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Communism (from Latin communis, 'common, universal')^[1]^[2] is a philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of a communist society, namely a socioeconomic order structured upon the ideas of common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money,^[3]^[4] and the state.^[5]^[6] Communism is a specific yet distinct form of socialism. Communists agree on the ultimate withering away of the state but disagree on the means to this end, reflecting a distinction between a more libertarian approach of communization, revolutionary spontaneity, and workers' self-management, and a more vanguardist or communist party-driven approach through the development of a constitutional socialist state.

Communism includes a variety of schools of thought which broadly include Marxism and anarcho-communism as well as the political ideologies grouped around both, all of which share the analysis that the current order of society stems from capitalism, its economic system and mode of production, namely that in this system there are two major social classes, the relationship between these two classes is exploitative, and that this situation can only ultimately be resolved through a social revolution.^[7] The two classes are the proletariat (the working class), who make up the majority of the population within society and must work to survive; and the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class), a small minority who derives profit from employing the working class through private ownership of the means of production. According to this analysis, revolution would put the working class in power and in turn establish social ownership of the means of production which is the primary element in the transformation of society towards communism.^[7]

In the 20th century, Communist governments espousing Marxism–Leninism and its variations came into power in parts of the world,^[8] first in the Soviet Union with the Russian Revolution of 1917, and then in portions of eastern Europe, Asia, and a few other regions after World War II.^[9] Along with social democracy, communism became the dominant political tendency within the international socialist movement by the 1920s.^[10] Criticism of communism can be divided into two broad categories, namely that which concerns itself with the practical aspects of 20th century Communist states^[11] and that which concerns itself with communist principles and theory.^[12] Some academics and economists, among other scholars, argue that the model under which these nominally Communist states in practice operated was not an actual communist economic model in accordance with most accepted definitions of communism as an economic theory but in fact a form of state capitalism,^[13]^[14]^[15] or non-planned administrative-command system.^[16]^[17]

Etymology

Communism derives from the French communisme which developed out of the Latin roots communis and the suffix isme.^[18] Semantically, communis can be translated to "of or for the community" while isme is a suffix that indicates the abstraction into a state, condition, action, or doctrine. Communism may be interpreted as "the state of being of or for the community". This semantic constitution has led to numerous usages of the word in its evolution. Prior to becoming associated with its more modern conception of an economic and political organization, the term was initially used in designating various social situations. The term ultimately came to be primarily associated with Marxism, most specifically embodied in The Communist Manifesto which proposed a particular type of communism.

One of the first uses of the word in its modern sense is in a letter sent by Victor d'Hupay to Restif de la Bretonne around 1785, in which d'Hupay describes himself as an auteur communiste ("communist author").^[19] In 1793, Restif first used the term communism to describe a social order based on egalitarianism and the common ownership of property.^[20] Restif would go on to use the term frequently in his writing and was the first to describe communism as a form of government.^[21] John Goodwyn Barmby is credited with the first use of the term in English, around 1840.^[18]

Communism and socialism

Since the 1840s, communism has usually been distinguished from socialism. The modern definition and usage of the latter would be settled by the 1860s, becoming the predominant term over the words associationist, co-operative, and mutualist which had previously been used as synonyms. Instead, communism fell out of use during this period.^[22]

An early distinction between communism and socialism was that the latter aimed to only socialise production, whereas the former aimed to socialise both production and consumption (in the form of free access to final goods).^[23] By 1888, Marxists employed socialism in place of communism which had come to be considered an old-fashioned synonym for the former. It was not until 1917, with the Bolshevik Revolution, that socialism came to refer to a distinct stage between capitalism and communism, introduced by Vladimir Lenin as a means to defend the Bolshevik seizure of power against traditional Marxist criticism that Russia's productive forces were not sufficiently developed for socialist revolution.^[24] A distinction between communist and socialist as descriptors of political ideologies arose in 1918 after the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party renamed itself to the All-Russian Communist Party, where communist came to specifically refer to socialists who supported the politics and theories of Bolshevism, Leninism, and later in the 1920s those of Marxism–Leninism,^[25] although communist parties continued to describe themselves as socialists dedicated to socialism.^[22]

Both communism and socialism eventually accorded with the cultural attitude of adherents and opponents towards religion. In Christian Europe, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life. In Protestant England, the word communism was too phonetically similar to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists.^[26] Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when The Communist Manifesto was first published, "socialism was respectable on the continent, while communism was not". The Owenites in England and the Fourierists in France were considered respectable socialists while working-class movements that "proclaimed the necessity of total social change" denoted themselves communists. This latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany.^[27] While democrats looked to the Revolutions of 1848 as a democratic revolution which in the long run ensured liberty, equality and fraternity, Marxists denounced 1848 as a betrayal of working-class ideals by a bourgeoisie indifferent to the legitimate demands of the proletariat.^[28]

According to The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx, "Marx used many terms to refer to a post-capitalist society—positive humanism, socialism, Communism, realm of free individuality, free association of producers, etc. He used these terms completely interchangeably. The notion that 'socialism' and 'Communism' are distinct historical stages is alien to his work and only entered the lexicon of Marxism after his death."^[29]

Associated usage

In countries like the United States, like socialism, communism is widely used as a pejorative term, mainly in reference to authoritarian communism and Communist states. The emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally Communist state led to communism's widespread association with Marxism–Leninism and the Soviet economic model.^[1]^[a]^[30] While the term Communist state is used by Western historians, political scientists and media to refer to countries ruled by communist parties, these states themselves did not describe themselves as communist or claim to have achieved communism: they referred to themselves as socialist states that are in the process of constructing communism.^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34] Terms used by Communist states include national-democratic, people's democratic, socialist-oriented, and workers and peasants' states.^[35]

History

Early communism

According to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece.^[36] The 5th-century Mazdak movement in Persia (modern-day Iran) has been described as "communistic" for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy; for criticizing the institution of private property; and for striving to create an egalitarian society.^[37]^[38] At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under the inspiration of Scripture.^[39] In the medieval Christian Church, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property.

Communist thought has also been traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his 1516 treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on common ownership of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of reason. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, where a Puritan religious group known as the Diggers advocated the abolition of private ownership of land.^[40] In his 1895 Cromwell and Communism,^[41] Eduard Bernstein argued that several groups during the English Civil War (especially the Diggers) espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals and that Oliver Cromwell's attitude towards these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile.^[41] Criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century through such thinkers as Jean Meslier, Étienne-Gabriel Morelly, Abbé de Mably, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau in France.^[42] During the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine under the auspices of Restif de la Bretonne, Sylvain Maréchal, and Gracchus Babeuf who can, according to James H. Billington, be considered the progenitors of modern communism.^[43]

In the early 19th century, various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. Unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the religious emphasis with a rational and philanthropic basis.^[44] Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony, Indiana, in 1825; and Charles Fourier, whose followers organized other settlements in the United States such as Brook Farm in 1841.^[1] In its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the proletariat—a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Karl Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels. In 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto.^[1]

Soviet Union

The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to state power of Vladimir Lenin's Bolsheviks which was the first time any avowedly communist party reached that position. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets in which the Bolsheviks had a majority.^[45]^[46]^[47] The event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development. However, Russia was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule.^[48]

The moderate Mensheviks (minority) opposed Lenin's Bolsheviks (majority) plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Bolsheviks' successful rise to power was based upon the slogans such as "Peace, bread and land" which tapped into the massive public desire for an end to Russian involvement in World War I, the peasants' demand for land reform and popular support for the soviets.^[49] The Soviet Union was established in 1922. Following Lenin's democratic centralism, the Leninist parties were organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base. They were made up only of elite cadres approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to party discipline.^[50] In the Moscow Trials, many old Bolsheviks who had played prominent roles during the Russian Revolution of 1917 or in Lenin's Soviet government afterwards, including Lev Kamenev, Grigory Zinoviev, Alexei Rykov and Nikolai Bukharin, were accused, pleaded guilty of conspiracy against the Soviet Union, and were executed.^[51]

Cold War

Countries of the world now (red) or previously (orange) having nominally Marxist–Leninist Communist governments

Its leading role in World War II saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as an industrialized superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and communist parties played a leading role in many independence movements. Marxist–Leninist governments modeled on the Soviet Union took power with Soviet assistance in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Hungary and Romania. A Marxist–Leninist government was also created under Josip Broz Tito in Yugoslavia, but Tito's independent policies led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Cominform which had replaced the Comintern and Titoism was branded "deviationist". Albania also became an independent Marxist–Leninist state after World War II.^[52] Communism was seen as a rival of and a threat to Western capitalism for most of the 20th century.^[53]

Some academics and journalists argue that anti-communist narratives have exaggerated the extent of political repression and censorship in states under communist rule, or have drawn comparisons with what they see as atrocities that were perpetrated by capitalist countries, particularly during the Cold War. They include Mark Aarons,^[54] Vincent Bevins,^[55] Noam Chomsky,^[56] Jodi Dean,^[57] Kristen Ghodsee^[58] Seumas Milne,^[59] and Michael Parenti.^[60] Rudolph Rummel and Mark Bradley have written that, while the exact numbers have been in dispute, the order of magnitude is not.^[61]^[62]^{[page needed]}

Dissolution of the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union was dissolved on December 26, 1991. It was a result of the declaration number 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union.^[63] The declaration acknowledged the independence of the former Soviet republics and created the Commonwealth of Independent States, although five of the signatories ratified it much later or did not do it at all. On the previous day, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev (the eighth and final leader of the Soviet Union) resigned, declared his office extinct and handed over its powers, including control of the Soviet nuclear missile launching codes, to Russian President Boris Yeltsin. That evening at 7:32, the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag.^[64] Previously from August to December 1991, all the individual republics, including Russia itself, had seceded from the union. The week before the union's formal dissolution, eleven republics signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, formally establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States and declaring that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist.^[65]^[66]

Post-Soviet communism

Walter Scheidel argues that despite wide-reaching government actions, Communist states failed to achieve long-term economic, social and political success.^[67] The experience of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the North Korean famine, and alleged economic underperformance when compared to developed free market systems are cited as examples of Communist states failing to build a successful state while relying entirely on what they view as "orthodox Marxism".^[68]^[69]^{[page needed]} Nevertheless, Philipp Ther says there was a general increase in the standard of living throughout Eastern Bloc countries as the result of modernisation programs under Communist governments.^[70] Branko Milanović posits that following the end of the Cold War many of those countries economies declined to such an extent during the transition to capitalism that they have yet to return to the point they were prior to the collapse of communism.^[71]

At present, states controlled by Marxist–Leninist parties under a single-party system include the People's Republic of China, the Republic of Cuba, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The Democratic People's Republic of Korea currently refers to its leading ideology as Juche, which is portrayed as a development of Marxism–Leninism. Communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in several other countries. The South African Communist Party is a partner in the African National Congress-led government, and the Communist Party of Brazil was a part of the parliamentary coalition led by the ruling democratic socialist Workers' Party until August 2016. In India as of March 2018^[update], communists lead the government of Kerala. In Nepal, communists hold a majority in the parliament.^[72]

China has reassessed many aspects of the Maoist legacy, and along with Laos, Vietnam and to a lesser degree Cuba, has decentralized state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. Chinese economic reforms were started in 1978 under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, and since then China has managed to bring down the poverty rate from 53% in the Mao era to just 6% in 2001.^[73] These reforms are sometimes described by outside commentators as a regression to capitalism, but the communist parties describe it as a necessary adjustment to existing realities in the post-Soviet world in order to maximize industrial productive capacity. In these countries, the land is a universal public monopoly administered by the state and so are natural resources and vital industries and services. The public sector is the dominant sector in these economies and the state plays a central role in coordinating economic development.^{[citation needed]}

Theory

Marxist communism

Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that frames capitalism through a paradigm of exploitation, analyzes class relations and social conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development and takes a dialectical view of social transformation. Marxism uses a materialist methodology, referred to by Marx and Engels as the materialist conception of history and now better known as historical materialism, to analyze and critique the development of class society and especially of capitalism as well as the role of class struggles in systemic economic, social and political change. First developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the mid-19th century, it has been the foremost ideology of the communist movement. Marxism does not lay out a blueprint of a communist society per se and it merely presents an analysis that concludes the means by which its implementation will be triggered, distinguishing its fundamental characteristics as based on the derivation of real-life conditions. Marxism considers itself to be the embodiment of scientific socialism, but it does not model an ideal society based on the design of intellectuals, whereby communism is seen as a state of affairs to be established based on any intelligent design. Rather, it is a non-idealist attempt at the understanding of material history and society, whereby communism is the expression of a real movement, with parameters that are derived from actual life.^[74]

According to Marxist theory, class conflict arises in capitalist societies due to contradictions between the material interests of the oppressed and exploited proletariat—a class of wage laborers employed to produce goods and services—and the bourgeoisie—the ruling class that owns the means of production and extracts its wealth through appropriation of the surplus product produced by the proletariat in the form of profit. This class struggle that is commonly expressed as the revolt of a society's productive forces against its relations of production, results in a period of short-term crises as the bourgeoisie struggle to manage the intensifying alienation of labor experienced by the proletariat, albeit with varying degrees of class consciousness. In periods of deep crisis, the resistance of the oppressed can culminate in a proletarian revolution which, if victorious, leads to the establishment of socialism—a socioeconomic system based on social ownership of the means of production, distribution based on one's contribution and production organized directly for use. As the productive forces continued to advance, socialism would be transformed into a communist society, i.e. a classless, stateless, humane society based on common ownership and distribution based on one's needs.

While it originates from the works of Marx and Engels, Marxism has developed into many different branches and schools of thought, with the result that there is now no single definitive Marxist theory.^[75] Different Marxian schools place a greater emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while rejecting or modifying other aspects. Many schools of thought have sought to combine Marxian concepts and non-Marxian concepts which has then led to contradictory conclusions.^[76] However, there is a movement toward the recognition that historical materialism and dialectical materialism remains the fundamental aspect of all Marxist schools of thought.^[38] Marxism–Leninism and its offshoots are the most well-known of these and have been a driving force in international relations during most of the 20th century.^[77]

Classical Marxism is the economic, philosophical and sociological theories expounded by Marx and Engels as contrasted with later developments in Marxism, especially Leninism and Marxism–Leninism.^[78] Orthodox Marxism is the body of Marxism thought that emerged after the death of Marx and which became the official philosophy of the socialist movement as represented in the Second International until World War I in 1914. Orthodox Marxism aims to simplify, codify and systematize Marxist method and theory by clarifying the perceived ambiguities and contradictions of classical Marxism. The philosophy of orthodox Marxism includes the understanding that material development (advances in technology in the productive forces) is the primary agent of change in the structure of society and of human social relations and that social systems and their relations (e.g. feudalism, capitalism and so on) become contradictory and inefficient as the productive forces develop, which results in some form of social revolution arising in response to the mounting contradictions. This revolutionary change is the vehicle for fundamental society-wide changes and ultimately leads to the emergence of new economic systems.^[79] As a term, orthodox Marxism represents the methods of historical materialism and of dialectical materialism and not the normative aspects inherent to classical Marxism, without implying dogmatic adherence to the results of Marx's investigations.^[80]

Marxist concepts

Class conflict and historical materialism

At the root of Marxism is historical materialism, the materialist conception of history which holds that the key characteristic of economic systems through history has been the mode of production and that the change between modes of production has been triggered by class struggle. According to this analysis, the Industrial Revolution ushered the world into capitalism as a new mode of production. Before capitalism, certain working classes had ownership of instruments utilized in production. However, because machinery was much more efficient, this property became worthless and the mass majority of workers could only survive by selling their labor to make use of someone else's machinery, thus making someone else profit. Accordingly, capitalism divided the world between two major classes, namely that of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.^[81] These classes are directly antagonistic as the latter possesses private ownership of the means of production, earning profit via the surplus value generated by the proletariat, who have no ownership of the means of production and therefore no option but to sell its labor to the bourgeoisie.

According to the materialist conception of history, it is through the furtherance of its own material interests that the rising bourgeoisie within feudalism captured power and abolished, of all relations of private property, only the feudal privilege, thereby taking the feudal ruling class out of existence. This was another key element behind the consolidation of capitalism as the new mode of production, the final expression of class and property relations that has led to a massive expansion of production. It is only in capitalism that private property in itself can be abolished.^[82] Similarly, the proletariat would capture political power, abolish bourgeois property through the common ownership of the means of production, therefore abolishing the bourgeoisie, ultimately abolishing the proletariat itself and ushering the world into communism as a new mode of production. In between capitalism and communism, there is the dictatorship of the proletariat, a democratic state where the whole of the public authority is elected and recallable under the basis of universal suffrage.^[83] It is the defeat of the bourgeois state, but not yet of the capitalist mode of production and at the same time the only element which places into the realm of possibility moving on from this mode of production.

Marxian economics

Marxian economics and its proponents view capitalism as economically unsustainable and incapable of improving the living standards of the population due to its need to compensate for falling rates of profit by cutting employee's wages, social benefits and pursuing military aggression. The communist system would succeed capitalism as humanity's mode of production through workers' revolution. According to Marxian crisis theory, communism is not an inevitability, but an economic necessity.^[84]

Socialization versus nationalization

An important concept in Marxism is socialization versus nationalization. Nationalization is state ownership of property whereas socialization is control and management of property by society. Marxism considers the latter as its goal and considers nationalization a tactical issue, as state ownership is still in the realm of the capitalist mode of production. In the words of Friedrich Engels, "the transformation ... into State-ownership does not do away with the capitalistic nature of the productive forces. ... State-ownership of the productive forces is not the solution of the conflict, but concealed within it are the technical conditions that form the elements of that solution."^[b]^[85] This has led some Marxist groups and tendencies to label states based on nationalization such as the Soviet Union as state capitalist.^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]

Leninist communism

Vladimir Lenin statue in Kolkata, West Bengal

We want to achieve a new and better order of society: in this new and better society there must be neither rich nor poor; all will have to work. Not a handful of rich people, but all the working people must enjoy the fruits of their common labour. Machines and other improvements must serve to ease the work of all and not to enable a few to grow rich at the expense of millions and tens of millions of people. This new and better society is called socialist society. The teachings about this society are called 'socialism'.
— Vladimir Lenin, To the Rural Poor (1903)^[86]

Leninism is the body of political theory, developed by and named after the Russian revolutionary and later-Soviet premier Vladimir Lenin, for the democratic organisation of a revolutionary vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat as political prelude to the establishment of socialism. Leninism comprises socialist political and economic theories developed from orthodox Marxism as well as Lenin's interpretations of Marxist theory for practical application to the socio-political conditions of the agrarian, early-20th-century Russian Empire.

Leninism was composed for revolutionary praxis and originally was neither a rigorously proper philosophy nor a discrete political theory. After the Russian Revolution and in History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics (1923), György Lukács developed and organised Lenin's pragmatic revolutionary practices and ideology into the formal philosophy of vanguard-party revolution. As a political-science term, Leninism entered common usage in 1922 after infirmity ended Lenin's participation in governing the Russian Communist Party. At the Fifth Congress of the Communist International in July 1924, Grigory Zinoviev popularized the term Leninism to denote "vanguard-party revolution".

Within Leninism, democratic centralism is a practice in which political decisions reached by voting processes are binding upon all members of the communist party. The party's political vanguard is composed of professional revolutionaries that elect leaders and officers as well as to determine policy through free discussion, then this is decisively realized through united action. In the context of the theory of Leninist revolutionary struggle, vanguardism is a strategy whereby the most class-conscious and politically advanced sections of the proletariat or working class, described as the revolutionary vanguard, form organizations in order to draw larger sections of the working class towards revolutionary politics and serve as manifestations of proletarian political power against its class enemies.

From 1917 to 1922, Leninism was the Russian application of Marxian economics and political philosophy, effected and realised by the Bolsheviks, the vanguard party who led the fight for the political independence of the working class. In the 1925–1929 period, Joseph Stalin established his interpretation of Leninism as the official and only legitimate form of Marxism in Russia by amalgamating the political philosophies as Marxism–Leninism which then became the state ideology of the Soviet Union.

Marxism–Leninism

Marxism–Leninism is a political ideology developed by Joseph Stalin.^[87] According to its proponents, it is based in Marxism and Leninism. It describes the specific political ideology which Stalin implemented in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and in a global scale in the Comintern. There is no definite agreement between historians of about whether Stalin actually followed the principles of Marx and Lenin.^[88] It also contains aspects which according to some are deviations from Marxism such as socialism in one country.^[89]^[90]

Social fascism was a theory supported by the Comintern and affiliated communist parties during the early 1930s which held that social democracy was a variant of fascism because it stood in the way of a dictatorship of the proletariat, in addition to a shared corporatist economic model.^[91] At the time, leaders of the Comintern such as Stalin and Rajani Palme Dutt argued that capitalist society had entered the Third Period in which a working-class revolution was imminent, but it could be prevented by social democrats and other fascist forces.^[91]^[92] The term social fascist was used pejoratively to describe social-democratic parties, anti-Comintern and progressive socialist parties and dissenters within Comintern affiliates throughout the interwar period. The social fascism theory was advocated vociferously by the Communist Party of Germany which was largely controlled and funded by the Soviet leadership from 1928.^[92]

During the Cold War, Marxism–Leninism was the ideology of the most clearly visible communist movement and is the most prominent ideology associated with communism.^[77] According to their proponents, Marxist–Leninist ideologies have been adapted to the material conditions of their respective countries and include Castroism (Cuba), Ceaușism (Romania), Gonzalo Thought (Peru), Guevarism (Cuba), Ho Chi Minh Thought (Vietnam), Hoxhaism (anti-revisionist Albania), Husakism (Czechoslovakia), Juche (North Korea), Kadarism (Hungary), Khmer Rouge (Cambodia), Khrushchevism (Soviet Union), Prachanda Path (Nepal), Shining Path (Peru) and Titoism (anti-Stalinist Yugoslavia).

Within Marxism–Leninism, anti-revisionism is a position which emerged in the 1950s in opposition to the reforms of Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Where Khrushchev pursued an interpretation that differed from Stalin, the anti-revisionists within the international communist movement remained dedicated to Stalin's ideological legacy and criticized the Soviet Union under Khrushchev and his successors as state capitalist and social imperialist due to its hopes of achieving peace with the United States. The term Stalinism is also used to describe these positions, but it is often not used by its supporters who opine that Stalin simply synthesized and practiced orthodox Marxism and Leninism. Because different political trends trace the historical roots of revisionism to different eras and leaders, there is significant disagreement today as to what constitutes anti-revisionism. Modern groups which describe themselves as anti-revisionist fall into several categories. Some uphold the works of Stalin and Mao Zedong and some the works of Stalin while rejecting Mao and universally tend to oppose Trotskyism. Others reject both Stalin and Mao, tracing their ideological roots back to Marx and Lenin. In addition, other groups uphold various less-well-known historical leaders such as Enver Hoxha, who also broke with Mao during the Sino-Albanian split.

Within Marxism–Leninism, social imperialism was a term used by Mao to criticize the Soviet Union post-Stalin. Mao argued that the Soviet Union had itself become an imperialist power while maintaining a socialist façade.^[93] Hoxha agreed with Mao in this analysis, before later using the expression to also condemn Mao's Three Worlds Theory.^[94]

Stalinism

Stalinism represents Stalin's style of governance as opposed to Marxism–Leninism, the socioeconomic system and political ideology implemented by Stalin in the Soviet Union and later copied by other states based on the Soviet model such as central planning, nationalization and one-party state, along with public ownership of the means of production, accelerated industrialization, pro-active development of society's productive forces (research and development) and nationalised natural resources. Marxism–Leninism remained after de-Stalinization whereas Stalinism did not. In the last letters before his death, Lenin warned against the danger of Stalin's personality and urged the Soviet government to replace him.^[38]

Marxism–Leninism has been criticized by other communist and Marxist tendencies. They argue that Marxist–Leninist states did not establish socialism, but rather state capitalism.^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17] According to Marxism, the dictatorship of the proletariat represents the rule of the majority (democracy) rather than of one party, to the extent that co-founder of Marxism Friedrich Engels described its "specific form" as the democratic republic.^[95] Additionally, according to Engels state property by itself is private property of capitalist nature^[b] unless the proletariat has control of political power, in which case it forms public property.^[c]^[85] Whether the proletariat was actually in control of the Marxist–Leninist states is a matter of debate between Marxism–Leninism and other communist tendencies. To these tendencies, Marxism–Leninism is neither Marxism nor Leninism nor the union of both, but rather an artificial term created to justify Stalin's ideological distortion,^[96] forced into the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Comintern. In the Soviet Union, this struggle against Marxism–Leninism was represented by Trotskyism which describes itself as a Marxist and Leninist tendency.

Maoism

Maoism is the theory derived from the teachings of the Chinese political leader Mao Zedong. Developed from the 1950s until the Deng Xiaoping Chinese economic reform in the 1970s, it was widely applied as the guiding political and military ideology of the Communist Party of China and as the theory guiding revolutionary movements around the world. A key difference between Maoism and other forms of Marxism–Leninism is that peasants should be the bulwark of the revolutionary energy which is led by the working class.^[97]

The synthesis of Marxism–Leninism–Maoism which builds upon the two individual theories as the Chinese adaption of Marxism–Leninism did not occur during the life of Mao. After de-Stalinization, Marxism–Leninism was kept in the Soviet Union while certain anti-revisionist tendencies such as Hoxhaism and Maoism argued that such had deviated from its original concept. Different policies were applied in Albania and China which became more distanced from the Soviet Union. From the 1960s, groups who called themselves Maoists, or those who upheld Maoism, were not unified around a common understanding of Maoism, instead having their own particular interpretations of the political, philosophical, economical and military works of Mao. Its adherents claim that as a unified, coherent higher stage of Marxism, it was not consolidated until the 1980s, first being formalized by the Peruvian communist party Shining Path in 1982.^[98] Through the experience of the people's war waged by the party, the Shining Path were able to posit Maoism as the newest development of Marxism.^[98]

Proponents of Marxism–Leninism–Maoism refer to the theory as Maoism itself whereas Maoism is referred to as either Mao Zedong Thought or Marxism–Leninism–Mao Zedong Thought. Maoism–Third Worldism is concerned with the infusion and synthesis of Marxism–Leninism–Maoism with concepts of non-Marxist Third-Worldism such dependency theory and world-systems theory.

Trotskyism

Trotskyism, developed by Leon Trotsky in opposition to Stalinism, is a Marxist and Leninist tendency that supports the theory of permanent revolution and world revolution rather than the two-stage theory and Joseph Stalin's socialism in one country. It supported proletarian internationalism and another communist revolution in the Soviet Union. Rather than representing the dictatorship of the proletariat, Trotsky claimed that the Soviet Union had become a degenerated workers' state under the leadership of Stalin in which class relations had re-emerged in a new form. Trotsky's politics differed sharply from those of Stalin and Mao Zedong, most importantly in declaring the need for an international proletarian revolution—rather than socialism in one country—and support for a true dictatorship of the proletariat based on democratic principles.

Struggling against Stalin for power in the Soviet Union, Trotsky and his supporters organized into the Left Opposition, the platform of which became known as Trotskyism. Stalin eventually succeeded in gaining control of the Soviet regime and Trotskyist attempts to remove Stalin from power resulted in Trotsky's exile from the Soviet Union in 1929. While in exile, Trotsky continued his campaign against Stalin, founding in 1938 the Fourth International, a Trotskyist rival to the Comintern. In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico City on Stalin's orders. Trotskyist currents include orthodox Trotskyism, third camp, Posadism, Pabloism and neo-Trotskyism.

In Trotskyist political theory, a degenerated workers' state is a dictatorship of the proletariat in which the working class's democratic control over the state has given way to control by a bureaucratic clique. The term was developed by Trotsky in The Revolution Betrayed and in other works. Deformed workers' states are states where the capitalist class has been overthrown, the economy is largely state-owned and planned, but there is no internal democracy or workers' control of industry. In a deformed workers' state, the working class has never held political power like it did in Russia shortly after the Bolshevik Revolution. These states are considered deformed because their political and economic structures have been imposed from the top (or from outside) and because revolutionary working class organizations are crushed. Like a degenerated workers' state, a deformed workers' state cannot be said to be a state that is transitioning to socialism. Most Trotskyists cite examples of deformed workers' states today as including Cuba, the People's Republic of China, North Korea and Vietnam. The Committee for a Workers' International has also included states such as Burma and Syria at times when they have had a nationalized economy.

Eurocommunism

Eurocommunism was a revisionist trend in the 1970s and 1980s within various Western European communist parties, claiming to develop a theory and practice of social transformation more relevant to their region. Especially prominent in Italy, France and Spain, communists of this nature sought to undermine the influence of the Soviet Union and its communist party during the Cold War.^[99] Enrico Berlinguer, secretary of the Italian Communist Party, was widely considered the father of Eurocommunism.^[100]

Libertarian Marxism

Libertarian Marxism is a broad range of economic and political philosophies that emphasize the anti-authoritarian aspects of Marxism. Early currents of libertarian Marxism, known as left communism,^[101] emerged in opposition to Marxism–Leninism^[102] and its derivatives such as Stalinism, Trotskyism and Maoism.^[103]

Libertarian Marxism is also critical of reformist positions such as those held by social democrats.^[104] Libertarian Marxist currents often draw from Marx and Engels' later works, specifically the Grundrisse and The Civil War in France,^[105] emphasizing the Marxist belief in the ability of the working class to forge its own destiny without the need for a revolutionary party or state to mediate or aid its liberation.^[106] Along with anarchism, libertarian Marxism is one of the main derivatives of libertarian socialism.^[107]

Aside from left communism, libertarian Marxism includes such currents as autonomism, communization, council communism, De Leonism, the Johnson–Forest Tendency, Lettrism, Luxemburgism Situationism, Socialisme ou Barbarie, Solidarity, the World Socialist Movement, workerism as well as parts of Freudo-Marxism and the New Left.^[108] Moreover, libertarian Marxism has often had a strong influence on both post-left and social anarchists. Notable theorists of libertarian Marxism have included Antonie Pannekoek, Raya Dunayevskaya, C. L. R. James, Antonio Negri, Cornelius Castoriadis, Maurice Brinton, Guy Debord, Daniel Guérin, Ernesto Screpanti, Raoul Vaneigem and Yanis Varoufakis,^[109] who claims that Marx himself was a libertarian Marxist.^[110]

Council communism

Council communism is a movement originating in Germany and the Netherlands in the 1920s, whose primary organization was the Communist Workers Party of Germany. Council communism continues today as a theoretical and activist position within both libertarian Marxism and libertarian socialism.

The core principle of council communism is that the government and the economy should be managed by Workers' councils which are composed of delegates elected at workplaces and recallable at any moment. As such, council communists oppose state-run authoritarian state socialism and state capitalism. They also oppose the idea of a revolutionary party since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party dictatorship. Council communists support a workers' democracy, produced through a federation of workers' councils.

Accordingly, the central argument of council communism in contrast to those of social democracy and Leninist communism is that democratic workers' councils arising in the factories and municipalities are the natural form of working-class organization and governmental power. This view is opposed to both the reformist and the Leninism ideologies which respectively stress parliamentary and institutional government by applying social reforms on the one hand and vanguard parties and participative democratic centralism on the other.

Left communism

Left communism is the range of communist viewpoints held by the communist left which criticizes the political ideas and practices espoused, particularly following the series of revolutions that brought World War to an end by Bolsheviks and social democrats. Left communists assert positions which they regard as more authentically Marxist and proletarian than the views of Marxism–Leninism espoused by the Communist International after its first congress (March 1919) and during its second congress (July–August 1920).^[111]

Left communists represent a range of political movements distinct from Marxist–Leninists, whom they largely view as merely the left-wing of capital; from anarcho-communists, some of whom they consider to be internationalist socialists; and from various other revolutionary socialist tendencies such as De Leonists, whom they tend to see as being internationalist socialists only in limited instances.^[112]

Bordigism is a Leninist left-communist current named after Amadeo Bordiga, who did consider himself a Leninist and has been described as being "more Leninist than Lenin".^[113]

Non-Marxist communism

The dominant forms of communism are based on Marxism, but non-Marxist versions of communism such as Christian communism and anarcho-communism also exist.

Anarcho-communism

Anarcho-communism is a libertarian theory of anarchism and communism which advocates the abolition of the state, private property and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production;^[114]^[115] direct democracy; and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need".^[116]^[117]

Anarcho-communism differs from Marxism in that it rejects its view about the need for a state socialism phase prior to establishing communism. Peter Kropotkin, the main theorist of anarcho-communism, argued that a revolutionary society should "transform itself immediately into a communist society", that it should go immediately into what Marx had regarded as the "more advanced, completed, phase of communism".^[118] In this way, it tries to avoid the reappearance of "class divisions and the need for a state to oversee everything".^[118]

Some forms of anarcho-communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are egoist and strongly influenced by radical individualism,^[119]^[120]^[121] believing that anarchist communism does not require a communitarian nature at all. Most anarcho-communists view anarchist communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.^[d]^[122]^[123] In human history to date, the best-known examples of an anarcho-communist society, i.e. established around the ideas as they exist today and that received worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon, are the anarchist territories during the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution, the Korean People's Association in Manchuria and the Spanish Revolution of 1936.

During the Russian Civil War, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked through the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine to create and defend anarcho-communism in the Free Territory of the Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921. In 1929, anarcho-communism was achieved in Korea by the Korean Anarchist Federation in Manchuria (KAFM) and the Korean Anarcho-Communist Federation (KACF), with help from anarchist general and independence activist Kim Chwa-chin, lasting until 1931, when Imperial Japan assassinated Kim and invaded from the south while the Chinese Nationalists invaded from the north, resulting in the creation of Manchukuo, a puppet state of the Empire of Japan. Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936 anarcho-communism existed in most of Aragon; parts of the Levante and Andalusia; and in the stronghold of Revolutionary Catalonia, before being brutally crushed.

Christian communism

Christian communism is a theological and political theory based upon the view that the teachings of Jesus Christ compel Christians to support religious communism as the ideal social system.^{[citation needed]} Although there is no universal agreement on the exact dates when communistic ideas and practices in Christianity began, many Christian communists claim that evidence from the Bible suggests that the first Christians, including the apostles, established their own small communist society in the years following Jesus' death and resurrection.^[124] As such, many advocates of Christian communism argue that it was taught by Jesus and practiced by the apostles themselves.^[125] Some historians confirm its existence.^[39]^[126]^[127]^[128]^[129]

Christian communism enjoys some support in Russia. Russian musician Yegor Letov was an outspoken Christian communist and in a 1995 interview was quoted as saying: "Communism is the Kingdom of God on Earth."^[130]

Reception

Communism echoes controversial reactions due to the actions of Communist states, which have been extensively criticized and comparison of Nazism and Stalinism have been made, which in turn led to criticism for being a form of double genocide theory and Holocaust trivialization. Historian Andrzej Paczkowski summarized communism as "an ideology that seemed clearly the opposite, that was based on the secular desire of humanity to achieve equality and social justice, and that promised a great leap of forward into freedom."^[131]

Anti-communism developed as soon as communism became a conscious political movement in the 19th century, and anti-communist mass killings have been reported against alleged communists, or their alleged supporters which were committed by anti-communists and political organizations or governments which opposed communism. The communist movement has faced opposition since it was founded and the opposition to it has often been organized and violent. Many of these anti-communist mass killing campaigns, primarily during the Cold War,^[54]^[55] were supported by the United States and its Western allies.^[132]^[133]

Memories studies

Various authors have written about the events of 20th-century Communist states, which have resulted in excess deaths, such as excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin. Some authors posit that there is a Communist death toll, whose death estimates vary widely, depending on the definitions of the deaths that are included in them, ranging from lows of 10–20 millions to highs over 100 millions, which have been criticized by several scholars as ideologically motivated and inflated; they are also criticized for being inaccurate due to incomplete data, inflated by counting any excess death, for making an unwarranted link with communism as the main culprit, and for the body counting itself. The higher estimates of mass killings account for the crimes that Communist governments committed against civilians, including executions, man-made famines, and deaths that occurred during, or resulted from, imprisonment and forced deportations and labor.^[134]^[135]^[136]^[137]^[138]^[139]

There is no consensus among genocide scholars and scholars of communism about whether some, most, or all the events constituted a mass killing. There is also no consensus on a common terminology,^[140] and the various events have been variously referred to as excess mortality or mass deaths; other terms that are used to define some of such killings include classicide, crimes against humanity, democide, genocide, politicide, and repression.^[141] Several scholars argue that most Communist states did not engage in mass killings,^[142] and some in particular, such as Benjamin Valentino,^[143] propose instead the category of Communist mass killing, alongside ethnic and colonial mass killing, as a subtype of dispossessive mass killing, in an attempt to distinguish it from coercive mass killing. Those scholars do not consider ideology or regime type as an important factor that explains mass killings.^[144]^[145] The double genocide theory is popular in Eastern European countries and the Baltic states, and their approaches of history have been incorporated in the European Union agenda,^[146] among them the Prague Declaration in June 2008 and the European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism, proclaimed by the European Parliament in August 2008 and endorsed by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe in July 2009; it is officially known as the Black Ribbon Day in several countries. Among many scholars in Western Europe, the comparison of the two regimes and the equation of their crimes has been and still is widely rejected.^[146]

Memory studies have been done on how the events are memorized.^[147] The victims of Communism narrative,^[148] as popularized by and named after the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation, has become accepted scholarship, as part of the double genocide theory, in Eastern Europe and among anti-communists in general^[149] but is rejected by most Western European and other scholars. It has been criticized by several scholars as an oversimplification and politically motivated as well as of Holocaust trivialization for equating the events with the Holocaust, positing a communist or red Holocaust.^[150] The narrative posits that famines and mass deaths by Communist states can be attributed to a single cause and that communism, as "the deadliest ideology in history", or in the words of Jonathan Rauch as "the deadliest fantasy in human history",^[151] represents the greatest threat to humanity. The proponents posit a link between communism, left-wing politics, and socialism with genocide, mass killing, and totalitarianism,^[152] with authors such as George Watson advocating a common history stretching from Karl Marx to Adolf Hitler.^[153] Some right-wing authors argue that Marx was responsible for Nazism and even the Holocaust.^[154] Authors such as Stéphane Courtois propose a theory of equivalence between class and racial genocide.^[155] It is supported by anti-communist organizations such as The Epoch Times, the Tribute to Liberty, and the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation, with 100 million being the most common estimate used from The Black Book of Communism, a controversial work which popularized the narrative.^[150] Various museums and monuments have been constructed in remembrance of the victims of Communism, with support of the European Union and various governments in Canada, Eastern Europe, and the United States.^[156]^[157] Works such as The Black Book of Communism and Bloodlands legitimized debates on comparison of Nazism and Stalinism,^[155]^[158] and by extension communism, and the former work in particular was important in the criminalization of communism.^[156]^[157]

References

Quotes

^ Busky, Donald F. 2000. Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Praeger. pp. 6–8: ISBN 978-0-275-96886-1. "In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.… [T]he adjective democratic is added by democratic socialists to attempt to distinguish themselves from Communists who also call themselves socialists. All but communists, or more accurately, Marxist-Leninists, believe that modern-day communism is highly undemocratic and totalitarian in practice, and democratic socialists wish to emphasise by their name that they disagree strongly with the Marxist-Leninist brand of socialism."
^ ^a ^b Engels, Friedrich. [1880] 1970. "Historical Materialism". "But, the transformation—either into joint-stock companies and trusts, or into State-ownership—does not do away with the capitalistic nature of the productive forces. In the joint-stock companies and trusts, this is obvious. And the modern State, again, is only the organization that bourgeois society takes on in order to support the external conditions of the capitalist mode of production against the encroachments as well of the workers as of individual capitalists. The modern state, no matter what its form, is essentially a capitalist machine—the state of the capitalists, the ideal personification of the total national capital. The more it proceeds to the taking over of productive forces, the more does it actually become the national capitalist, the more citizens does it exploit. The workers remain wage-workers—proletarians. The capitalist relation is not done away with. It is, rather, brought to a head. But, brought to a head, it topples over. State-ownership of the productive forces is not the solution of the conflict, but concealed within it are the technical conditions that form the elements of that solution."
^ Engels, Friedrich. [1880] 1970. ""Historical Materialism". "The proletariat seizes the public power, and by means of this transforms the socialized means of production, slipping from the hands of the bourgeoisie, into public property. By this act, the proletariat frees the means of production from the character of capital they have thus far borne, and gives their socialized character complete freedom to work itself out."
^ Kropotkin, Peter. "Communism and Anarchy". Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. "Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty—provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty, Anarchy ... Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work."

Citations

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^ Bukharin, Nikolai, and Yevgeni Preobrazhensky. [1920] 1922. "Distribution in the communist system." Pp. 72–73, § 20 in The ABC of Communism, translated by E. Paul and C. Paul. London: Communist Party of Great Britain. Available in e-text.
^ Bukharin, Nikolai, and Yevgeni Preobrazhensky. [1920] 1922. "Administration in the communist system." Pp. 73–75, § 21 in The ABC of Communism, translated by E. Paul and C. Paul. London: Communist Party of Great Britain. Available in e-text.
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^ Donald C. Hodges (1 February 2014). Sandino's Communism: Spiritual Politics for the Twenty-First Century. University of Texas Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-292-71564-6.
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^ ^a ^b Williams, Raymond (1985) [1976]. "Socialism". Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-1952-0469-8. OCLC 1035920683. The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such as social democrat or democratic socialist, became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.
^ Steele, David (1992). From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court Publishing Company. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-87548-449-5. One widespread distinction was that socialism socialised production only while communism socialised production and consumption.
^ Steele, David (1992). From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court Publishing Company. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-0-87548-449-5. By 1888, the term 'socialism' was in general use among Marxists, who had dropped 'communism', now considered an old fashioned term meaning the same as 'socialism'. ... At the turn of the century, Marxists called themselves socialists. ... The definition of socialism and communism as successive stages was introduced into Marxist theory by Lenin in 1917 ..., the new distinction was helpful to Lenin in defending his party against the traditional Marxist criticism that Russia was too backward for a socialist revolution.
^ Busky, Donald F. (2000). Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Praeger. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-275-96886-1. In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.
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^ Steele, David Ramsay (September 1999). From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court. p. 45. ISBN 978-0875484495. Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all.
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^ Scheidel, Walter (2017). "Chapter 7: Communism". The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691165028.
^ Scheidel, Walter (2017). The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-0691165028.
^ Natsios, Andrew S. (2002) The Great North Korean Famine. Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 1929223331.
^ Ther, Philipp (2016). Europe since 1989: A History. Princeton University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-691-16737-4. As a result of communist modernization, living standards in Eastern Europe rose.
^ Milanović, Branko (2015). "After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism". Challenge. 58 (2): 135–138. doi:10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402. S2CID 153398717. So, what is the balance sheet of transition? Only three or at most five or six countries could be said to be on the road to becoming a part of the rich and (relatively) stable capitalist world. Many of the other countries are falling behind, and some are so far behind that they cannot aspire to go back to the point where they were when the Wall fell for several decades.
^ "Nepal's election The Maoists triumph Economist.com". Economist.com. April 17, 2008. Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
^ "Fighting Poverty: Findings and Lessons from China's Success". World Bank. Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
^ Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. 1845. "Idealism and Materialism." Part 1A in The German Ideology I, transcribed by T. Delaney, B. Schwartz, and B. Baggins. § 5. "Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality [will] have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence."
^ Wolff and Resnick, Richard and Stephen (August 1987). Economics: Marxian versus Neoclassical. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-8018-3480-6. The German Marxists extended the theory to groups and issues Marx had barely touched. Marxian analyses of the legal system, of the social role of women, of foreign trade, of international rivalries among capitalist nations, and the role of parliamentary democracy in the transition to socialism drew animated debates. ... Marxian theory (singular) gave way to Marxian theories (plural).
^ O'Hara, Phillip (September 2003). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2. Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-415-24187-8. Marxist political economists differ over their definitions of capitalism, socialism and communism. These differences are so fundamental, the arguments among differently persuaded Marxist political economists have sometimes been as intense as their oppositions to political economies that celebrate capitalism.
^ ^a ^b "Communism". The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). 2007.
^ Gluckstein, Donny (26 June 2014). "Classical Marxism and the question of reformism". International Socialism. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
^ Rees, John (July 1998). The Algebra of Revolution: The Dialectic and the Classical Marxist Tradition. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-19877-6.
^ Lukács, Georg. What is Orthodox Marxism?. Marxism Internet Archive (1919): "What is Orthodox Marxism?". "Orthodox Marxism, therefore, does not imply the uncritical acceptance of the results of Marx's investigations. It is not the 'belief' in this or that thesis, nor the exegesis of a 'sacred' book. On the contrary, orthodoxy refers exclusively to method."
^ Engels, Friedrich. Marx & Engels Selected Works, Volume One, pp. 81–97, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1969. "Principles of Communism". No. 4 – "How did the proletariat originate?"
^ Engels, Friedrich. [1847] 1969. "Was not the abolition of private property possible at an earlier time?" Sec. 15 in Principles of Communism, (Marx/Engels Collected Works I, pp. 81–97). Moscow: Progress Publishers.
^ Thomas M. Twiss. Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy. Brill. pp. 28–29.
^ Free will, non-predestination and non-determinism are emphasized in Marx's famous quote "Men make their own history". The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852).
^ ^a ^b Engels, Friedrich. [1880] 1970. "Historical Materialism." Part 3 in Socialism: Utopian and Scientific, translated by E. Aveling (1892), (Marx/Engels Selected Works 3, p. 95–151). Progress Publishers.
^ "To the Rural Poor" (1903). Collected Works. vol. 6. p. 366.
^ Lisichkin, G. 1989. "Мифы и реальность, Новый мир" (in Russian). Novy Mir 3. p. 59.
^ Александр Бутенко (Aleksandr Butenko), Социализм сегодня: опыт и новая теория// Журнал Альтернативы, №1, 1996, pp. 2–22 (in Russian).
^ Contemporary Marxism (4–5). Synthesis Publications. 1981. p. 151: "[S]ocialism in one country, a pragmatic deviation from classical Marxism."
^ Erik, Cornell. "North Korea Under Communism: Report of an Envoy to Paradise." p. 169: "Socialism in one country, a slogan that aroused protests as not only it implied a major deviation from Marxist internationalism, but was also strictly speaking incompatible with the basic tenets of Marxism."
^ ^a ^b Haro, Lea (2011). "Entering a Theoretical Void: The Theory of Social Fascism and Stalinism in the German Communist Party". Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory. 39 (4): 563–582. doi:10.1080/03017605.2011.621248. S2CID 146848013.
^ ^a ^b Hoppe, Bert (2011). In Stalins Gefolgschaft: Moskau und die KPD 1928–1933 (in German). Oldenbourg Verlag. ISBN 978-3-486-71173-8.
^ "Mao, (1964), "On Khrushchev's Phoney Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World"". Retrieved January 23, 2009.
^ "Hoxha, E., (1979), "Imperialism and the Revolution: The Theory of 'Three Worlds': A Counterrevolutionary Chauvinist Theory"". Retrieved January 23, 2009.
^ A Critique of the Draft Social-Democratic Program of 1891, (Marx/Engels Collected Works 27, p. 217): "If one thing is certain it is that our party and the working class can only come to power under the form of a democratic republic. This is even the specific form for the dictatorship of the proletariat."
^ History for the IB Diploma: Communism in Crisis 1976–89. Allan Todd. p. 16. "The term Marxism–Leninism, invented by Stalin, was not used until after Lenin's death in 1924. It soon came to be used in Stalin's Soviet Union to refer to what he described as 'orthodox Marxism'. This increasingly came to mean what Stalin himself had to say about political and economic issues. ... However, many Marxists (even members of the Communist Party itself) believed that Stalin's ideas and practices (such as socialism in one country and the purges) were almost total distortions of what Marx and Lenin had said."
^ Meisner, Maurice (January–March 1971). "Leninism and Maoism: Some Populist Perspectives on Marxism-Leninism in China". The China Quarterly. 45 (45): 2–36. doi:10.1017/S0305741000010407. JSTOR 651881.
^ ^a ^b "On Marxism-Leninism-Maoism". MLM Library. Communist Party of Peru. 1982. Retrieved 20 January 2020.
^ Kingsley, Richard, ed. 1981. In Search of Eurocommunism. Macmillan.
^ Eurocomunismo, Enciclopedia Treccani
^ Pierce, Wayne. "Libertarian Marxism's Relation to Anarchism." Pp. 73–80 in The Utopian.
^ Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils. St. Petersburg, Florida: Red and Black Publishers. 2007. ISBN 978-0-9791813-6-8. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
^ Marot, Eric. "Trotsky, the Left Opposition and the Rise of Stalinism: Theory and Practice."
^ "The Retreat of Social Democracy ... Re-imposition of Work in Britain and the 'Social Europe'." Aufheben 8. Autumn. 1999.
^ Screpanti, Ernesto. 2007. Libertarian Communism: Marx Engels and the Political Economy of Freedom. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
^ Hal Draper (1971). "The Principle of Self-Emancipation in Marx and Engels". Socialist Register. 8 (8). Retrieved April 25, 2015.
^ Chomsky, Noam. "Government In The Future" (audio lecture). New York: Poetry Center of the New York YM-YWHA.
^ "A libertarian Marxist tendency map". libcom.org. Retrieved October 1, 2011.
^ Varoufakis, Yanis. "Yanis Varoufakis thinks we need a radically new way of thinking about the economy, finance and capitalism". Ted. Retrieved 14 April 2019. Yanis Varoufakis describes himself as a "libertarian Marxist
^ Lowry, Ben (11 March 2017). "Yanis Varoufakis: We leftists are not necessarily pro public sector – Marx was anti state". The Wews Letter. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
^ Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils (includes texts by Gorter, Pannekoek, Pankhurst and Rühle). St. Petersburg, FL: Red and Black Publishers. 2007. ISBN 978-0-9791813-6-8.
^ "The Legacy of De Leonism, part III: De Leon's misconceptions on class struggle". Internationalism. 2000–2001.
^ Piccone, Paul (1983). Italian Marxism. University of California Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-520-04798-3.
^ Alan James Mayne (1999). From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 316. ISBN 978-0-275-96151-0.
^ Anarchism for Know-It-Alls. Filiquarian Publishing. 2008. ISBN 978-1-59986-218-7.
^ Fabbri, Luigi (13 October 2002). "Anarchism and Communism. Northeastern Anarchist No. 4. 1922". Archived from the original on 29 July 2011.
^ Makhno, Mett, Arshinov, Valevski, Linski (Dielo Trouda) (1926). "Constructive Section". The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists. Archived from the original on July 29, 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b "What is Anarchist Communism?" by Wayne Price. Archived from the original on December 21, 2010. Retrieved January 19, 2011.
^ Gray, Christopher. Leaving the Twentieth Century. p. 88.
^ Novatore, Renzo. Towards the creative Nothing. Archived from the original on July 29, 2011.
^ Bob Black. Nightmares of Reason. Archived from the original on October 27, 2010. Retrieved November 1, 2010.
^ Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause). Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists. Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony.
^ "MY PERSPECTIVES – Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12". Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. "I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle."
^ Montero, Roman. "The Sources of Early Christian Communism". Church Life Journal. Retrieved 2021-03-26.
^ Kautsky, Karl (1953) [1908]. "IV.II. The Christian Idea of the Messiah. Jesus as a Rebel.". Foundations of Christianity. Russell and Russell. Christianity was the expression of class conflict in Antiquity.
^ Guthrie, Donald (1992) [1975]. "3. Early Problems. 15. Early Christian Communism". The Apostles. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-310-25421-8.
^ Renan, Ernest (1869). "VIII. First Persecution. Death of Stephen. Destruction of the First Church of Jerusalem". Origins of Christianity. Vol. II. The Apostles. New York: Carleton. p. 122.
^ Boer, Roland (2009). "Conclusion: What If? Calvin and the Spirit of Revolution. Bible". Political Grace. The Revolutionary Theology of John Calvin. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-664-23393-8.
^ Ellicott, Charles John; Plumptre, Edward Hayes (1910). "III. The Church in Jerusalem. I. Christian Communism". The Acts of the Apostles. London: Cassell.
^ "Егор Летов: Русский Прорыв".
^ Paczkowski, Andrzej (Spring 2001). "The Storm over the Black Book". The Wilson Quarterly. 25 (2): 28–34. JSTOR 40260182. Quotes at pp. 32–33.
^ Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South. Routledge. pp. 4, 20-23, 88. ISBN 978-0-415-68617-4.
^ McSherry, J. Patrice (2011). "Chapter 5: "Industrial repression" and Operation Condor in Latin America". In Esparza, Marcia; Henry R. Huttenbach; Daniel Feierstein (eds.). State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical Terrorism Studies). Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-415-66457-8.
^ Harff, Barbara (1996). "Death by Government by R. J. Rummel". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 27 (1): 117–119. doi:10.2307/206491. JSTOR 206491.
^ Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2001). "Review Article: Communism and Terror. Reviewed Work(s): The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, and Repression by Stephane Courtois; Reflections on a Ravaged Century by Robert Conquest". Journal of Contemporary History. 36 (1): 191–201. doi:10.1177/002200940103600110. JSTOR 261138. S2CID 49573923.
^ Paczkowski, Andrzej (2001). "The Storm Over the Black Book". The Wilson Quarterly. 25 (2): 28–34. JSTOR 40260182.
^ Weiner, Amir (2002). "Review. Reviewed Work: The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression by Stéphane Courtois, Nicolas Werth, Jean-Louis Panné, Andrzej Paczkowski, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Margolin, Jonathan Murphy, Mark Kramer". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 32 (3): 450–452. doi:10.1162/002219502753364263. JSTOR 3656222. S2CID 142217169.
^ Dulić, Tomislav (2004). "Tito's Slaughterhouse: A Critical Analysis of Rummel's Work on Democide". Journal of Peace Research. 41 (1): 85–102. doi:10.1177/0022343304040051. JSTOR 4149657. S2CID 145120734.
^ Harff, Barbara (2017), "The Comparative Analysis of Mass Atrocities and Genocide". In Gleditsch, N. P., ed. R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions. 37. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice. pp. 111–129. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54463-2_12. ISBN 9783319544632.
^ Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2008). "Problems in Comparative Genocide Scholarship". In Stone, Dan (eds). The Historiography of Genocide. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 42. doi:10.1057/9780230297. ISBN 978-0-230-29778-4. "There is barely any other field of study that enjoys so little consensus on defining principles such as definition of genocide, typology, application of a comparative method, and timeframe. Considering that scholars have always put stress on prevention of genocide, comparative genocide studies have been a failure. Paradoxically, nobody has attempted so far to assess the field of comparative genocide studies as a whole. This is one of the reasons why those who define themselves as genocide scholars have not been able to detect the situation of crisis."
^ Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). Crimes Against Humanity under Communist Regimes. Stockholm: Forum for Living History. ISBN 9789197748728.
^ Valentino, Benjamin (2005). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-801-47273-2. "Communism has a bloody record, but most regimes that have described themselves as communist or have been described as such by others have not engaged in mass killing."
^ Valentino, Benjamin (2005). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-801-47273-2. "I content mass killing occurs when powerful groups come to believe it is the best available means to accomplish certain radical goals, counter specific types of threats, or solve difficult military problem."
^ Straus, Scott (April 2007). "Review: Second-Generation Comparative Research on Genocide". World Politics. 59 (3). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 476–501. doi:10.1017/S004388710002089X. JSTOR 40060166. S2CID 144879341.
^ Atsushi, Tago; Wayman, Frank W. (2010). "Explaining the onset of mass killing, 1949–87". Journal of Peace Research. 47 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1177/0022343309342944. ISSN 0022-3433. JSTOR 25654524. S2CID 145155872.
^ ^a ^b "Latvia's 'Soviet Story'. Transitional Justice and the Politics of Commemoration". Satory. 26 October 2009. Retrieved 6 August 2021.
^ Kaprāns, Mārtiņš (2 May 2015). "Hegemonic representations of the past and digital agency: Giving meaning to 'The Soviet Story' on social networking sites". Memory Studies. 9 (2): 156–172. doi:10.1177/1750698015587151.
^ Neumayer, Laure (November 2017). "Advocating for the Cause of the 'Victims of Communism' in the European Political Space: Memory Entrepreneurs in Interstitial Fields". Nationalities Papers. 45 (6). Cambridge University Press: 992–1012. doi:10.1080/00905992.2017.1364230.
^ Dujisin, Zoltan (July 2020). "A History of Post-Communist Remembrance: From Memory Politics to the Emergence of a Field of Anticommunism". Theory and Society. 50 (January 2021): 65–96. doi:10.1007/s11186-020-09401-5. This article invites the view that the Europeanization of an antitotalitarian 'collective memory' of communism reveals the emergence of a field of anticommunism. This transnational field is inextricably tied to the proliferation of state-sponsored and anticommunist memory institutes across Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), ... [and is proposed by] anticommunist memory entrepreneurs.
^ ^a ^b Mastracci, Davide (21 July 2020). "The 'Memorial to the Victims of Communism' Should Be Bulldozed". Read Passage. Retrieved 20 December 2020. "This ideological process has consequences. As Katz notes, 'One major symptom of the revisionism underway in Eastern Europe is the rehabilitation of Nazi collaborators as 'national heroes' on the grounds that they were anti-Soviet.' This is also happening in Canada. ... They get that figure from The Black Book of Communism, a 1997 text that tallies up all of the ideology's supposed victims. The TL's website cites the book on numerous occasions, regardless of the fact that it has been widely debunked and was led by an editor who some of the book's contributors said was obsessed with reaching the 100 million deaths mark."
^ Rauch, Jonathan (December 2003). "The Forgotten Millions". The Atlantic. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
^ Mrozick, Agnieszka (2019). "Anti-Communism: It's High Time to Diagnose and Counteract". In Kuligowski, Piotr; Moll, Łukasz; Szadkowski, Krystian. "Anti-Communisms: Discourses of Exclusion". Praktyka teoretyczna. Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. 1 (31): 178–184. Retrieved 26 December 2020 – via Central and Eastern European Online Library. "First is the prevalence of a totalitarian paradigm, in which Nazism and Communism are equated as the most atrocious ideas and systems in human history (because communism, defined by Marx as a classless society with common means of production, has never been realised anywhere in the world, in further parts I will be putting this concept into inverted commas as an example of discursive practice). Significantly, while in the Western debate the more precise term 'Stalinism' is used – in 2008, on the 70th anniversary of the Ribbentrop–Molotov Pact, the European Parliament established 23 August as the European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism – hardly anyone in Poland is paying attention to niceties: 'communism', or simply the left, is perceived as totalitarian here. A homogenizing sequence of associations (the left is communism, communism is totalitarianism, ergo the left is totalitarian) and the ahistorical character of the concepts used (no matter if we talk about the USSR in the 1930s under Stalin, Maoist China from the period of the Cultural Revolution, or Poland under Gierek, 'communism' is murderous all the same) not only serves the denigration of the Polish People's Republic, expelling this period from Polish history, but also – or perhaps primarily – the deprecation of Marxism, leftist programs, and any hopes and beliefs in Marxism and leftist activity as a remedy for capitalist exploitation, social inequality, fascist violence on a racist and anti-Semitic basis, as well as homophobic and misogynist violence. The totalitarian paradigm not only equates fascism and socialism (in Poland and the countries of the former Eastern bloc stubbornly called 'communism' and pressed into the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union, which should additionally emphasize its foreignness), but in fact recognizes the latter as worse, more sinister (the Black Book of Communism (1997) is of help here as it estimates the number of victims of 'communism' at around 100 million; however, it is critically commented on by researchers on the subject, including historian Enzo Traverso in the book L'histoire comme champ de bataille (2011)). Thus, anti-communism not only delegitimises the left, including communists, and depreciates the contribution of the left to the breakdown of fascism in 1945, but also contributes to the rehabilitation of the latter, as we can see in recent cases in Europe and other places." Quote at pp. 178–179.
^ Grant, Robert (November 1999). "Review: The Lost Literature of Socialism". The Review of English Studies. 50 (200): 557–559. doi:10.1093/res/50.200.557.
^ Moll, Łukasz (2019). "Erasure of the Common: From Polish Anti-Communism to Universal Anti-Capitalism". In Kuligowski, Piotr; Moll, Łukasz; Szadkowski, Krystian. "Anti-Communisms: Discourses of Exclusion". Praktyka teoretyczna. Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. 1 (31): 118–145. Retrieved 26 December 2020 – via Central and Eastern European Online Library. "As we have learned lately from public television, when the two hundredth anniversary of Karl Marx's birthday was celebrated abroad, according to right-wing journalists Marx was responsible even for Nazism and the Holocaust (Leszczyński 2018). As former Foreign Minister in Law and Justice's government Witold Waszczykowski elaborated in an interview with German daily newspaper Bild:
We just want to heal our country of certain diseases. The previous government applied a left-wing concept. As if the world, according to the Marxist model, must move in only one direction, towards a mixture of cultures and a world of cyclists and vegetarians, which stands only for renewable energy and combating all forms of religion. This has nothing in common with traditional Polish values (Cienski 2017).

It is hard to find a better manifestation of right-wing all-encompassing anti-communism, which mixes together nearly all possible progressive discourses." Quote at pp. 126–127.
^ ^a ^b Jaffrelot, Christophe; Sémelin, Jacques, eds. (2009) Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide. Translated by Schoch, Cynthia. CERI Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-231-14283-0.
^ ^a ^b Ghodsee, Kristen (2014). "A Tale of 'Two Totalitarianisms': The Crisis of Capitalism and the Historical Memory of Communism" (PDF). History of the Present. 4 (2): 115–142. doi:10.5406/historypresent.4.2.0115. JSTOR 10.5406/historypresent.4.2.0115.
^ ^a ^b Neumayer, Laure (2018). The Criminalisation of Communism in the European Political Space after the Cold War. Routledge. ISBN 9781351141741.
^ Kühne, Thomas (May 2012). "Great Men and Large Numbers: Undertheorising a History of Mass Killing". Contemporary European History. 21 (2): 133–143. doi:10.1017/S0960777312000070. ISSN 0960-7773. JSTOR 41485456.

Bibliography

Bernstein, Eduard (1895). Kommunistische und demokratisch-sozialistische Strömungen während der englischen Revolution [Cromwell and Communism: Socialism And Democracy in the Great English Revolution]. Stuttgart: J.H.W. Dietz. OCLC 36367345. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
Holmes, Leslie (2009). Communism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955154-5.
Lansford, Tom (2007). Communism. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-2628-8.
Link, Theodore (2004). Communism: A Primary Source Analysis. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-4517-7.
Rabinowitch, Alexander (2004). The Bolsheviks come to power: the Revolution of 1917 in Petrograd. Pluto Press.
"Ci–Cz Volume 4". World Book. Chicago: World Book, Inc. 2008. ISBN 978-0-7166-0108-1.

External links

Communism. Encyclopædia Britannica.
Libcom.org. Library of almost 20,000 articles, books, pamphlets and journals on libertarian communism.
"Communism" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
Lindsay, Samuel McCune (1905). "Communism" . New International Encyclopedia.
The Radical Pamphlet Collection at the Library of Congress contains materials on the topic of communism.

[30] Busky, Donald F. 2000. Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. Praeger. pp. 6–8: ISBN 978-0-275-96886-1. "In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.… [T]he adjective democratic is added by democratic socialists to attempt to distinguish themselves from Communists who also call themselves socialists. All but communists, or more accurately, Marxist-Leninists, believe that modern-day communism is highly undemocratic and totalitarian in practice, and democratic socialists wish to emphasise by their name that they disagree strongly with the Marxist-Leninist brand of socialism."

[:0-86] Engels, Friedrich. [1880] 1970. "Historical Materialism". "But, the transformation—either into joint-stock companies and trusts, or into State-ownership—does not do away with the capitalistic nature of the productive forces. In the joint-stock companies and trusts, this is obvious. And the modern State, again, is only the organization that bourgeois society takes on in order to support the external conditions of the capitalist mode of production against the encroachments as well of the workers as of individual capitalists. The modern state, no matter what its form, is essentially a capitalist machine—the state of the capitalists, the ideal personification of the total national capital. The more it proceeds to the taking over of productive forces, the more does it actually become the national capitalist, the more citizens does it exploit. The workers remain wage-workers—proletarians. The capitalist relation is not done away with. It is, rather, brought to a head. But, brought to a head, it topples over. State-ownership of the productive forces is not the solution of the conflict, but concealed within it are the technical conditions that form the elements of that solution."

[98] Engels, Friedrich. [1880] 1970. ""Historical Materialism". "The proletariat seizes the public power, and by means of this transforms the socialized means of production, slipping from the hands of the bourgeoisie, into public property. By this act, the proletariat frees the means of production from the character of capital they have thus far borne, and gives their socialized character complete freedom to work itself out."

[125] Kropotkin, Peter. "Communism and Anarchy". Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. "Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty—provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty, Anarchy ... Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work."

[:0-1] Ball, Terence, and Richard Dagger. [1999] 2019. "Communism" (revised ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 10 June 2020.

[2] "Communism." p. 890 in World Book Volume 4 (Ci–Cz). Chicago: World Book, Inc. 2008. ISBN 978-0-7166-0108-1.

[3] Engels, Friedrich. [1847] 2005. "What will be the course of this revolution?" Sec. 18 in Principles of Communism, translated by P. Sweezy. Marxists Internet Archive. "Finally, when all capital, all production, all exchange have been brought together in the hands of the nation, private property will disappear of its own accord, money will become superfluous, and production will so expand and man so change that society will be able to slough off whatever of its old economic habits may remain."

[4] Bukharin, Nikolai, and Yevgeni Preobrazhensky. [1920] 1922. "Distribution in the communist system." Pp. 72–73, § 20 in The ABC of Communism, translated by E. Paul and C. Paul. London: Communist Party of Great Britain. Available in e-text.

[5] Bukharin, Nikolai, and Yevgeni Preobrazhensky. [1920] 1922. "Administration in the communist system." Pp. 73–75, § 21 in The ABC of Communism, translated by E. Paul and C. Paul. London: Communist Party of Great Britain. Available in e-text.

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[23] Steele, David (1992). From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court Publishing Company. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-87548-449-5. One widespread distinction was that socialism socialised production only while communism socialised production and consumption.

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[142] Dulić, Tomislav (2004). "Tito's Slaughterhouse: A Critical Analysis of Rummel's Work on Democide". Journal of Peace Research. 41 (1): 85–102. doi:10.1177/0022343304040051. JSTOR 4149657. S2CID 145120734.

[143] Harff, Barbara (2017), "The Comparative Analysis of Mass Atrocities and Genocide". In Gleditsch, N. P., ed. R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions. 37. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice. pp. 111–129. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54463-2_12. ISBN 9783319544632.

[144] Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2008). "Problems in Comparative Genocide Scholarship". In Stone, Dan (eds). The Historiography of Genocide. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 42. doi:10.1057/9780230297. ISBN 978-0-230-29778-4. "There is barely any other field of study that enjoys so little consensus on defining principles such as definition of genocide, typology, application of a comparative method, and timeframe. Considering that scholars have always put stress on prevention of genocide, comparative genocide studies have been a failure. Paradoxically, nobody has attempted so far to assess the field of comparative genocide studies as a whole. This is one of the reasons why those who define themselves as genocide scholars have not been able to detect the situation of crisis."

[145] Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). Crimes Against Humanity under Communist Regimes. Stockholm: Forum for Living History. ISBN 9789197748728.

[146] Valentino, Benjamin (2005). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-801-47273-2. "Communism has a bloody record, but most regimes that have described themselves as communist or have been described as such by others have not engaged in mass killing."

[147] Valentino, Benjamin (2005). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-801-47273-2. "I content mass killing occurs when powerful groups come to believe it is the best available means to accomplish certain radical goals, counter specific types of threats, or solve difficult military problem."

[148] Straus, Scott (April 2007). "Review: Second-Generation Comparative Research on Genocide". World Politics. 59 (3). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 476–501. doi:10.1017/S004388710002089X. JSTOR 40060166. S2CID 144879341.

[149] Atsushi, Tago; Wayman, Frank W. (2010). "Explaining the onset of mass killing, 1949–87". Journal of Peace Research. 47 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1177/0022343309342944. ISSN 0022-3433. JSTOR 25654524. S2CID 145155872.

[Satori-150] "Latvia's 'Soviet Story'. Transitional Justice and the Politics of Commemoration". Satory. 26 October 2009. Retrieved 6 August 2021.

[151] Kaprāns, Mārtiņš (2 May 2015). "Hegemonic representations of the past and digital agency: Giving meaning to 'The Soviet Story' on social networking sites". Memory Studies. 9 (2): 156–172. doi:10.1177/1750698015587151.

[152] Neumayer, Laure (November 2017). "Advocating for the Cause of the 'Victims of Communism' in the European Political Space: Memory Entrepreneurs in Interstitial Fields". Nationalities Papers. 45 (6). Cambridge University Press: 992–1012. doi:10.1080/00905992.2017.1364230.

[153] Dujisin, Zoltan (July 2020). "A History of Post-Communist Remembrance: From Memory Politics to the Emergence of a Field of Anticommunism". Theory and Society. 50 (January 2021): 65–96. doi:10.1007/s11186-020-09401-5. This article invites the view that the Europeanization of an antitotalitarian 'collective memory' of communism reveals the emergence of a field of anticommunism. This transnational field is inextricably tied to the proliferation of state-sponsored and anticommunist memory institutes across Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), ... [and is proposed by] anticommunist memory entrepreneurs.

[Mastracci_2020-154] Mastracci, Davide (21 July 2020). "The 'Memorial to the Victims of Communism' Should Be Bulldozed". Read Passage. Retrieved 20 December 2020. "This ideological process has consequences. As Katz notes, 'One major symptom of the revisionism underway in Eastern Europe is the rehabilitation of Nazi collaborators as 'national heroes' on the grounds that they were anti-Soviet.' This is also happening in Canada. ... They get that figure from The Black Book of Communism, a 1997 text that tallies up all of the ideology's supposed victims. The TL's website cites the book on numerous occasions, regardless of the fact that it has been widely debunked and was led by an editor who some of the book's contributors said was obsessed with reaching the 100 million deaths mark."

[155] Rauch, Jonathan (December 2003). "The Forgotten Millions". The Atlantic. Retrieved 20 December 2020.

[156] Mrozick, Agnieszka (2019). "Anti-Communism: It's High Time to Diagnose and Counteract". In Kuligowski, Piotr; Moll, Łukasz; Szadkowski, Krystian. "Anti-Communisms: Discourses of Exclusion". Praktyka teoretyczna. Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. 1 (31): 178–184. Retrieved 26 December 2020 – via Central and Eastern European Online Library. "First is the prevalence of a totalitarian paradigm, in which Nazism and Communism are equated as the most atrocious ideas and systems in human history (because communism, defined by Marx as a classless society with common means of production, has never been realised anywhere in the world, in further parts I will be putting this concept into inverted commas as an example of discursive practice). Significantly, while in the Western debate the more precise term 'Stalinism' is used – in 2008, on the 70th anniversary of the Ribbentrop–Molotov Pact, the European Parliament established 23 August as the European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism – hardly anyone in Poland is paying attention to niceties: 'communism', or simply the left, is perceived as totalitarian here. A homogenizing sequence of associations (the left is communism, communism is totalitarianism, ergo the left is totalitarian) and the ahistorical character of the concepts used (no matter if we talk about the USSR in the 1930s under Stalin, Maoist China from the period of the Cultural Revolution, or Poland under Gierek, 'communism' is murderous all the same) not only serves the denigration of the Polish People's Republic, expelling this period from Polish history, but also – or perhaps primarily – the deprecation of Marxism, leftist programs, and any hopes and beliefs in Marxism and leftist activity as a remedy for capitalist exploitation, social inequality, fascist violence on a racist and anti-Semitic basis, as well as homophobic and misogynist violence. The totalitarian paradigm not only equates fascism and socialism (in Poland and the countries of the former Eastern bloc stubbornly called 'communism' and pressed into the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union, which should additionally emphasize its foreignness), but in fact recognizes the latter as worse, more sinister (the Black Book of Communism (1997) is of help here as it estimates the number of victims of 'communism' at around 100 million; however, it is critically commented on by researchers on the subject, including historian Enzo Traverso in the book L'histoire comme champ de bataille (2011)). Thus, anti-communism not only delegitimises the left, including communists, and depreciates the contribution of the left to the breakdown of fascism in 1945, but also contributes to the rehabilitation of the latter, as we can see in recent cases in Europe and other places." Quote at pp. 178–179.

[157] Grant, Robert (November 1999). "Review: The Lost Literature of Socialism". The Review of English Studies. 50 (200): 557–559. doi:10.1093/res/50.200.557.

[158] Moll, Łukasz (2019). "Erasure of the Common: From Polish Anti-Communism to Universal Anti-Capitalism". In Kuligowski, Piotr; Moll, Łukasz; Szadkowski, Krystian. "Anti-Communisms: Discourses of Exclusion". Praktyka teoretyczna. Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. 1 (31): 118–145. Retrieved 26 December 2020 – via Central and Eastern European Online Library. "As we have learned lately from public television, when the two hundredth anniversary of Karl Marx's birthday was celebrated abroad, according to right-wing journalists Marx was responsible even for Nazism and the Holocaust (Leszczyński 2018). As former Foreign Minister in Law and Justice's government Witold Waszczykowski elaborated in an interview with German daily newspaper Bild:
We just want to heal our country of certain diseases. The previous government applied a left-wing concept. As if the world, according to the Marxist model, must move in only one direction, towards a mixture of cultures and a world of cyclists and vegetarians, which stands only for renewable energy and combating all forms of religion. This has nothing in common with traditional Polish values (Cienski 2017).

It is hard to find a better manifestation of right-wing all-encompassing anti-communism, which mixes together nearly all possible progressive discourses." Quote at pp. 126–127.

[Jaffrelot_&_Sémelin_2009-159] Jaffrelot, Christophe; Sémelin, Jacques, eds. (2009) Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide. Translated by Schoch, Cynthia. CERI Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-231-14283-0.

[Ghodsee_2014-160] Ghodsee, Kristen (2014). "A Tale of 'Two Totalitarianisms': The Crisis of Capitalism and the Historical Memory of Communism" (PDF). History of the Present. 4 (2): 115–142. doi:10.5406/historypresent.4.2.0115. JSTOR 10.5406/historypresent.4.2.0115.

[Neumayer_2018-161] Neumayer, Laure (2018). The Criminalisation of Communism in the European Political Space after the Cold War. Routledge. ISBN 9781351141741.

[162] Kühne, Thomas (May 2012). "Great Men and Large Numbers: Undertheorising a History of Mass Killing". Contemporary European History. 21 (2): 133–143. doi:10.1017/S0960777312000070. ISSN 0960-7773. JSTOR 41485456.

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@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 {{communism sidebar|all}}
 {{party politics}}
 '''Communism''' (from [[Latin]] {{lang-la|communis|lit=common, universal|label=none}})<ref name=":0">Ball, Terence, and Richard Dagger. [1999] 2019. "[https://www.britannica.com/topic/communism Communism]" (revised ed.). [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. Retrieved 10 June 2020.</ref><ref>"Communism." p. 890 in ''[[World Book Encyclopedia|World Book]] Volume 4 (Ci–Cz)''. Chicago: World Book, Inc. 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-7166-0108-1}}.</ref> is a [[Political philosophy|philosophical]], [[Social philosophy|social]], [[Political movement|political]], and [[economic ideology|economic]] ideology and [[Political movement|movement]] whose ultimate goal is the establishment of a [[communist society]], namely a [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] order structured upon the ideas of [[common ownership]] of the [[means of production]] and the absence of [[social class]]es, [[money]],<ref>[[Friedrich Engels|Engels, Friedrich]]. [1847] 2005. "[https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm#18 What will be the course of this revolution?]" Sec. 18 in ''[[Principles of Communism]]'', translated by [[Paul Sweezy|P. Sweezy]]. [[Marxists Internet Archive]]. "Finally, when all capital, all production, all exchange have been brought together in the hands of the nation, private property will disappear of its own accord, money will become superfluous, and production will so expand and man so change that society will be able to slough off whatever of its old economic habits may remain."</ref><ref>[[Nikolai Bukharin|Bukharin, Nikolai]], and [[Yevgeni Preobrazhensky]]. [1920] 1922. "[https://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1920/abc/ABC-of-Communism.pdf#page=67 Distribution in the communist system]." Pp. 72–73, § 20 in ''[[The ABC of Communism]]'', translated by [[Eden Paul|E. Paul]] and [[Cedar Paul|C. Paul]]. London: [[Communist Party of Great Britain]]. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1920/abc/03.htm#020 Available in e-text].</ref> and the [[State (polity)|state]].<ref>[[Nikolai Bukharin|Bukharin, Nikolai]], and [[Yevgeni Preobrazhensky]]. [1920] 1922. "[https://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1920/abc/ABC-of-Communism.pdf#page=67 Administration in the communist system]." Pp. 73–75, § 21 in ''[[The ABC of Communism]]'', translated by [[Eden Paul|E. Paul]] and [[Cedar Paul|C. Paul]]. London: [[Communist Party of Great Britain]]. [https://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1920/abc/03.htm#021 Available in e-text].</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Political Science|publisher=CQ Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-933116-44-0|editor=Kurian, George Thomas|chapter=Withering Away of the State|doi=10.4135/9781608712434|access-date=January 3, 2016|chapter-url=http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-encyclopedia-of-political-science}}</ref> Communism is a specific yet distinct form of [[socialism]]. Communists agree on the ultimate [[withering away of the state]] but disagree on the means to this end, reflecting a distinction between a more [[libertarian]] approach of [[communization]], [[revolutionary spontaneity]], and [[workers' self-management]], and a more [[vanguardist]] or [[communist party]]-driven approach through the development of a constitutional [[socialist state]].
 Communism includes a variety of [[List of communist ideologies|schools of thought]] which broadly include [[Marxism]] and [[anarcho-communism]] as well as the [[political ideologies]] grouped around both, all of which share the analysis that the current order of society stems from [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalism]], its [[economic system]] and [[mode of production]], namely that in this system there are two major social classes, the relationship between these two classes is exploitative, and that this situation can only ultimately be resolved through a [[social revolution]].<ref name="Marx & Engels 1848">Marx, Karl, and [[Friedrich Engels]]. [1848] 1969. "[https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm#007 Bourgeois and Proletarians]." Ch. 1 in ''[[The Communist Manifesto|Manifesto of the Communist Party]]'', (''Marx/Engels Selected Works'' 1, pp. 98–137), translated by [[Samuel Moore (translator of Das Kapital)|S. Moore]]. Moscow: [[Progress Publishers]]. Retrieved 10 June 2020.</ref> The two classes are the [[proletariat]] (the [[working class]]), who make up the majority of the population within society and must work to survive; and the [[bourgeoisie]] (the [[capitalist]] class), a small minority who derives profit from employing the working class through [[private ownership]] of the means of production. According to this analysis, [[Communist revolution|revolution]] would put the working class in power and in turn establish [[social ownership]] of the means of production which is the primary element in the transformation of society towards [[Socialist mode of production|communism]].<ref name="Marx & Engels 1848"/>
-In the 20th century, communist governments espousing [[Marxism–Leninism]] and its variations came into power in parts of the world,<ref>Smith, Stephen. ''The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism''. Oxford University Press, 2014. p.3</ref> first in the [[Soviet Union]] with the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], and then in portions of eastern Europe, Asia, and a few other regions after [[World War II]].<ref>"Communism." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by William A. Darity, Jr., 2nd ed., vol. 2, Macmillan Reference USA, 2008, pp. 35-36.</ref> Along with [[social democracy]], communism became the dominant political tendency within the international [[socialist movement]] by the 1920s.<ref>Newman, Michael. 2005. ''Socialism: A Very Short Introduction''. [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 5: "Chapter 1 looks at the foundations of the doctrine by examining the contribution made by various traditions of socialism in the period between the early 19th century and the aftermath of the First World War. The two forms that emerged as dominant by the early 1920s were social democracy and communism."</ref> Some economists and intellectuals argue that the model under which these nominally communist states in practice operated was not an actual communist economic model in accordance with most accepted definitions of ''communism'' as an economic theory but in fact a form of [[state capitalism]],<ref name="Chomsky 1986">[[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky, Noam]]. 1986. "[https://chomsky.info/1986____/ The Soviet Union Versus Socialism]." ''[[Our Generation (journal)|Our Generation]]'' (Spring/Summer). via Chomsky.info. Retrieved 10 June 2020.</ref><ref name="State Capitalism in the Soviet Union, 2001">Howard, M. C., and J. E. King. 2001. "[http://www.hetsa.org.au/pdf/34-A-08.pdf 'State Capitalism' in the Soviet Union]." ''History of Economics Review'' 34(1):110–26. {{doi|10.1080/10370196.2001.11733360}}.</ref><ref name="Wolff 2015">[[Richard D. Wolff|Wolff, Richard D.]] 27 June 2015. "[http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/31567-socialism-means-abolishing-the-distinction-between-bosses-and-employees Socialism Means Abolishing the Distinction Between Bosses and Employees]." ''[[Truthout]].'' Retrieved 29 January 2020.</ref> or non-planned [[administrative-command system]].<ref name="The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy, 1985">{{cite journal|last=Wilhelm|first=John Howard|year=1985|title=The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy|journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies|Soviet Studies]]|volume=37|issue=1|pages=118–30|doi=10.1080/09668138508411571}}</ref><ref name="Ellman 2007">{{cite book|last=Ellman|first=Michael|year=2007|chapter=The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning|editor1-first=Saul|editor1-last=Estrin|editor2-first=Grzegorz W.|editor2-last=Kołodko|editor3-first=Milica|editor3-last=Uvalić|title=Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti|location=New York City|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=22|quote=In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the 'administrative-command' economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population ... .|isbn=978-0-230-54697-4}}</ref>
+In the 20th century, Communist governments espousing [[Marxism–Leninism]] and its variations came into power in parts of the world,<ref>Smith, Stephen. ''The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism''. Oxford University Press, 2014. p.3</ref> first in the [[Soviet Union]] with the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], and then in portions of eastern Europe, Asia, and a few other regions after [[World War II]].<ref>"Communism." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by William A. Darity, Jr., 2nd ed., vol. 2, Macmillan Reference USA, 2008, pp. 35-36.</ref> Along with [[social democracy]], communism became the dominant political tendency within the international [[socialist movement]] by the 1920s.<ref>Newman, Michael. 2005. ''Socialism: A Very Short Introduction''. [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 5: "Chapter 1 looks at the foundations of the doctrine by examining the contribution made by various traditions of socialism in the period between the early 19th century and the aftermath of the First World War. The two forms that emerged as dominant by the early 1920s were social democracy and communism."</ref> Criticism of communism can be divided into two broad categories, namely that which concerns itself with the practical aspects of 20th century [[Communist state]]s<ref name="Bruno Bosteels 2014">[[Bruno Bosteels|Bosteels, Bruno]]. 2014. ''The Actuality of Communism''. Verso Books.</ref> and that which concerns itself with communist principles and theory.<ref>[[Raymond Taras|Taras, Raymond C.]] 2015. ''The Road to Disillusion: From Critical Marxism to Post-communism in Eastern Europe''. [[Routledge]].</ref> Some academics and economists, among other scholars, argue that the model under which these nominally Communist states in practice operated was not an actual communist economic model in accordance with most accepted definitions of ''communism'' as an economic theory but in fact a form of [[state capitalism]],<ref name="Chomsky 1986">[[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky, Noam]]. 1986. "[https://chomsky.info/1986____/ The Soviet Union Versus Socialism]." ''[[Our Generation (journal)|Our Generation]]'' (Spring/Summer). via Chomsky.info. Retrieved 10 June 2020.</ref><ref name="State Capitalism in the Soviet Union, 2001">Howard, M. C., and J. E. King. 2001. "[http://www.hetsa.org.au/pdf/34-A-08.pdf 'State Capitalism' in the Soviet Union]." ''History of Economics Review'' 34(1):110–26. {{doi|10.1080/10370196.2001.11733360}}.</ref><ref name="Wolff 2015">[[Richard D. Wolff|Wolff, Richard D.]] 27 June 2015. "[http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/31567-socialism-means-abolishing-the-distinction-between-bosses-and-employees Socialism Means Abolishing the Distinction Between Bosses and Employees]." ''[[Truthout]].'' Retrieved 29 January 2020.</ref> or non-planned [[administrative-command system]].<ref name="The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy, 1985">{{cite journal|last=Wilhelm|first=John Howard|year=1985|title=The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy|journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies|Soviet Studies]]|volume=37|issue=1|pages=118–30|doi=10.1080/09668138508411571}}</ref><ref name="Ellman 2007">{{cite book|last=Ellman|first=Michael|year=2007|chapter=The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning|editor1-first=Saul|editor1-last=Estrin|editor2-first=Grzegorz W.|editor2-last=Kołodko|editor3-first=Milica|editor3-last=Uvalić|title=Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti|location=New York City|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=22|quote=In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the 'administrative-command' economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population ... .|isbn=978-0-230-54697-4}}</ref>
 {{toc limit|3}}
 == Etymology ==
-''Communism'' derives from the [[French language|French]] ''communisme'' which developed out of the [[Latin language|Latin]] roots ''communis'' and the suffix ''isme''.<ref name=":1"/>
+''Communism'' derives from the [[French language|French]] ''communisme'' which developed out of the [[Latin language|Latin]] roots ''communis'' and the suffix ''isme''.<ref name=":1"/> Semantically, ''communis'' can be translated to "of or for the community" while ''isme'' is a suffix that indicates the abstraction into a state, condition, action, or [[doctrine]]. ''Communism'' may be interpreted as "the state of being of or for the community". This semantic constitution has led to numerous usages of the word in its evolution. Prior to becoming associated with its more modern conception of an economic and political organization, the term was initially used in designating various social situations. The term ultimately came to be primarily associated with [[Marxism]], most specifically embodied in ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' which proposed a particular type of communism.
-Semantically, ''communis'' can be translated to "of or for the community" while ''isme'' is a suffix that indicates the abstraction into a state, condition, action, or [[doctrine]]. ''Communism'' may be interpreted as "the state of being of or for the community". This semantic constitution has led to numerous usages of the word in its evolution. Prior to becoming associated with its more modern conception of an economic and political organization, the term was initially used in designating various social situations. The term ultimately came to be primarily associated with [[Marxism]], most specifically embodied in ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' which proposed a particular type of communism.
-One of the first uses of the word in its modern sense is in a letter sent by [[Victor d'Hupay]] to [[Restif de la Bretonne]] around 1785, in which d'Hupay describes himself as an ''auteur communiste'' ("communist author").<ref>{{cite journal|title=Quelques dates à propos des termes communiste et communisme|first=Jacques|last=Grandjonc|journal=Mots|year=1983|volume=7|issue=1|pages=143–148|language=fr|doi=10.3406/mots.1983.1122}}</ref> In 1793 Restif first used the term communism  to describe a social order based on egalitarianism and the common ownership of property.<ref name="Hodges">{{cite book|author=Donald C. Hodges|title=Sandino's Communism: Spiritual Politics for the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pu7zAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA36|date=1 February 2014|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-71564-6|pages=7}}</ref> Restif would go on to use the term frequently in his writing and was the first to describe communism as a [[form of government]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://commoningtimes.org/texts/nancy-communism-the-word.pdf|title=Communism, the Word|last=Nancy|first=Jean-Luc|publisher=Commoning Times|year=1992|access-date=11 July 2019}}</ref> [[John Goodwyn Barmby]] is credited with the first use of the term in English, around 1840.<ref name=":1">Harper, Douglas. "[https://www.etymonline.com/word/communist communist]." ''[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]''. 2020.</ref>
+One of the first uses of the word in its modern sense is in a letter sent by [[Victor d'Hupay]] to [[Restif de la Bretonne]] around 1785, in which d'Hupay describes himself as an ''auteur communiste'' ("communist author").<ref>{{cite journal|title=Quelques dates à propos des termes communiste et communisme|first=Jacques|last=Grandjonc|journal=Mots|year=1983|volume=7|issue=1|pages=143–148|language=fr|doi=10.3406/mots.1983.1122}}</ref> In 1793, Restif first used the term ''communism'' to describe a social order based on egalitarianism and the common ownership of property.<ref name="Hodges">{{cite book|author=Donald C. Hodges|title=Sandino's Communism: Spiritual Politics for the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pu7zAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA36|date=1 February 2014|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-71564-6|pages=7}}</ref> Restif would go on to use the term frequently in his writing and was the first to describe communism as a [[form of government]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://commoningtimes.org/texts/nancy-communism-the-word.pdf|title=Communism, the Word|last=Nancy|first=Jean-Luc|publisher=Commoning Times|year=1992|access-date=11 July 2019}}</ref> [[John Goodwyn Barmby]] is credited with the first use of the term in English, around 1840.<ref name=":1">Harper, Douglas. "[https://www.etymonline.com/word/communist communist]." ''[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]''. 2020.</ref>
 === Communism and socialism ===
@@ Line 31: / Line 28: @@
 According to ''The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx'', "Marx used many terms to refer to a post-capitalist society—positive humanism, socialism, Communism, realm of free individuality, free association of producers, etc. He used these terms completely interchangeably. The notion that 'socialism' and 'Communism' are distinct historical stages is alien to his work and only entered the lexicon of Marxism after his death."<ref>Hudis, Peter; Vidal, Matt, Smith, Tony; Rotta, Tomás; Prew, Paul, eds. (September 2018–June 2019). [https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190695545.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190695545 ''The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx'']. [https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190695545.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190695545-e-50 "Marx's Concept of Socialism"]. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-069554-5}}. {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190695545.001.0001}}.</ref>
 === Associated usage ===
-The emergence of the [[Soviet Union]] as the world's first nominally [[communist state]] led to communism's widespread association with [[Marxism–Leninism]] and the [[Soviet-type economic planning|Soviet economic model]].<ref name=":0"/><ref group="lower-alpha">Busky, Donald F. 2000. ''Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey''. [[Praeger Paperback|Praeger]]. pp. 6–8: {{ISBN|978-0-275-96886-1}}. "In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.… [T]he adjective democratic is added by democratic socialists to attempt to distinguish themselves from Communists who also call themselves socialists. All but communists, or more accurately, Marxist-Leninists, believe that modern-day communism is highly undemocratic and totalitarian in practice, and democratic socialists wish to emphasise by their name that they disagree strongly with the Marxist-Leninist brand of socialism."</ref><ref>"Communism." 2007. ''[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]'' (6th ed.).</ref> While the term ''communist state'' is used by Western historians, political scientists and media to refer to countries ruled by communist parties, [[List of socialist states|these states]] themselves did not describe themselves as communist or claim to have achieved communism: they referred to themselves as [[socialist state]]s that are in the process of constructing communism.<ref name="The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945-1990">{{cite book|last=Wilczynski|first=J.|title=The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945-1990|publisher=Aldine Transaction|date=2008|isbn=978-0202362281|pages=21|quote=Contrary to Western usage, these countries describe themselves as 'Socialist' (not 'Communist'). The second stage (Marx's 'higher phase'), or 'Communism' is to be marked by an age of plenty, distribution according to needs (not work), the absence of money and the market mechanism, the disappearance of the last vestiges of capitalism and the ultimate 'whithering away' of the State.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Steele|first=David Ramsay|title=From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation|publisher=Open Court|date=September 1999|isbn=978-0875484495|page=45|quote=Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rosser|first=Mariana V. and J Barkley Jr.|title=Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy|publisher=MIT Press|date=23 July 2003|isbn=978-0262182348|pages=14|quote=Ironically, the ideological father of communism, Karl Marx, claimed that communism entailed the withering away of the state. The dictatorship of the proletariat was to be a strictly temporary phenomenon. Well aware of this, the Soviet Communists never claimed to have achieved communism, always labeling their own system socialist rather than communist and viewing their system as in transition to communism.}}</ref><ref name="Williams 1983 289">{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Raymond|title=Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society, revised edition|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1983|isbn=978-0-19-520469-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289 289]|chapter=Socialism|quote=The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such as social democrat or democratic socialist, became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289}}</ref> Terms used by communist states include ''[[National democracy (Marxism–Leninism)|national-democratic]]'', ''[[People's democracy (Marxism–Leninism)|people's democratic]]'', ''[[Socialist-leaning countries|socialist-oriented]]'', and ''[[Workers' and peasants' state|workers and peasants']]'' states.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nation|first1=R. Craig|title=Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy, 1917-1991|date=1992|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0801480072|pages=85–6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WK18-OoR0pIC&pg=PA85|access-date=19 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801050439/https://books.google.ie/books?id=WK18-OoR0pIC&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=1 August 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>
+In countries like the United States, like ''socialism'', ''communism'' is widely used as a pejorative term, mainly in reference to [[authoritarian communism]] and [[Communist state]]s. The emergence of the [[Soviet Union]] as the world's first nominally Communist state led to communism's widespread association with [[Marxism–Leninism]] and the [[Soviet-type economic planning|Soviet economic model]].<ref name=":0"/><ref group="lower-alpha">Busky, Donald F. 2000. ''Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey''. [[Praeger Paperback|Praeger]]. pp. 6–8: {{ISBN|978-0-275-96886-1}}. "In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.… [T]he adjective democratic is added by democratic socialists to attempt to distinguish themselves from Communists who also call themselves socialists. All but communists, or more accurately, Marxist-Leninists, believe that modern-day communism is highly undemocratic and totalitarian in practice, and democratic socialists wish to emphasise by their name that they disagree strongly with the Marxist-Leninist brand of socialism."</ref><ref>"Communism." 2007. ''[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]'' (6th ed.).</ref> While the term ''Communist state'' is used by Western historians, political scientists and media to refer to countries ruled by communist parties, [[List of socialist states|these states]] themselves did not describe themselves as communist or claim to have achieved communism: they referred to themselves as [[socialist state]]s that are in the process of constructing communism.<ref name="The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945-1990">{{cite book|last=Wilczynski|first=J.|title=The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945-1990|publisher=Aldine Transaction|date=2008|isbn=978-0202362281|pages=21|quote=Contrary to Western usage, these countries describe themselves as 'Socialist' (not 'Communist'). The second stage (Marx's 'higher phase'), or 'Communism' is to be marked by an age of plenty, distribution according to needs (not work), the absence of money and the market mechanism, the disappearance of the last vestiges of capitalism and the ultimate 'whithering away' of the State.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Steele|first=David Ramsay|title=From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation|publisher=Open Court|date=September 1999|isbn=978-0875484495|page=45|quote=Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rosser|first=Mariana V. and J Barkley Jr.|title=Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy|publisher=MIT Press|date=23 July 2003|isbn=978-0262182348|pages=14|quote=Ironically, the ideological father of communism, Karl Marx, claimed that communism entailed the withering away of the state. The dictatorship of the proletariat was to be a strictly temporary phenomenon. Well aware of this, the Soviet Communists never claimed to have achieved communism, always labeling their own system socialist rather than communist and viewing their system as in transition to communism.}}</ref><ref name="Williams 1983 289">{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Raymond|title=Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society, revised edition|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1983|isbn=978-0-19-520469-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289 289]|chapter=Socialism|quote=The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such as social democrat or democratic socialist, became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289}}</ref> Terms used by Communist states include ''[[National democracy (Marxism–Leninism)|national-democratic]]'', ''[[People's democracy (Marxism–Leninism)|people's democratic]]'', ''[[Socialist-leaning countries|socialist-oriented]]'', and ''[[Workers' and peasants' state|workers and peasants']]'' states.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nation|first1=R. Craig|title=Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy, 1917-1991|date=1992|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0801480072|pages=85–6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WK18-OoR0pIC&pg=PA85|access-date=19 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801050439/https://books.google.ie/books?id=WK18-OoR0pIC&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=1 August 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 == History ==
@@ Line 54: / Line 51: @@
 === Cold War ===
 {{main|Cold War}}
-[[File:Communism.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Countries of the world now (red) or previously (orange) having nominally [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] [[communist governments]]]]
+[[File:Communism.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Countries of the world now (red) or previously (orange) having nominally [[Marxist–Leninist]] [[Communist governments]]]]
 Its leading role in [[World War II]] saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as an [[Soviet industrialization|industrialized]] [[superpower]], with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The [[Colonial empire|European]] and [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] empires were shattered and communist parties played a leading role in many independence movements. Marxist–Leninist governments modeled on the Soviet Union took power with Soviet assistance in [[Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[East Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Hungary]] and [[Romania]]. A Marxist–Leninist government was also created under [[Josip Broz Tito]] in [[Yugoslavia]], but Tito's independent policies led to the expulsion of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] from the [[Cominform]] which had replaced the [[Comintern]] and [[Titoism]] was branded "[[Deviationism|deviationist]]". [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]] also became an independent Marxist–Leninist state after World War II.<ref name="communistalbania">{{cite book|url=http://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/1880822|title=Kushtetuta e Republikës Popullore Socialiste të Shqipërisë : [miratuar nga Kuvendi Popullor më 28. 12. 1976]. SearchWorks (SULAIR)|language=sq|access-date=June 3, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322181503/http://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/1880822|archive-date=March 22, 2012|url-status=dead|publisher=8 Nëntori|date=1977-01-04}}</ref> Communism was seen as a rival of and a threat to Western capitalism for most of the 20th century.<ref name="Georgakas1992">[[Dan Georgakas|Georgakas, Dan]]. 1992. "The Hollywood Blacklist." ''Encyclopedia of the American Left''. [[University of Illinois Press]].</ref>
-Some academics and journalists argue that anti-communist narratives have exaggerated the extent of political repression and censorship in states under communist rule, or have drawn comparisons with what they see as atrocities that were perpetrated by capitalist countries, particularly during the Cold War. They include [[Mark Aarons]],<ref>Aarons, Mark (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&lpg=PA80&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false "Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide"]. In Blumenthal, David A.; McCormack, Timothy L. H. (eds). [http://www.brill.com/legacy-nuremberg-civilising-influence-or-institutionalised-vengeance ''The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law)'']. [[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]. pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&lpg=PA80&pg=PA71#v=onepage&q&f=false 71] and [https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA81#v=onepage&q&f=false 80–81]. {{ISBN|9004156917}}.</ref> [[Vincent Bevins]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bevins|first1=Vincent|title=[[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]]|date=2020|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1541742406|page=240|quote=...we do not live in a world directly constructed by Stalin's purges or mass starvation under Pol Pot. Those states are gone. Even Mao's Great Leap Forward was quickly abandoned and rejected by the Chinese Communist Party, though the party is still very much around. We do, however, live in a world built partly by US-backed Cold War violence... Washington's anticommunist crusade, with Indonesia as the apex of its murderous violence against civilians, deeply shaped the world we live in now...|authorlink=Vincent Bevins}}</ref> [[Noam Chomsky]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Chomsky|first=Noam|author-link=Noam Chomsky|title=Counting the Bodies|url=http://spectrezine.org/global/chomsky.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921084037/http://www.spectrezine.org/global/chomsky.htm|archive-date=21 September 2016|access-date=18 September 2016|work=Spectrezine}}</ref> [[Jodi Dean]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Dean|first=Jodi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kBghOq42S3YC&pg=PA6|title=The Communist Horizon|date=2012|publisher=Verso|isbn=978-1844679546|pages=6–7|author-link=Jodi Dean}}</ref>  [[Kristen Ghodsee]]<ref>Ghodsee, Kristen R.; Sehon, Scott; Dresser, Sam, ed. (22 March 2018). [https://aeon.co/essays/the-merits-of-taking-an-anti-anti-communism-stance "The merits of taking an anti-anti-communism stance"]. ''[[Aeon (digital magazine)|Aeon]]''. Retrieved 11 February 2020.</ref> [[Seumas Milne]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Milne|first=Seumas|author-link=Seumas Milne|date=16 February 2006|title=Communism may be dead, but clearly not dead enough|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/Columnists/Column/0,,1710891,00.html|access-date=5 September 2018}}</ref> and [[Michael Parenti]].<ref>{{citation|last=Parenti|first=Michael|title=Blackshirts and Reds: Rational Fascism and the Overthrow of Communism|page=58|year=1997|location=San Francisco|publisher=[[City Lights Bookstore|City Lights Books]]|isbn=978-0872863293|author-link=Michael Parenti}}</ref>  [[Rudolph Rummel]] and Mark Bradley have written that, while the exact numbers have been in dispute, the [[order of magnitude]] is not.<ref>{{citation|last=Rummel|first=Rudolph Joseph|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/COM.ART.HTM#*|title=How Many did Communist Regimes Murder?|access-date=July 15, 2021|publisher=University of Hawaii Political Science Department|date=November 1993|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827103150/https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/COM.ART.HTM|archive-date=August 27, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Bradley|first=Mark Philip|contribution=Human Rights and Communism|title=The Cambridge History of Communism: Volume 3, Endgames? Late Communism in Global Perspective, 1968 to the Present|editor-last1=Fürst|editor-first1=Juliane|editor-last2=Pons|editor-first2=Silvio|editor-last3=Selden|editor-first3=Mark|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eBs0DwAAQBAJ|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-108-50935-0}}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2021}}
+Some academics and journalists argue that anti-communist narratives have exaggerated the extent of political repression and censorship in states under communist rule, or have drawn comparisons with what they see as atrocities that were perpetrated by capitalist countries, particularly during the Cold War. They include [[Mark Aarons]],<ref name="Aarons 2007">Aarons, Mark (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&lpg=PA80&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false "Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide"]. In Blumenthal, David A.; McCormack, Timothy L. H. (eds). [http://www.brill.com/legacy-nuremberg-civilising-influence-or-institutionalised-vengeance ''The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law)'']. [[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]. pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&lpg=PA80&pg=PA71#v=onepage&q&f=false 71] and [https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA81#v=onepage&q&f=false 80–81]. {{ISBN|9004156917}}.</ref> [[Vincent Bevins]],<ref name="Bevins 2020">{{cite book|last1=Bevins|first1=Vincent|title=[[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]]|date=2020|publisher=[[PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1541742406|page=240|quote=...we do not live in a world directly constructed by Stalin's purges or mass starvation under Pol Pot. Those states are gone. Even Mao's Great Leap Forward was quickly abandoned and rejected by the Chinese Communist Party, though the party is still very much around. We do, however, live in a world built partly by US-backed Cold War violence... Washington's anticommunist crusade, with Indonesia as the apex of its murderous violence against civilians, deeply shaped the world we live in now...|authorlink=Vincent Bevins}}</ref> [[Noam Chomsky]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Chomsky|first=Noam|author-link=Noam Chomsky|title=Counting the Bodies|url=http://spectrezine.org/global/chomsky.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921084037/http://www.spectrezine.org/global/chomsky.htm|archive-date=21 September 2016|access-date=18 September 2016|work=Spectrezine}}</ref> [[Jodi Dean]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Dean|first=Jodi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kBghOq42S3YC&pg=PA6|title=The Communist Horizon|date=2012|publisher=Verso|isbn=978-1844679546|pages=6–7|author-link=Jodi Dean}}</ref>  [[Kristen Ghodsee]]<ref>Ghodsee, Kristen R.; Sehon, Scott; Dresser, Sam, ed. (22 March 2018). [https://aeon.co/essays/the-merits-of-taking-an-anti-anti-communism-stance "The merits of taking an anti-anti-communism stance"]. ''[[Aeon (digital magazine)|Aeon]]''. Retrieved 11 February 2020.</ref> [[Seumas Milne]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Milne|first=Seumas|author-link=Seumas Milne|date=16 February 2006|title=Communism may be dead, but clearly not dead enough|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/Columnists/Column/0,,1710891,00.html|access-date=5 September 2018}}</ref> and [[Michael Parenti]].<ref>{{citation|last=Parenti|first=Michael|title=Blackshirts and Reds: Rational Fascism and the Overthrow of Communism|page=58|year=1997|location=San Francisco|publisher=[[City Lights Bookstore|City Lights Books]]|isbn=978-0872863293|author-link=Michael Parenti}}</ref>  [[Rudolph Rummel]] and Mark Bradley have written that, while the exact numbers have been in dispute, the [[order of magnitude]] is not.<ref>{{citation|last=Rummel|first=Rudolph Joseph|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/COM.ART.HTM#*|title=How Many did Communist Regimes Murder?|access-date=July 15, 2021|publisher=University of Hawaii Political Science Department|date=November 1993|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827103150/https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/COM.ART.HTM|archive-date=August 27, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Bradley|first=Mark Philip|contribution=Human Rights and Communism|title=The Cambridge History of Communism: Volume 3, Endgames? Late Communism in Global Perspective, 1968 to the Present|editor-last1=Fürst|editor-first1=Juliane|editor-last2=Pons|editor-first2=Silvio|editor-last3=Selden|editor-first3=Mark|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eBs0DwAAQBAJ|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-108-50935-0}}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2021}}
 === Dissolution of the Soviet Union ===
@@ Line 66: / Line 63: @@
 {{see also|List of anti-capitalist and communist parties with national parliamentary representation}}
 [[File:Communist Party of Vietnam Poster in Hanoi.jpg|thumb|The [[Communist Party of Vietnam|Vietnamese Communist Party]]'s poster in Hanoi]]
-[[Walter Scheidel]] argues that despite wide-reaching government actions, communist states failed to achieve long-term economic, social and political success.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheidel|first=Walter|year=2017|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|chapter=Chapter 7: Communism|publisher=Princeton University Press|ISBN=978-0691165028}}</ref> The experience of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the [[North Korean famine]], and alleged economic underperformance when compared to developed free market systems are cited as examples of communist states failing to build a successful state while relying entirely on what they view as "orthodox Marxism".<ref>Scheidel, Walter (2017). The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press. p. 222. {{ISBN|978-0691165028}}.</ref><ref>Natsios, Andrew S. (2002) The Great North Korean Famine. Institute of Peace Press. {{ISBN|1929223331}}.</ref>{{page number needed|date=June 2021}} Nevertheless, {{ill|Philipp Ther|de|vertical-align=sup}} says there was a general increase in the standard of living throughout [[Eastern Bloc]] countries as the result of modernisation programs under communist governments.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ther |first=Philipp|date=2016 |title=Europe since 1989: A History|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/10812.html|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|page=132 |isbn=978-0-691-16737-4|quote=As a result of communist modernization, living standards in Eastern Europe rose.}}</ref> [[Branko Milanović]] posits that following the end of the Cold War many of those countries economies declined to such an extent during the transition to capitalism that they have yet to return to the point they were prior to the collapse of communism.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402| title =After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism| journal =[[Challenge (economics magazine)|Challenge]]| volume = 58| issue = 2| pages =135–138| year = 2015| last1 = Milanović | first1 = Branko| s2cid =153398717|author-link=Branko Milanović|quote= So, what is the balance sheet of transition? Only three or at most five or six countries could be said to be on the road to becoming a part of the rich and (relatively) stable capitalist world. Many of the other countries are falling behind, and some are so far behind that they cannot aspire to go back to the point where they were when the Wall fell for several decades.}}</ref>
+[[Walter Scheidel]] argues that despite wide-reaching government actions, Communist states failed to achieve long-term economic, social and political success.<ref>{{cite book|last=Scheidel|first=Walter|year=2017|title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|chapter=Chapter 7: Communism|publisher=Princeton University Press|ISBN=978-0691165028}}</ref> The experience of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the [[North Korean famine]], and alleged economic underperformance when compared to developed free market systems are cited as examples of Communist states failing to build a successful state while relying entirely on what they view as "orthodox Marxism".<ref>Scheidel, Walter (2017). The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press. p. 222. {{ISBN|978-0691165028}}.</ref><ref>Natsios, Andrew S. (2002) The Great North Korean Famine. Institute of Peace Press. {{ISBN|1929223331}}.</ref>{{page number needed|date=June 2021}} Nevertheless, {{ill|Philipp Ther|de|vertical-align=sup}} says there was a general increase in the standard of living throughout [[Eastern Bloc]] countries as the result of modernisation programs under Communist governments.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ther |first=Philipp|date=2016 |title=Europe since 1989: A History|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/10812.html|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|page=132 |isbn=978-0-691-16737-4|quote=As a result of communist modernization, living standards in Eastern Europe rose.}}</ref> [[Branko Milanović]] posits that following the end of the Cold War many of those countries economies declined to such an extent during the transition to capitalism that they have yet to return to the point they were prior to the collapse of communism.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402| title =After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism| journal =[[Challenge (economics magazine)|Challenge]]| volume = 58| issue = 2| pages =135–138| year = 2015| last1 = Milanović | first1 = Branko| s2cid =153398717|author-link=Branko Milanović|quote= So, what is the balance sheet of transition? Only three or at most five or six countries could be said to be on the road to becoming a part of the rich and (relatively) stable capitalist world. Many of the other countries are falling behind, and some are so far behind that they cannot aspire to go back to the point where they were when the Wall fell for several decades.}}</ref>
-At present, states controlled by Marxist–Leninist parties under a single-party system include the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Republic of Cuba]], the [[Lao People's Democratic Republic]] and the [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]]. The [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] currently refers to its leading ideology as [[Juche]] which is portrayed as a development of Marxism–Leninism. Communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in several other countries. The [[South African Communist Party]] is a partner in the [[African National Congress]]-led government. In [[Socialism in India|India]] {{as of|2018|March|lc=y}}, communists lead the government of [[Kerala]]. In [[Nepal]], communists hold a majority in the [[Nepalese Constituent Assembly|parliament]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl|title=Nepal's election The Maoists triumph Economist.com|publisher=Economist.com|date=April 17, 2008|access-date=October 18, 2009|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/60XT8Sk3J?url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl|archive-date=July 29, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Communist Party of Brazil]] was a part of the parliamentary coalition led by the ruling [[democratic socialist]] [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers' Party]] until August 2016. The People's Republic of China has reassessed many aspects of the Maoist legacy, and along with Laos, Vietnam and to a lesser degree Cuba, has decentralized state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. [[Chinese economic reforms]] were started in 1978 under the leadership of [[Deng Xiaoping]], and since then China has managed to bring down the poverty rate from 53% in the Mao era to just 6% in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A20634060~pagePK%3A64165401~piPK%3A64165026~theSitePK%3A469382%2C00.html|title=Fighting Poverty: Findings and Lessons from China's Success|publisher=World Bank|access-date=August 10, 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/60XT8XpKl?url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:20634060~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html|archive-date=July 29, 2011}}</ref> These reforms are sometimes described by outside commentators as a regression to capitalism, but the communist parties describe it as a necessary adjustment to existing realities in the post-Soviet world in order to maximize industrial productive capacity. In these countries, the land is a universal public monopoly administered by the state and so are natural resources and vital industries and services. The [[public sector]] is the dominant sector in these economies and the state plays a central role in coordinating economic development.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}
+At present, states controlled by Marxist–Leninist parties under a single-party system include the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Republic of Cuba]], the [[Lao People's Democratic Republic]], and the [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]]. The [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] currently refers to its leading ideology as ''[[Juche]]'', which is portrayed as a development of Marxism–Leninism. Communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in several other countries. The [[South African Communist Party]] is a partner in the [[African National Congress]]-led government, and the [[Communist Party of Brazil]] was a part of the parliamentary coalition led by the ruling [[democratic socialist]] [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers' Party]] until August 2016. In [[Socialism in India|India]] {{as of|2018|March|lc=y}}, communists lead the government of [[Kerala]]. In [[Nepal]], communists hold a majority in the [[Nepalese Constituent Assembly|parliament]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl|title=Nepal's election The Maoists triumph Economist.com|publisher=Economist.com|date=April 17, 2008|access-date=October 18, 2009|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/60XT8Sk3J?url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl|archive-date=July 29, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
+China has reassessed many aspects of the Maoist legacy, and along with Laos, Vietnam and to a lesser degree Cuba, has decentralized state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. [[Chinese economic reforms]] were started in 1978 under the leadership of [[Deng Xiaoping]], and since then China has managed to bring down the poverty rate from 53% in the Mao era to just 6% in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A20634060~pagePK%3A64165401~piPK%3A64165026~theSitePK%3A469382%2C00.html|title=Fighting Poverty: Findings and Lessons from China's Success|publisher=World Bank|access-date=August 10, 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/60XT8XpKl?url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:20634060~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html|archive-date=July 29, 2011}}</ref> These reforms are sometimes described by outside commentators as a regression to capitalism, but the communist parties describe it as a necessary adjustment to existing realities in the post-Soviet world in order to maximize industrial productive capacity. In these countries, the land is a universal public monopoly administered by the state and so are natural resources and vital industries and services. The [[public sector]] is the dominant sector in these economies and the state plays a central role in coordinating economic development.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}
 == Theory ==
@@ Line 197: / Line 196: @@
 Christian communism enjoys some support in Russia. Russian musician [[Yegor Letov]] was an outspoken Christian communist and in a 1995 interview was quoted as saying: "Communism is the [[Kingdom of God]] on Earth."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://grob-hroniki.org/article/1995/art_1995-12-07a.html|title=Егор Летов: Русский Прорыв}} </ref>
-== Criticism ==
+== Reception ==
+Communism echoes controversial reactions due to the actions of [[Communist state]]s, which have been extensively criticized and [[comparison of Nazism and Stalinism]] have been made, which in turn led to criticism for being a form of [[double genocide theory]] and [[Holocaust trivialization]]. Historian [[Andrzej Paczkowski]] summarized communism as "an ideology that seemed clearly the opposite, that was based on the secular desire of humanity to achieve equality and social justice, and that promised a great leap of forward into freedom."<ref>Paczkowski, Andrzej (Spring 2001). "The Storm over the Black Book". ''The Wilson Quarterly''. '''25''' (2): 28–34. {{jstor|40260182}}. Quotes at pp. 32–33.</ref>
-{{criticism|date=August 2021}}
-{{main|Criticism of communist party rule|Criticism of Marxism}}
+[[Anti-communism]] developed as soon as communism became a conscious political movement in the 19th century, and [[anti-communist mass killings]] have been reported against alleged communists, or their alleged supporters which were committed by anti-communists and political organizations or governments which opposed communism. The communist movement has faced opposition since it was founded and the opposition to it has often been organized and violent. Many of these anti-communist mass killing campaigns, primarily during the Cold War,<ref name="Aarons 2007"/><ref name="Bevins 2020"/> were supported by the United States and its Western allies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Blakeley|first=Ruth|date=2009 |title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South|url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/|publisher=Routledge|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA4 4], [https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA20#v=onepage&q&f=false 20-23], [https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA88#v=onepage&q&f=false 88] |isbn=978-0-415-68617-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=McSherry |first1=J. Patrice|author-link1= J. Patrice McSherry |editor1=Esparza, Marcia |editor2=Henry R. Huttenbach |editor3=Daniel Feierstein |title=State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical Terrorism Studies) |chapter=Chapter 5: "Industrial repression" and Operation Condor in Latin America |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=acGNAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA107 107] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-66457-8 |url=https://www.routledge.com/State-Violence-and-Genocide-in-Latin-America-The-Cold-War-Years/Esparza-Huttenbach-Feierstein/p/book/9780415496377}}</ref>
-{{see also|Anti-communism}}
-Criticism of communism can be divided into two broad categories, namely that which concerns itself with the practical aspects of 20th century [[communist state]]s<ref name="Bruno Bosteels 2014">[[Bruno Bosteels|Bosteels, Bruno]]. 2014. ''The Actuality of Communism''. Verso Books.</ref> and that which concerns itself with communist principles and theory.<ref>[[Raymond Taras|Taras, Raymond C.]] 2015. ''The Road to Disillusion: From Critical Marxism to Post-communism in Eastern Europe''. [[Routledge]].</ref> [[Marxism]] is also subject to some criticism. In particular, the labor theory of value, a concept central to Marxist theory, is rejected by most modern [[Neoclassical economics|neoclassical economists]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dooley|first=Peter C.|title=The Labour Theory of Value : Economics or Ethics|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2005|isbn=9780415328210|pages=201}}</ref> In addition, [[Empiricism|empirical]] and [[Epistemology|epistemological]] problems are also cited.<ref name="howard">Howard, M. C., and J. E. King. 1992. ''A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 1929–1990''. Princeton, NJ: [[Princeton University Press]].</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2021}}<ref name="popper">{{cite book|last=Popper|first=Karl|author-link=Karl Popper|title=Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=978-0-415-28594-0|page=49}}</ref><ref name="keynes">[[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes, John Maynard]]. 1991. ''Essays in Persuasion''. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 300. {{ISBN|978-0-393-00190-7}}.</ref>{{clarification needed|date=July 2021}}
+=== Memories studies ===
+Various authors have written about the events of 20th-century Communist states, which have resulted in excess deaths, such as [[excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin]]. Some authors posit that there is a Communist death toll, whose death estimates vary widely, depending on the definitions of the deaths that are included in them, ranging from lows of 10–20 millions to highs over 100 millions, which have been criticized by several scholars as ideologically motivated and inflated; they are also criticized for being inaccurate due to incomplete data, inflated by counting any excess death, for making an unwarranted link with communism as the main culprit, and for the body counting itself. The higher estimates of mass killings account for the crimes that Communist governments committed against civilians, including executions, man-made famines, and deaths that occurred during, or resulted from, imprisonment and forced deportations and labor.<ref name="Harff 1996">Harff, Barbara (1996). "Death by Government by R. J. Rummel". ''The Journal of Interdisciplinary History''. '''27''' (1): 117–119. {{doi|10.2307/206491}}. {{jstor|206491}}.</ref><ref>Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2001). "Review Article: Communism and Terror. Reviewed Work(s): ''The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, and Repression'' by Stephane Courtois; Reflections on a Ravaged Century by Robert Conquest". ''Journal of Contemporary History''. '''36''' (1): 191–201. {{doi|10.1177/002200940103600110}}. {{jstor|261138}}. {{S2CID|49573923}}.</ref><ref>Paczkowski, Andrzej (2001). "The Storm Over the Black Book". ''The Wilson Quarterly''. '''25''' (2): 28–34. {{jstor|40260182}}.</ref><ref>Weiner, Amir (2002). "Review. Reviewed Work: ''The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression'' by Stéphane Courtois, Nicolas Werth, Jean-Louis Panné, Andrzej Paczkowski, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Margolin, Jonathan Murphy, Mark Kramer". ''The Journal of Interdisciplinary History''. '''32''' (3): 450–452. {{doi|10.1162/002219502753364263}}. {{jstor|3656222}}. {{S2CID|142217169}}.</ref><ref>Dulić, Tomislav (2004). "Tito's Slaughterhouse: A Critical Analysis of Rummel's Work on Democide". ''Journal of Peace Research''. '''41''' (1): 85–102. {{doi|10.1177/0022343304040051}}. {{jstor|4149657}}. {{S2CID|145120734}}.</ref><ref>Harff, Barbara (2017), [https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-54463-2_12.pdf "The Comparative Analysis of Mass Atrocities and Genocide"]. In Gleditsch, N. P., ed. ''R.J. Rummel: An Assessment of His Many Contributions''. '''37'''. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice. pp. 111–129. {{doi|10.1007/978-3-319-54463-2_12}}. {{ISBN|9783319544632}}.</ref>
+There is no consensus among [[genocide scholars]] and [[scholars of communism]] about whether some, most, or all the events constituted a [[mass killing]]. There is also no consensus on a common terminology,<ref>Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2008). "Problems in Comparative Genocide Scholarship". In Stone, Dan (eds). ''The Historiography of Genocide''. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 42. {{doi|10.1057/9780230297}}. {{ISBN|978-0-230-29778-4}}. "There is barely any other field of study that enjoys so little consensus on defining principles such as definition of genocide, typology, application of a comparative method, and timeframe. Considering that scholars have always put stress on prevention of genocide, comparative genocide studies have been a failure. Paradoxically, nobody has attempted so far to assess the field of comparative genocide studies as a whole. This is one of the reasons why those who define themselves as genocide scholars have not been able to detect the situation of crisis."</ref> and the various events have been variously referred to as ''[[excess mortality]]'' or ''mass deaths''; other terms that are used to define some of such killings include ''[[classicide]]'', ''[[crimes against humanity]]'', ''[[democide]]'', ''[[genocide]]'', ''[[politicide]]'', and ''[[Political repression|repression]]''.<ref>Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). [https://www.levandehistoria.se/sites/default/files/material_file/research-review-crimes-against-humanity.pdf ''Crimes Against Humanity under Communist Regimes'']. Stockholm: Forum for Living History. {{ISBN|9789197748728}}.</ref> Several scholars argue that most Communist states did not engage in mass killings,<ref>Valentino, Benjamin (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=LQfeXVU_EvgC ''Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century'']. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 91. {{ISBN|978-0-801-47273-2}}. "Communism has a bloody record, but most regimes that have described themselves as communist or have been described as such by others have not engaged in mass killing." </ref> and some in particular, such as [[Benjamin Valentino]],<ref>Valentino, Benjamin (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=LQfeXVU_EvgC ''Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century'']. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 66. {{ISBN|978-0-801-47273-2}}. "I content mass killing occurs when powerful groups come to believe it is the best available means to accomplish certain radical goals, counter specific types of threats, or solve difficult military problem."</ref> propose instead the category of [[Communist mass killing]], alongside ethnic and colonial mass killing, as a subtype of [[dispossessive mass killing]], in an attempt to distinguish it from [[coercive mass killing]]. Those scholars do not consider ideology or regime type as an important factor that explains mass killings.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Straus|first=Scott|date=April 2007|title=Review: Second-Generation Comparative Research on Genocide|journal=World Politics|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=59|issue=3|pages=476–501|doi=10.1017/S004388710002089X|jstor=40060166|s2cid=144879341}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Atsushi|first1=Tago|last2=Wayman|first2=Frank W.|title=Explaining the onset of mass killing, 1949–87|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=47|issue=1|pages=3–13|date=2010|doi=10.1177/0022343309342944|issn=0022-3433|jstor=25654524|s2cid=145155872}}</ref> The double genocide theory is popular in [[Eastern European]] countries and the [[Baltic states]], and their approaches of history have been incorporated in the [[European Union]] agenda,<ref name="Satori">{{cite news|url=https://satori.lv/article/latvias-soviet-story-transitional-justice-and-the-politics-of-commemoration|title=Latvia's 'Soviet Story'. Transitional Justice and the Politics of Commemoration|website=Satory|date=26 October 2009|accessdate=6 August 2021}}</ref> among them the [[Prague Declaration]] in June 2008 and the [[European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism]], proclaimed by the [[European Parliament]] in August 2008 and endorsed by the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] in July 2009; it is officially known as the Black Ribbon Day in several countries. Among many scholars in [[Western Europe]], the comparison of the two regimes and the equation of their crimes has been and still is widely rejected.<ref name="Satori"/>
+[[Memory studies]] have been done on how the events are memorized.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kaprāns|first=Mārtiņš|date=2 May 2015|title=Hegemonic representations of the past and digital agency: Giving meaning to 'The Soviet Story' on social networking sites|journal=Memory Studies|volume=9|issue=2|pages=156–172|doi=10.1177/1750698015587151}}</ref> The victims of Communism narrative,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Neumayer|first=Laure|date=November 2017|title=Advocating for the Cause of the 'Victims of Communism' in the European Political Space: Memory Entrepreneurs in Interstitial Fields|journal=Nationalities Papers|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=45|issue=6|pages=992–1012|doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1364230|doi-access=free}}</ref> as popularized by and named after the [[Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation]], has become accepted scholarship, as part of the double genocide theory, in Eastern Europe and among anti-communists in general<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dujisin|first=Zoltan|date=July 2020|title=A History of Post-Communist Remembrance: From Memory Politics to the Emergence of a Field of Anticommunism|journal=Theory and Society|volume=50|issue=January 2021|pages=65–96|doi=10.1007/s11186-020-09401-5|quote=This article invites the view that the Europeanization of an antitotalitarian 'collective memory' of communism reveals the emergence of a field of anticommunism. This transnational field is inextricably tied to the proliferation of state-sponsored and anticommunist memory institutes across Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), ... [and is proposed by] anticommunist memory entrepreneurs.}}</ref> but is rejected by most Western European and other scholars. It has been criticized by several scholars as an oversimplification and politically motivated as well as of Holocaust trivialization for equating the events with [[the Holocaust]], positing a communist or red Holocaust.<ref name="Mastracci 2020">Mastracci, Davide (21 July 2020). [https://readpassage.com/the-memorial-to-the-victims-of-communism-should-be-bulldozed/ "The 'Memorial to the Victims of Communism' Should Be Bulldozed"]. ''Read Passage''. Retrieved 20 December 2020. "This ideological process has consequences. As Katz notes, 'One major symptom of the revisionism underway in Eastern Europe is the rehabilitation of Nazi collaborators as 'national heroes' on the grounds that they were anti-Soviet.' This is also happening in Canada. ... They get that figure from ''The Black Book of Communism'', a 1997 text that tallies up all of the ideology's supposed victims. The TL's website cites the book on numerous occasions, regardless of the fact that it has been widely debunked and was led by an editor who some of the book's contributors said was obsessed with reaching the 100 million deaths mark."</ref> The narrative posits that famines and mass deaths by Communist states can be attributed to a single cause and that communism, as "the deadliest ideology in history", or in the words of [[Jonathan Rauch]] as "the deadliest fantasy in human history",<ref>Rauch, Jonathan (December 2003). [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2003/12/the-forgotten-millions/302849/ "The Forgotten Millions"]. ''The Atlantic''. Retrieved 20 December 2020.</ref> represents the greatest threat to humanity. The proponents posit a link between communism, [[left-wing politics]], and [[socialism]] with [[genocide]], [[mass killing]], and [[totalitarianism]],<ref>Mrozick, Agnieszka (2019). "Anti-Communism: It's High Time to Diagnose and Counteract". In Kuligowski, Piotr; Moll, Łukasz; Szadkowski, Krystian. [https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=788051 "Anti-Communisms: Discourses of Exclusion"]. ''Praktyka teoretyczna''. Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. '''1''' (31): 178–184. Retrieved 26 December 2020 – via Central and Eastern European Online Library. "First is the prevalence of a totalitarian paradigm, in which Nazism and Communism are equated as the most atrocious ideas and systems in human history (because communism, defined by Marx as a classless society with common means of production, has never been realised anywhere in the world, in further parts I will be putting this concept into inverted commas as an example of discursive practice). Significantly, while in the Western debate the more precise term 'Stalinism' is used – in 2008, on the 70th anniversary of the Ribbentrop–Molotov Pact, the European Parliament established 23 August as the European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism – hardly anyone in Poland is paying attention to niceties: 'communism', or simply the left, is perceived as totalitarian here. A homogenizing sequence of associations (the left is communism, communism is totalitarianism, ergo the left is totalitarian) and the ahistorical character of the concepts used (no matter if we talk about the USSR in the 1930s under Stalin, Maoist China from the period of the Cultural Revolution, or Poland under Gierek, 'communism' is murderous all the same) not only serves the denigration of the Polish People's Republic, expelling this period from Polish history, but also – or perhaps primarily – the deprecation of Marxism, leftist programs, and any hopes and beliefs in Marxism and leftist activity as a remedy for capitalist exploitation, social inequality, fascist violence on a racist and anti-Semitic basis, as well as homophobic and misogynist violence. The totalitarian paradigm not only equates fascism and socialism (in Poland and the countries of the former Eastern bloc stubbornly called 'communism' and pressed into the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union, which should additionally emphasize its foreignness), but in fact recognizes the latter as worse, more sinister (the ''Black Book of Communism'' (1997) is of help here as it estimates the number of victims of 'communism' at around 100 million; however, it is critically commented on by researchers on the subject, including historian Enzo Traverso in the book ''L'histoire comme champ de bataille'' (2011)). Thus, anti-communism not only delegitimises the left, including communists, and depreciates the contribution of the left to the breakdown of fascism in 1945, but also contributes to the rehabilitation of the latter, as we can see in recent cases in Europe and other places." Quote at pp. 178–179.</ref> with authors such as [[George Watson (scholar)|George Watson]] advocating a common history stretching from [[Karl Marx]] to [[Adolf Hitler]].<ref>Grant, Robert (November 1999). "Review: The Lost Literature of Socialism". ''The Review of English Studies''. '''50''' (200): 557–559. {{doi|10.1093/res/50.200.557}}.</ref> Some [[right-wing]] authors argue that Marx was responsible for [[Nazism]] and even the Holocaust.<ref>Moll, Łukasz (2019). "Erasure of the Common: From Polish Anti-Communism to Universal Anti-Capitalism". In Kuligowski, Piotr; Moll, Łukasz; Szadkowski, Krystian. [https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=788051 "Anti-Communisms: Discourses of Exclusion"]. ''Praktyka teoretyczna''. Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. '''1''' (31): 118–145. Retrieved 26 December 2020 – via Central and Eastern European Online Library. "As we have learned lately from public television, when the two hundredth anniversary of Karl Marx's birthday was celebrated abroad, according to right-wing journalists Marx was responsible even for Nazism and the Holocaust (Leszczyński 2018). As former Foreign Minister in Law and Justice's government Witold Waszczykowski elaborated in an interview with German daily newspaper ''Bild'':
+<blockquote>We just want to heal our country of certain diseases. The previous government applied a left-wing concept. As if the world, according to the Marxist model, must move in only one direction, towards a mixture of cultures and a world of cyclists and vegetarians, which stands only for renewable energy and combating all forms of religion. This has nothing in common with traditional Polish values (Cienski 2017).</blockquote>
+It is hard to find a better manifestation of right-wing all-encompassing anti-communism, which mixes together nearly all possible progressive discourses." Quote at pp. 126–127.</ref> Authors such as [[Stéphane Courtois]] propose a theory of equivalence between class and racial genocide.<ref name="Jaffrelot & Sémelin 2009">[[Christophe Jaffrelot|Jaffrelot, Christophe]]; [[Jacques Sémelin|Sémelin, Jacques]], eds. (2009) ''Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide''. Translated by Schoch, Cynthia. CERI Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 37. {{ISBN|978-0-231-14283-0}}.</ref> It is supported by anti-communist organizations such as ''[[The Epoch Times]]'', the [[Tribute to Liberty]], and the [[Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation]], with 100 million being the most common estimate used from ''[[The Black Book of Communism]]'', a controversial work which popularized the narrative.<ref name="Mastracci 2020"/> Various museums and monuments have been constructed in remembrance of the victims of Communism, with support of the European Union and various governments in Canada, Eastern Europe, and the United States.<ref name="Ghodsee 2014">{{cite journal|last=Ghodsee|first=Kristen|author-link=Kristen Ghodsee|volume=4|issue=2|pages=115–142|title=A Tale of 'Two Totalitarianisms': The Crisis of Capitalism and the Historical Memory of Communism|journal=History of the Present|year=2014|url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/kristenghodsee/files/history_of_the_present_galleys.pdf|jstor=10.5406/historypresent.4.2.0115|doi=10.5406/historypresent.4.2.0115}}</ref><ref name="Neumayer 2018">{{cite book|last=Neumayer|first=Laure|author-link=Laure Neumayer|year=2018|title=The Criminalisation of Communism in the European Political Space after the Cold War|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781351141741}}</ref> Works such as ''The Black Book of Communism'' and ''[[Bloodlands]]'' legitimized debates on [[comparison of Nazism and Stalinism]],<ref name="Jaffrelot & Sémelin 2009"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Kühne|first=Thomas|date=May 2012|title=Great Men and Large Numbers: Undertheorising a History of Mass Killing|journal=Contemporary European History|volume=21|issue=2|pages=133–143|doi=10.1017/S0960777312000070|issn=0960-7773|jstor=41485456}}</ref> and by extension communism, and the former work in particular was important in the criminalization of communism.<ref name="Ghodsee 2014"/><ref name="Neumayer 2018"/>
-Estimates of the [[mass killings under communist regimes]] vary widely, depending on the definitions of the deaths that are included in them. The higher estimates of mass killings account for the crimes that governments committed against civilians, including executions, the destruction of populations through famines resulting from government policy, deaths that occurred during forced deportations and imprisonment, and deaths that resulted from [[forced labor]]. According to [[Klas-Göran Karlsson]], discussion of the number of victims of communist regimes has been "extremely extensive and ideologically biased."<ref>{{citation|last1=Karlsson|first1=Klas-Göran|last2=Schoenhals|first2=Michael|title=Crimes against humanity under communist regimes – Research review|publisher=Forum for Living History|year=2008|page=9|url=https://www.levandehistoria.se/sites/default/files/material_file/research-review-crimes-against-humanity.pdf|isbn=978-91-977487-2-8}}</ref>
 == See also ==
@@ Line 210: / Line 216: @@
 * ''[[American Communist History]]''
 * [[Anti anti-communism]]
-* [[Anti-communist mass killings]]
 * [[Commons-based peer production]]
 * [[:Category:Communism by country|Communism by country]]
 * [[Communist bandit]]
+* [[Criticism of communist party rule]]
+* [[Criticism of Marxism]]
 * [[List of communist parties]]
 * [[Outline of Marxism]]

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