Anaximenes of Miletus

Anaximenes of Miletus
Anaximenes of Miletus as imaginatively depicted, wearing a tainia, in a 16th century engraving from Girolamo Olgiati.
Born	c. 586 BC Miletus, Ionian League (modern-day Balat, Didim, Aydın, Turkey)
Died	c. 526 BC (aged c. 60) Miletus
Era	Pre-Socratic philosophy
Region	Western philosophy
School	Ionian/Milesian school
Main interests	Metaphysics Natural philosophy
Notable ideas	Air is the arche Matter changes through rarefaction and condensation

Anaximenes of Miletus (/ˌænækˈsɪməˌniːz/; Greek: Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Μιλήσιος; c. 586 – c. 526 BC) was an Ancient Greek, Pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) active in the 6th century BC. He was the last of the three philosophers of the Milesian School, regarded by historians as the first philosophers of the Western world. Anaximenes is best known and identified as a younger friend or student of Anaximander, who was himself taught by the first philosopher in the Greek tradition, Thales, one of the Seven Sages of Greece.

The life and views of Anaximenes remain obscure as none of his work has been preserved, and he is only known through comments about him made by later writers. Historians and philosophers consider his cosmological views to be similar to his two Milesian predecessors. Thales proposed that all matter was made of water; Anaximander proposed all matter was made of apeiron—something indefinite rather than something specific; and Anaximenes proposed that all matter was made of air. According to Anaximenes, more condensed air made for colder, denser objects and more rarefied air made for hotter, lighter objects. Anaximenes also believed that the Earth and other celestial bodies were flat and tilted, in the shape of a table (or trapezoid), and that they floated on air.

Biography

Map of Asia minor. Millawanda is Miletus

Greek settlements in Ionia

Anaximenes was born c. 586 BC, according to the records of Apollodorus. Surviving information about the life of Anaximenes is limited, and it comes primarily from what was preserved by Ancient Greek philosophers, particularly Aristotle and Theophrastus. According to his account, Anaximenes was the son of Eurystratus, an associate of the philosopher Anaximander, and lived in Miletus. He is recorded as becoming a student of Anaximander. Anaximenes was likely also taught Homeric epics, Greek mythology, and Orphism, which may have influenced his philosophy through their portrayal of the classical elements. It is considered likely that he and the other Milesian philosophers were wealthy, allowing then to dedicate time to philosophy.

Anaximenes' apparent instructor, Anaximander, was a Milesian philosopher who proposed that all substances are composed of apeiron, an undefined and infinite material. Anaximenes and Anaximander were two of the three Milesian philosophers, along with Thales. These were all philosophers from Miletus who were the first of the Ionian School, the earliest known philosophers to have developed theories regarding the material origin of the world without a divine explanation. According to Diogenes Laertius, lived approximately from 585 to 524 BC, and his philosophical activity is usually placed between 545 and 494 BC. Anaximenes is only known to have written one full text, which may have been a response to Anaximander's text On Nature. It was described by Theophrastus as having a "simple and economical Ionic style". Apollodorus suggests that Anaximenes died c. 526 BC.

Philosophy

See also: Classical element § Hellenistic philosophy

Air as the arche

What is known about Anaximenes' philosophy is what was preserved by later philosophers, particularly Aristotle and Theopharastus. According to their writings, each philosopher of the Milesian School was a material monist who sought to discover the arche (Ancient Greek: ἀήρή, lit. 'beginning, origin'), or the one, underlying basis of all things. Anaximenes argued that the arche is air. He described several basic elements that he considered to be manifestations of air, sorting them from least dense to most dense: fire, air, wind, clouds, water, earth, and stones. Philosophers have concluded that Anaximenes seems to have based his conclusions on naturally observable phenomena in the water cycle: the processes of rarefaction and condensation. He proposed that each substance is created by condensation to increase the density of air or by rarefaction to decrease it. Temperature was of particular importance to Anaximenes' philosophy, and he developed an early concept of the connection between temperature and density. He is understood to have believed that expanded air was thinner and therefore hotter while compressed air was thicker and therefore colder—although modern science has found the opposite to be true. He derived this belief from the fact that one's breath is warm when the mouth is wide while it is cold when the air is compressed through the lips.

Anaximenes of Miletus as depicted in the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493)

Anaximenes further applies his concept of air as the arche to other questions. He believed in the physis, or natural world, rather than the theo, or divine world. Anaximenes considered air to be divine in a sense, but he did not associate it with deities or personification. He presented air as the first cause that propelled living systems, giving no indication that air itself was caused by anything. Anaximenes also likened the soul to air, describing it as something that is driven by breath and wills humans to act as they do. These beliefs draw a connection between the soul and the physical world, as it suggests that they are made of the same material, air. From this, Anaximenes suggested that everything, whether it be an individual soul or the entire world, operates under the same principles in which things are held together and guided by the air. In Ancient Greek, the words for wind and for soul shared a common origin.

Anaximenes' philosophy was centered in a theory of change through ongoing cycles, defined by the movement of air. These cycles consisted of opposite forces interacting with and superseding one another. This is most prominently indicated in the weather and the seasons, which alternate between hot and cold, dry and wet, or light and dark. Anaximenes did not believe that any substance could be created or destroyed, only that it could be changed from one form to another. This system proposed a model in which the qualitative traits of a substance are determined by quantitative factors.

Cosmology and weather

Astrology by the 16th-century Dutch engraver Cornelis Cort has a book labeled "Anaximenes" (bottom left).

Anaximenes believed that the universe was initially made entirely of air, and that liquids and solids were then produced from it through condensation. He also used air to explain the nature of the Earth and the surrounding celestial bodies. He believed in a flat Earth that emerged as one of the first things to be condensed from air. This Earth supported by the pressure of air underneath it to keep it afloat.

Anaximenes considered celestial objects to be those which had undergone rarefaction and evaporated from Earth as fire. He is said to have compared the movement of the Sun and the stars to a leaf floating in the wind, though he is also described as likening the stars to nails embedded in the sky. Some scholars theorize that Anaximenes may have been the first person to distinguish between planets and fixed stars, justifying a description of both floating celestial bodies and those likened to nails.

While the Sun is similarly described as being a flame, Anaximenes thought it was not composed of rarefied air like the stars, but rather of Earth like the Moon. According to Pseudo-Plutarch, Anaximenes thought that its burning comes not from its composition, but rather from its rapid motion. He rejected the commonplace idea that the Sun went underneath the Earth, instead saying that it rotated around the Earth. Hippolytus said that Anaximenes likened it to a hat spinning around a person's head. This has been interpreted in various ways by subsequent philosophers.

Anaximenes also described the causes of other natural phenomena. Like Anaximander, he believed that thunder and lightning occurred when wind emerged after being trapped in a cloud. Earthquakes, he asserted, were the result either of lack of moisture, causing the earth to break apart, or of a superabundance of water, causing cracks in the earth. In either case, the earth becomes weakened by its cracks, so that hills collapse and cause earthquakes. Rainbows were formed when densely compressed air is touched by the rays of the sun.

Milesian context

Anaximenes' views have been interpreted as reconciling those of his two predecessors, Thales and Anaximander. Air as the arche has the feature of being one thing which seems unlimited (like Anaximander, who thought the arche was apeiron (Ancient Greek: ἄπειρον, lit. 'unlimited, 'boundless'), but is a determinate substance, like Thales with water and unlike Anaximander. He also viewed air as the substance most capable of change because he saw air as always being in motion. Anaximenes adopted a similar design of a flat Earth as Thales. Both proposed that the Earth was flat and that it rested on the substance they believed made up all things; Thales described a disc on water, while Anaximenes described a disc on air. His cosmology also did not diverge significantly from the ideas of Anaximander, only changing it so that it reflected his variety of monism.

Anaximenes's philosophy was founded upon that of Anaximander, but it is understood that he was also critical of his instructor in some areas. Anaximenes' ideas reflect those of Anaximander in that both identify a single extensive substance that makes up all things in the world, but Anaximenes rejected the details of Anaximander's theory, instead believing that the substance must be a definite thing. In this way, he was more similar to Thales, who proposed that water was the substance that made up all things. Anaximenes also maintained that there must be an empirical explanation for why substances change from one form to another. As with Anaximander, Anaximenes is not known to have justified why or how changes in physical things take place the way that they do, though he also did not use the metaphors of justice and retribution between concepts that Anaximander used. Anaximenes also rejected the direct appeals to deities and the divine made by Anaximander.

Legacy and study

Influence on science and philosophy

The ruins of Miletus

Anaximenes was the last of the Milesian philosophers, as Miletus was destroyed by attacking Persian forces in 494 BCE. Little of his life is known relative to the other Milesian philosophers, Thales and Anaximander. These three philosophers together began what eventually became science in the Western world. In ancient Greece, the ideas of Anaximenes were well regarded in philosophy, popularized by various philosophers such as Diogenes of Apollonia, and had a greater presence than the ideas of his predecessors. The other Milesian philosophers have since overshadowed him in the study of philosophy. Anaximenes is the first philosopher to give an explanation for substances changing from one to another through a physical process. He may also have been the first philosopher to write in descriptive prose rather than verse, developing a prototype of scientific writing. Only fragments of Anaximenes' writings have been preserved directly, and it is unknown how much these fragments have diverged from the original texts as they were recorded by subsequent authors. Further details of Anaximenes' life and philosophical views are obscure, as none of his work has been preserved, and he is only known through fragments and interpretations of him made by later writers and polemicists. Anaximenes is identified by the number 13 in the standard, fifth edition of the Diels–Kranz numbering system. The Anaximenes crater on the Moon is named in his honor.

Early medical practice developed ideas similar to Anaximenes, proposing that air was the basis of health in that it both provides life and carries disease. Anaximenes' conception of air has been likened to the atoms and subatomic particles which make up all substances through their quantitative organization. It has also been compared to the breath of life produced by God in the Old Testament. His understanding of physical properties as measurable quantitative differences that applied at individual and universal scales became foundational ideas in the development of natural science. He was the first philosopher to analogize his philosophy in real world terms, comparing the functions of the world to behaviors that can be observed in common activities. In this manner, he was also the first to liken the function of the individual to that of the world. In this case, likening the breath that defines humans to the air that defines the world. His belief that the same properties governed the world at a human scale and a universal scale was eventually proven by Isaac Newton.

Subsequent interpretation

Some of Anaximenes' writings are referenced during the Hellenistic period, but no record of those documents currently exists. Philosophers such as Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, and Diogenes of Apollonia were all directly influenced by the work of Anaximenes. Diogenes of Apollonia adapted Anaximenes' ideas to the philosophy of Stoicism. The Stoics believed pneuma to be a mix of the elements fire and air. In a view reminiscent of Anaximenes, Chrysippus believed pneuma is what moved the body, and what held everything together. It existed in men as nous, in animals as psyche, in plants as physis, and in inanimate objects as hexis (Ancient Greek: 'ἕξις, lit. 'possession, habit'), or qualities and dispositions. "Whiteness" for example, was ultimately air. The ideas ridiculed in the Aristophanes play The Clouds originated from the ideas of Anaximander and Anaximenes. The Pythagoreans, according to Aristotle, believed that the world breathed; that there was "boundless breath" which was "outside the heavens, and ... was inhaled by the world". Xenophanes said that rainbows were clouds, which, on one interpretation, is a response to Anaximenes' idea that rainbows are caused by light being reflected off of clouds. Xenophanes' theory that the arche is earth and water has also been interpreted as a response to Anaximenes.

Plato referenced the concept of air as the cause of thought in the Phaedo, rejecting it with the argument that one's physical state does not determine their fate. In the Timaeus, Plato favorably mentions Anaximenes' theory of matter and its seven states from stone to fire. Plato treats Anaximenes as a kind of philosopher of process rather than a material monist, as Aristotle portrays him. From this perspective, Anaximenes is viewed as a forerunner of Heraclitus and ultimately Plato, rather than Diogenes of Apollonia. Aristotle was critical of the ideas of Anaximenes. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle defined Anaximenes and his predecessors as monists, those who believe that all things are composed of a single substance. This categorization came to be widely accepted in philosophy. Practitioners of Aristotelian philosophy further considered Anaximenes to be a founder of naturalism. After Artistotle, Theophrastus continued the doxography of the Milesian philosophers and other Ionians. He described Anaximenes as a natural philosopher. Other ancient philosophers who analyzed the work of Anaximenes include Simplicius, Aetius, Hippolytus, and Plutarch.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said that Anaximenes was the first philosopher to transfer the ideas of natural philosophy into the philosophy of consciousness. Werner Heisenberg said that the philosophy of Anaximenes caused a setback in scientific understanding, as it moved analysis away from physical properties themselves. Karl Popper suggested that Anaximenes and Anaximander developed a philosophy of rationalist critique, allowing criticism of one's teacher, that was not revived until the Renaissance.

References

Sources

• Algra, K. (1999). "The Beginning of Cosmology". In Long, A. A. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521446678.
• Barnes, J. (1982). "Science and Speculation". The Presocratic Philosophers. Abingdon: Routledge. pp. 38–56. ISBN 0-415-20351-1.
• Burnet, J. (1930). "Anaximenes". Early Greek Philosophy (4th ed.). London: A & C Black. pp. 72–79.
• Couprie, Dirk L. (2018). When the Earth Was Flat. Springer.
• Eisman, M. M. (2007). "Anaximenes of Miletus". In Sienkewicz, T. J. (ed.). Ancient Greece: Volume 1. Pasadena: Salem Press. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-1-58765-282-0.
• Fairbanks, A. (1898). "Anaximenes". The First Philosophers of Greece. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. pp. 17–22.
• Graham, Daniel W. (2006). Explaining the Cosmos: The Ionian Tradition of Scientific Philosophy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400827459.
• Guthrie, W. K. C. (1962). "The Milesians: Anaximenes". A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–139. ISBN 0-521-29420-7.
• Hussey, E. L. (2005). "Anaximenes of Miletus". In Honderich, T. (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 0-19-926479-1.
• Kirk, G. S.; Raven, J. E.; Schofield, M. (1957). "Anaximenes of Miletus" (PDF). The Presocratic Philosophers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 143–162. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
•  Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "Socrates, with predecessors and followers: Anaximenes" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 1:2. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.
• Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The Greeks and the Cosmos.". The Beginnings of Western Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Martins, Carlos (2020). The Universe Today. Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-49632-6.
• Sandywell, Barry (1995). Presocratic Reflexivity: The Construction of Philosophical Discourse c. 600-450 BC. Routledge. ISBN 9780203424803.
• Taran, L. (1970). "Anaximenes of Miletus". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 151–152. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9.
• Vamvacas, C. J. (2009). "Anaximenes of Miletus (ca. 585-525 B.C.)". The Founders of Western Thought – The Presocratics. New York: Springer. pp. 45–51. ISBN 9781402097911.

Further reading

• Bicknell, P. J. (1969). "Anaximenes' Astronomy". Acta Classica. 12: 53–85. JSTOR 24591168.
• Classen, C. J. (1977). "Anaximander and Anaximenes: The Earliest Greek Theories of Change?". Phronesis. 22 (2): 89–102. doi:10.1163/156852877X00010. JSTOR 4182008.
• Freeman, Kathleen (1978). Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03500-3.
• Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (1985). The Art and Culture of Early Greece, 1100–480 BC. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
• Luchte, James (2011). Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0567353313.
• Russell, B. (2004). "The Milesian School". A History of Western Philosophy. Abingdon: Routledge. pp. 33–37. ISBN 9780415325059.
• Sandywell, Barry (1996). Presocratic Reflexivity: The Construction of Philosophical Discourse, c. 600-450 BC. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415101700.
• Stokes, M. C. (1971). The One and Many in Presocratic Philosophy. Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies with Harvard University Press.
• Sweeney, Leo (1972). Infinity in the Presocratics: A Bibliographical and Philosophical Study. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
• Wright, M. R. (1995). Cosmology in Antiquity. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415121835.

External links

• Quotations related to Anaximenes of Miletus at Wikiquote
• Anaximenes at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Anaximenes of Miletus Life and Work – Fragments and Testimonies by Giannis Stamatellos