The Meaning of Life" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* [http://rationalphilosophy.net/meaning-of-life/ An Objective Philosophy: Why We Exist?] &ndash; by Martin G. Walker.
*[http://eneida.over-blog.net/ Hedonism & Meaning of life]
*[http://journal.ilovephilosophy.com/Article/The-Logic-of-Existential-Meaning/217 The Logic of Existential Meaning]
* [http://myweb.dal.ca/kernohan/godless A Guide for the Godless: The Secular Path to Meaning]


=== Spiritual ===
* [http://www.motherearthnews.com/Alternative-Energy/1978-07-01/A-Guide-for-Perplexed.aspx A Guide for the Perplexed (excerpt included)] &ndash; by [[E. F. Schumacher]]
* [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/MeaningofLife.htm The Meaning of Life (from a Jewish perspective)] &ndash; by Rabbi [[Noah Weinberg]]
* [http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/Books2/Dhammananda_Human_Life.htm Human Life] &ndash; by [[K. Sri Dhammananda]]
* [http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/Books/Bhikkhu_Buddhadasa_Handbook_for_Mankind.pdf Handbook for Mankind] &ndash; by [[Buddhadasa Bhikkhu]]
* [http://www.mormon.org Answers to Life's questions] &ndash; by [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]


[[Category:Cuts of pork]]
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[[Category:Philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Breakfast foods]]
[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:British cuisine]]
[[Category:Life]]
[[Category:Canadian cuisine]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Irish cuisine]]
[[Category:Religion and science]]
[[Category:Garde manger]]
[[Category:Metaphysics]]


[[cs:Smysl života]]
[[ar:باكون]]
[[be:Бекон]]
[[da:Meningen med livet]]
[[be-x-old:Бекон]]
[[de:Sinn des Lebens]]
[[fr:Sens de la vie]]
[[da:Flæsk]]
[[ko:인생의 의미]]
[[de:Speck]]
[[es:Panceta]]
[[he:משמעות החיים]]
[[hu:Az élet értelme]]
[[fr:Lard]]
[[ms:Makna hidup]]
[[ko:베이컨]]
[[nl:Zin van het leven]]
[[he:קותל חזיר]]
[[ja:人生の意義]]
[[nl:Spek]]
[[ja:ベーコン]]
[[no:Hva er meningen med livet]]
[[pl:Sens życia]]
[[no:Bacon]]
[[pt:Sentido da vida]]
[[pl:Boczek]]
[[pt:Toucinho]]
[[ru:Смысл жизни]]
[[simple:Bacon]]
[[sq:Kuptimi i jetës]]
[[fi:Pekoni]]
[[simple:Meaning of life]]
[[sk:Zmysel života]]
[[ru:Бекон]]
[[sv:Bacon]]
[[fi:Elämän tarkoitus]]
[[tr:Pastırma]]
[[sv:Meningen med livet]]
[[tr:Hayatın anlamı]]
[[uk:Бекон]]
[[zh:生命的意義]]
[[yi:שפעק]]
[[zh:煙肉]]

Revision as of 17:10, 24 December 2008

For other uses, see Meaning of life (disambiguation).
Look up bacon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Uncooked streaky bacon

Bacon is a cut of meat taken from the sides, belly, or back of a pig that has been cured, smoked, or both. Meat from other animals, such as beef, lamb, chicken, goat or turkey, may also be cut, cured, or otherwise prepared to resemble bacon. Bacon may be eaten fried, baked, or grilled, or used as a minor ingredient to flavor dishes. The word is derived from the Old High German bacho, meaning "back", "ham", or "bacon".

The USDA defines bacon as "the cured belly of a swine carcass"; other cuts and characteristics must be separately qualified (e.g., "smoked pork loin bacon").[1] "USDA Certified" bacon means that it has been treated for trichinella.

In continental Europe, bacon is used primarily in cubes (lardons) as a cooking ingredient, valued both as a source of fat and for its flavour. In Italy, bacon is called pancetta and usually cooked in small cubes or served uncooked and thinly sliced as part of an antipasto. Bacon is also used for barding and larding roasts, especially game birds. Many people prefer to have bacon smoked using various types of woods or turf. This process can take up to ten hours depending on the intensity of the flavour desired.

Cuts of bacon

Cooked rasher of streaky bacon
Uncooked back bacon

Rashers or slices differ depending where they are cut from:

  • Streaky bacon comes from the belly of a pig. It is very fatty with long veins of fat running parallel to the rind. This is the most common form of bacon in the United States. Pancetta is Italian streaky bacon, smoked or aqua (unsmoked), with a strong flavour. It is generally rolled up into cylinders after curing.
  • Back bacon comes from the loin in the middle of the back of the pig. It is a lean meaty cut of bacon, with relatively less fat compared to other cuts and has a ham-like texture and flavour. Most bacon consumed in the United Kingdom is back bacon. [2]
  • Middle bacon is much like back bacon but is cheaper and somewhat fattier, with a richer flavour.
  • Cottage bacon, thinly sliced lean pork meat from a shoulder cut that is typically oval shaped and meaty. It is cured and then sliced into round pieces for baking or frying.
  • Jowl bacon is cured and smoked cheeks of pork

Bacon joints include the following:

  • Collar bacon is taken from the back of a pig near the head.
  • Hock, from the hog ankle joint between the ham and the foot.
  • Gammon, from the hind leg, traditionally "Wiltshire cured".
  • Picnic bacon is from the picnic cut, which includes the shoulder beneath the blade.[3] It is fairly lean, but tougher than most pork cuts.

In the English-speaking world

A side of unsliced bacon is a flitch,[4] while an individual slice of bacon is a rasher (United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Australia and New Zealand) or simply a slice or strip (North America). Slices of bacon are also known as collops. Traditionally, the skin is left on the cut and is known as bacon rind, but rindless bacon is also common. In the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, bacon comes in a wide variety of cuts and flavours. In the United States, ordinary bacon is made only from the pork belly, yielding what is known in Britain as "streaky bacon", or "streaky rashers". In Britain, bacon made from the meat on the back of the pig is referred to as back bacon or back rashers. It usually includes a streaky bit and a lean ovoid bit, and is part of traditional full breakfast commonly eaten in Britain and Ireland. In the United States, back bacon is called Canadian-style bacon or Canadian bacon, but this term refers usually to the lean ovoid portion.[3] In Canada, it is called peameal bacon, whereas bacon is used generally to refer to strip bacon, which is more common to the Canadian diet.

In Asia

Korean samgyeopsal

In Korea, one of the most popular cooked meats is grilled unsmoked pork belly called samgyeopsal (삼겹살), literally "three layered meat". Like most traditional meat dishes in Korea, it is grilled at the table, cut into small pieces with scissors when partly or wholly cooked, and eaten communally. Koreans prize samgyeopsal meat with a high fat content, and pay a premium for meat that is especially fatty.

Bacon used as a topping

Chili Dogs topped with bacon

In the U.S. and Europe, bacon is often used as a condiment or topping on other foods. Streaky bacon is more commonly used as a topping in the U.S., on items such as pizza, salads, sandwiches, hamburgers, baked potatoes, hot dogs, and soups. Back bacon is used less frequently in the United States, but can sometimes be found on pizza, salads and omelets. Bacon bits are chopped pieces of pre-cooked bacon intended to be sprinkled over foods, particularly salads. Imitation "bacon bits" made of texturized vegetable protein flavoured to resemble authentic bacon bits are also available.

Health concerns

A 2007 study by Columbia University suggests a link between eating cured meats (such as bacon) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The preservative sodium nitrite is the probable cause.[5]

Nutrients

Select nutritional data from types of bacon in the USDA National Nutrient Database:[6]

Streaky bacon,
raw		 Streaky bacon,
cooked		 Canadian style
bacon, cooked		 Hormel Canadian
Style Bacon
Amount 1 slice     1 slice     2 slices     1 serving    
Total Weight (g) 29     8     47     56    
  Water (g) 3.57 (12%)     0.99 (12%)     29 (62%)     40.85 (73%)    
Calories 157     43     87     68    
Total Fat (g) 12.12     3.34     3.97     9.45    
  Saturated Fat (g) 3.984     1.099     1.335     1.025    
Cholesterol (mg) 32     9     27     27    
Sodium (mg) 670     185     727     569    
Protein (g) 10.74     2.96     11.39     9.45    

Grease

Bacon frying in its own grease

Bacon grease, also known as bacon drippings, is the grease created by cooking bacon. When bacon is cooked, its fat naturally melts, releasing a highly flavorful grease. Bacon grease is traditionally saved in southern U.S. cuisine and used as an all-purpose flavoring for everything from gravy to cornbread[7] to salad dressing.[8]

One teaspoon (4 grams (0.14 oz)*) of bacon grease has 38 calories (160 kJ).[9] It is composed almost completely of fat, with very little additional nutritional value. Bacon fat is roughly 40% saturated.[9] Despite the health consequences of excessive bacon grease consumption, it remains popular in the cuisine of the American South.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bacon.

References

  1. ^ United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service. USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service: Glossary B. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
  2. ^ Danish Bacon Company. Information and Statistics 2005. Retrieved 2007-07-20.
  3. ^ a b Cattleman's Beef Board & National Cattlemen's Beef Association. Uniform Retail Meat Identity Standards. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
  4. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Flitch [1] Retrieved 2008-03-29.
  5. ^ Too much bacon 'bad for lungs'. BBC News. 2007-04-17. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
  6. ^ USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Nutrient Data Laboratory. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. Retrieved 2007-07-12.
  7. ^ Rombauer, Irma; Rombauer Becker, Marion (1964), "Pan Gravy", The Joy of Cooking, USA: Penguin Group, p. 322, ISBN 0-452-26332-8
  8. ^ Brown, Alton, Bacon Vinaigrette with Grilled Radicchio, retrieved 2008-01-13
  9. ^ a b Nutritional Summary for Animal fat, bacon grease, retrieved 2008-01-13
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