Jump to content

Syrian revolution

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from 2011 Syrian uprising)
For other uses, see Syrian Revolution (disambiguation).

Syrian Revolution
Part of the Arab Spring and the Syrian civil war
Demonstration in Homs against the Syrian government, 18 April 2011
Date15 March 2011 (2011-03-15) – 8 December 2024 (2024-12-08)
(13 years, 8 months, 3 weeks and 2 days)
Location
Syria
Caused by
Goals
  • Overthrowing of Bashar al-Assad[5][6]
  • Democratic reforms[7]
  • Regime change[8]
  • Expanded civil rights[9]
  • Abolition of the Supreme State Security Court
  • Lifting of the emergency law[10]
  • Equal rights for Kurds
Methods
Resulted inOpposition victory
Parties
Lead figures

No centralized leadership

Casualties and losses
Over 12,617 arrested; 3,000 civilians forcibly disappeared (by 28 July)[19]

1,800[20]–2,154[21]
Total deaths
580,000[22]–617,910+[23]

Civilian deaths
219,223–306,887+[a]

Displaced people

a During the civil uprising in the first half of 2011, the Syrian opposition used the same flag of Syria as the Syrian government.[27][28]

The Syrian Revolution,[29][30] also known as the Syrian Revolution of Dignity[b] and the Syrian Intifada,[31] was a series of mass protests and uprisings in Syria – with a subsequent violent reaction by the Syrian Arab Republic – lasting from March 2011 to December 2024, as part of the wider Arab Spring in the Arab world. The revolution, which demanded the end of the decades-long Assad family rule, began as minor demonstrations during January 2011 and transformed into large nation-wide protests in March. The uprising was marked by mass protests against the Ba'athist dictatorship of president Bashar al-Assad meeting police and military violence, massive arrests and a brutal crackdown, resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths and tens of thousands wounded.[c] 13 years after the start of the revolution, the Assad regime fell in 2024 after a series of rebel offensives.

Despite al-Assad's attempts to crush the protests with crackdowns, censorship and concessions, the mass protests had become a full-blown revolution by the end of April. The Ba'athist government deployed its ground troops and airforce, ordering them to fight the rebels. The regime's deployment of large-scale violence against protestors and civilians led to international condemnation of the Assad government and support for the protesters. Discontent among soldiers led to massive defections from the Syrian Arab Army, while people began to form opposition militias across the country, gradually transforming the revolution from a civil uprising to an armed rebellion, and later a full-scale civil war. The Free Syrian Army was formed on 29 July 2011, marking the beginning of an armed insurgency.

As the Syrian insurgency progressed in October–December 2011, protests against the government simultaneously strengthened across northern, southern and western Syria. The uprisings were crushed by massive crackdowns, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths and hundreds of thousands of casualties, which angered many across the country. The regime also deployed sectarian Shabiha death squads to attack the protestors. Protests and revolutionary activities by students and the youth continued despite aggressive suppression. As opposition militias began capturing vast swathes of territory throughout 2012, the United Nations officially declared the clashes in Syria as a civil war in June 2012.[36][37]

The unprecedented violence led to global backlash, with the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) convening an emergency session on 29 April and tasking a fact-finding mission to investigate the scale of atrocities in Syria. The investigation by the commission concluded that the Syrian Arab Army, secret police and Ba'athist paramilitaries engaged in massacres, forced disappearances, summary executions, show-trials, torture, assassinations, and persecution and abductions of suspects from hospitals, amongst others, with an official "shoot-to-kill" policy from the government. The UNHRC report published on 18 August stated that the atrocities amounted to "crimes against humanity", with High Commissioner Navi Pillai urging Security Council members to prosecute al-Assad in the International Criminal Court. A second emergency session convened by the UNHRC on 22 August condemned the Assad government's atrocities and called for an immediate cessation of all military operations and engagement in Syrian-led political process, with numerous countries demanding al-Assad's resignation.[38][39] The Syrian Revolution achieved its main goal of achieving the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024 after Assad fled to Moscow. The fall of Damascus ended the Assad regime as the Syrian prime minister Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali handed over power to the revolutionaries and they formed Syrian transitional government.

Background

[edit]
See also: Background of the Syrian civil war and Background and causes of the Syrian revolution

At the onset of the Arab Spring, Ba'athist Syria was considered as the most restrictive police state in the Arab World; with a tight system of regulations on the movement of civilians, independent journalists and other unauthorized individuals. Reporters Without Borders listed Syria as the 6th worst country in its 2010 Press Freedom Index.[40][41] Before the uprising in Syria began in mid-March 2011, protests were relatively modest, considering the wave of unrest that was spreading across the Arab world. Until March 2011, for decades Syria had remained superficially tranquil, largely due to fear among the people of the secret police arresting critical citizens.[42] The last resistance to Ba'athist rule was crushed in the 1982 Hama massacre, during which over 40,000 civilians were killed.

After winning the 2007 presidential election in Syria with 99.82% of the declared votes, Bashar al-Assad implemented numerous measures that further intensified political and cultural repression in Syria.[43] Assad government expanded travel bans against numerous dissidents, intellectuals, authors and artists living in Syria; preventing them and their families from travelling abroad. In September 2010, The Economist newspaper described Syrian government as "the worst offender among Arab states", that engaged in imposing travel bans and restricted free movement of people. More than 400 individuals in Syria were reportedly restricted by Assad regime's travel bans in 2010.[44] During this period, the Assad government arrested numerous journalists and shut down independent press centres, in addition to tightening its censorship of the Internet.[45]

Factors contributing to social disenchanment in Syria include socio-economic stress caused by the Iraqi conflict, as well as the most intense drought ever recorded in the region.[46] For decades, the Syrian economy, army and government had been dominated patronage networks of Ba'ath party elites and Alawite clients loyal to Assad family. Assad dynasty held a firm grip over most sectors of the Syrian economy and corruption was endemic in the public and private sectors. The pervasive nature of corruption had been a source of controversy within the Ba'ath party circles as well as the wider public; as early as the 1980s.[47] The persistence of corruption, sectarian bias, nepotism and widespread bribery that existed in party, bureaucracy and military led to popular anger that resulted in the large-scale protests of the Revolution.[48]

Minor protests calling for government reforms began in January, and continued into March. At this time, massive protests were occurring in Cairo against Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, and in Syria on 3 February via the websites Facebook and Twitter, a "Day of Rage" was called for by activists against the government of Bashar al-Assad, to be held on Friday, 4 February.[49] This did not result in protests.[50][51]

Civil uprising (March–July 2011)

[edit]

March 2011 uprising

[edit]
Main article: Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2011)
A wall with Anti-Assad graffiti "liyaskuṭ Bašhār" (trans. "Down with Bashar!") during the start of the revolution

In the southern city of Daraa, commonly called the "Cradle of the Syrian Revolution",[32][52] protests had been triggered on 6 March by the incarceration and torture of 15 young students from prominent families who were arrested for writing anti-government graffiti in the city,[53][54][55] reading: "الشعب يريد إسقاط النظام" – ("The people want the fall of the regime") – a trademark slogan of the Arab Spring.[56][57] The boys also spray-painted the graffiti "Your turn, Doctor"; directly alluding to Bashar al-Assad. Security forces under the command of the city's security chief and the first cousin of President Assad, Atef Najib swiftly responded by rounding up the alleged perpetrators and detaining them for more than a month, which set off large-scale protests in Daraa Governorate that quickly spread to other provinces. According to information given by interviewees to 'Human Rights Watch', the protests in Daraa began as largely peaceful affairs, with demonstrators often carrying olive branches, unbuttoning their shirts to show that they had no weapons, and chanting "peaceful, peaceful" to indicate that they posed no threat to the security forces.[58] The Syrian Arab Army was soon deployed to shoot at the protests; resulting in a popular resistance movement led by locals; which made Daraa one of the first provinces in Syria to break free of regime control.[32]

The government later claimed that the boys weren't attacked, and that Qatar incited the majority of the protests.[59] Writer and analyst Louai al-Hussein, referencing the Arab Spring ongoing at that time, wrote that "Syria is now on the map of countries in the region with an uprising".[57] On 15 March, dubbed a "Day of Rage" by numerous demonstrators, pro-democracy activists and online opposition groups, hundreds of protestors marched in the cities of Damascus and Aleppo, demanding the overthrow of Bashar al-Assad. More than 35 protestors in Damascus were arrested by police forces in a subsequent crackdown ordered by Assad government.[43][60]

Syrian pro-democracy protest groups and activists launched a campaign to organise a "Day of Rage" demonstrations in Damascus and other cities on 25 March 2011. Online activists used social media networks like Facebook and Twitter to promote the protest campaign.

In Daraa, demonstrators clashed with local police, and confrontations escalated on 18 March after Friday prayers. Security forces attacked protesters gathered at the Omari Mosque using water cannons and tear gas, followed by live fire, killing four.[61][58] On 20 March, a crowd burned down the Ba'ath Party headquarters and other public buildings. Security forces quickly responded, firing live ammunition at crowds, and attacking the focal points of the demonstrations. The two-day assault resulted in the deaths of seven police officers[62] and fifteen protesters.[63]

Meanwhile, minor protests occurred elsewhere in the country. Protesters demanded the release of political prisoners, the abolition of Syria's 48-year emergency law, more freedoms, and an end to pervasive government corruption.[64] The events led to a "Friday of Dignity" on 18 March, when large-scale protests broke out in several cities, including Banias, Damascus, al-Hasakah, Daraa, Deir az-Zor, and Hama. Police responded to the protests with tear gas, water cannons, and beatings. At least 6 people were killed and many others injured.[65]

On 23 March, units of the Fourth Division led by Maher al-Assad stormed a gathering in a Sunni mosque in Daraa, killing five more civilians. Victims included a doctor who was treating the wounded. Anger at the incident arose exponentially in the province and across the country. The regime attempted to simmer down the protests by announcing tax-cuts and pay rises the next day. On 25 March, tens of thousands of people participated in the funerals of those killed, chanting: "We do not want your bread, we want dignity". Statues and billboards of Hafez al-Assad and Bashar al-Assad were demolished during the events.[66]

On 25 March, mass protests spread nationwide, as demonstrators emerged after Friday prayers. At least 20 protesters were killed by security forces. Protests subsequently spread to other Syrian cities, including Homs, Hama, Baniyas, Jasim, Aleppo, Damascus and Latakia. Over 70 protesters in total were reported killed.[67][68]

In his public address delivered on 30 March, Assad condemned the protests as a "foreign plot" and described those who were killed by the firing as a "sacrifice for national stability", sparking widespread outcry.[69] A protestor who was the relative of one of the detained boys told reporters:

"He didn't ask the MPs to stand for a minute's silence and he said those who were killed were sacrificial martyrs.. But here in Daraa, the army and security deal with us like traitors or agents for Israel. We hoped our army would fight and liberate the occupied Golan, not send tanks and helicopters to fight civilians."[69]

Crackdown

[edit]
Main article: Syrian government response to the Syrian revolution
Demonstration in Douma, a Damascus suburb, against the Assad government on 8 April 2011.

Even before the uprising began, the Syrian government had made numerous arrests of political dissidents and human rights campaigners, many of whom were understood as terrorists by the Assad government. In early February 2011, authorities arrested several activists, including political leaders Ghassan al-Najar,[70] Abbas Abbas,[71] and Adnan Mustafa.[72] Government forces used Ba'ath party buildings as a base to organize the security forces and fire on protestors.[73] The government issued an official shoot-to-kill policy on the peaceful demonstrators; deploying snipers, heavy machine guns and shelling. Those security officers who disagreed or held back themselves were also fired upon by Ba'athist paramilitaries and Shabiha death squads from behind.[38][74]

Police and security forces responded to the protests violently, using water cannons and tear gas as well as physically beating protesters and firing live ammunition.[75] The regime also deployed the dreaded Shabiha death squads, consisting of fervent Alawite loyalists, that were ordered to execute sectarian attacks on the protestors, torture Sunni demonstrators and engage in anti-Sunni rhetoric. This policy led to large-scale desertions within the army ranks and further defections of officers who began forming a resistance movement.[76][77][78]

As the uprisings intensified, the Syrian government waged a campaign of arrests that captured tens of thousands of people. In response to the uprising, Syrian law had been changed to allow the police and any of the nation's 18 security forces to detain a suspect for eight days without a warrant. Arrests focused on two groups: political activists, and men and boys from the towns that the Syrian Army would start to besiege in April.[79] Many of those detained experienced ill-treatment. Many detainees were cramped in tight rooms and were given limited resources, and some were beaten, electrically jolted, or debilitated. At least 27 torture centers run by Syrian intelligence agencies were revealed by Human Rights Watch on 3 July 2012.[80] State propaganda of the Alawite-dominated Baathist regime has attempted to portray any pro-democracy protests, that calls for political pluralism and civil liberties, as "a project to sow sectarian strife."[81]

Regime forces carried out brutal attacks against the inhabitants of Al-Rastan, displacing more than 80% of its population. Characterizing the displaced civilians as "armed terrorist groups", Syrian Arab Armed Forces expanded its attacks on the civilians that sought refuge in nearby areas, resulting in 127 deaths.[82] Early in the month of April, a large deployment of security forces prevented tent encampments in Latakia. Blockades were set up in several cities to prevent the movement of protests. Despite the crackdown, widespread protests continued throughout the month in Daraa, Baniyas, Al-Qamishli, Homs, Douma and Harasta.[83]

Concessions

[edit]
Main article: Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2011)
Anti-Assad demonstrations in Baniyas, 6 May 2011
Pro-government demonstrations organized by the Ba'ath party at Tishreen University, Latakia on 23 May 2011.

During March and April, the Syrian government, hoping to alleviate the protests, offered political reforms and policy changes. Authorities shortened mandatory army conscription,[84] and in an apparent attempt to reduce corruption, fired the governor of Daraa.[85] The government announced it would release political prisoners, cut taxes, raise the salaries of public sector workers, provide more press freedoms, and increase job opportunities.[86] Many of these announced reforms were never implemented.[87]

The government, dominated by the Alawite sect, made some concessions to the majority Sunni and some minority populations. Authorities reversed a ban that restricted teachers from wearing the niqab, and closed the country's only casino.[81] The government also granted citizenship to thousands of Syrian Kurds previously labeled "foreigners".[88] Following Bahrain's example, the Syrian government held a two-day national dialogue in July, in attempt to alleviate the crisis. However, the representatives that held the dialogue were mostly Ba'ath party members; in addition to Assad loyalist figures and leaders of pro-regime satellite parties. As a result, many of the opposition leaders and protest leaders refused to attend due to the continuing crackdown on protesters in streets and tanks besieging cities.[89][90]

A popular demand from protesters was an end of the nation's state of emergency, which had been in effect for nearly 50 years. The emergency law had been used to justify arbitrary arrests and detention, and to ban political opposition. After weeks of debate, Assad signed the decree on 21 April, lifting Syria's state of emergency.[91] However, anti-government protests continued into April, with activists unsatisfied with what they considered vague promises of reform from Assad.[92]

Military operations

[edit]
Main articles: Timeline of the Syrian civil war (January–April 2011) and Timeline of the Syrian civil war (May–August 2011)

April 2011

[edit]
Opposition demonstration in Baniyas on 29 April 2011.

As the uprisings continued, the Syrian government began launching major military operations to suppress resistance, signaling a new phase in the uprising. On 25 April, Daraa, which had become a focal point of the uprising, was one of the first cities to be besieged by the Syrian Army. An estimated hundreds to 6,000 soldiers were deployed, firing live ammunition at demonstrators and searching house to house for protesters, slaughtering hundreds.[93] Shabiha mercenaries, loyal to the Assad dynasty, were also deployed by Assad regime in towns and cities across the country to unleash violence against Syrian civilians. They engaged in looting homes, businesses, and economic assets of populations targeted by the Ba'athist military apparatus.[94]

Tanks were used for the first time against demonstrators, and snipers took positions on the rooftops of mosques. Mosques used as headquarters for demonstrators and organizers were especially targeted.[93] Security forces began shutting off water, power and phone lines, and confiscating flour and food. Clashes between the army and opposition forces, which included armed protesters and defected soldiers, led to the death of hundreds.[95]

By 28 April, Syrian Arab armed forces had shut down all communications and completely besieged the city of Daraa, which resulted in the forced starvation of the people of the city.[96] Defections from the Arab Socialist Ba'ath party also increased, as 233 Ba'ath Party members resigned on 28 April. This was in denunciation of the increasingly fatal violence that was getting unleashed on civilians.[97]

Throughout April, Ba'athist security forces intensified its campaign of large-scale detainment and torture of Syrian protestors, journalists and activists across state prisons.[98] On April 29, a 13-year-old boy named Hamza Ali al-Khateeb was arrested by forces of the Baathist mukhabarat during protests held in the village of Saida. For nearly a month, Hamza was held in police custody, where he endured regular torture and mutilation of his body.[99]

May 2011

[edit]
See also: Killing and mutilation of Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb
Syrian security forces open fire on protestors in Jisr ash-Shugur on 5 May 2011.

During the crackdown in Daraa, the Syrian Army also besieged and blockaded several towns around Damascus. Throughout May, situations similar to those that occurred in Daraa were reported in other besieged towns and cities, such as Baniyas, Homs, Talkalakh, Latakia, Jisr al-Shuggur, Aleppo, Damascus and several other towns and cities.[100][94] After the end of each siege, violent suppression of sporadic protests continued throughout the following months.[101]

On May 15, 2011, the Syrian Arab Army began a siege of the town of Talkalakh. Eight civilians were killed and at least 2,000 residents tried to flee from the city into Lebanon. Reports subsequently emerged that the SAA troops were massacring residents of the town.[102][103]

On 20 May, security forces and Ba'athist militants based on a party training camp Al-Mastumah village in Idlib massacred a rally of peaceful demonstrators by firing without warning, killing 30 and injuring about 200. The injured were denied entry to hospitals for treatment. By 24 May, the names of 1,062 people killed in the uprising since mid-March had been documented by the National Organization for Human Rights in Syria.[104]

"This is a campaign of mass terrorism and intimidation: Horribly tortured people sent back to communities by a regime not trying to cover up its crimes, but to advertise them."

On May 24, Baathist mukhabarat released the tortured and mutilated body of Hamza Ali al-Khateeb to his family members. A video of Hamza's mutilated body was uploaded online, triggering large-scale protests in Daraa, during which residents defied the military siege and came out in large numbers to protest against police repression. Rezan Mustapha, spokesman of the opposition Kurdish Future Movement party stated: "This video moved not only every single Syrian, but people worldwide. It is unacceptable and inexcusable. The horrible torture was done to terrify demonstrators and make them stop calling for their demands."[99]

June–July 2011

[edit]
Hundreds of thousands of protesters parade the flag of Syria and shout the trade mark Arab Spring slogan "Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam" (Arabic: الشعب يريد إسقاط النظام, lit. '"the people want to bring down the regime!"') in the Assi square of Hama on 22 July 2011

As the uprising progressed, opposition fighters became better equipped and more organized. Until September 2011, about two senior military or security officers defected to the opposition.[106] Some analysts stated that these defections were signs of Assad's weakening inner circle.[107] In the wake of increasing defections, soldiers who refused or neglected orders to shoot civilians were also killed.[108]

The first instance of armed insurrection occurred on 4 June 2011 in Jisr ash-Shugur, a city near the Turkish border in Idlib. Angry protesters set fire to a building where security forces had fired on during a funeral demonstration. Eight security officers died in the fire as demonstrators took control of a police station, seizing weapons. Clashes between protesters and security forces continued in the following days. Some security officers defected after secret police and intelligence agents executed soldiers who refused to kill the civilians. On 6 June, Sunni militiamen and army defectors ambushed a group of security forces heading to the city which was met by a large government counterattack. Fearing a massacre, insurgents and defectors, along with 10,000 residents, fled across the Turkish border.[63]

In June and July 2011, protests continued as government forces expanded operations, repeatedly firing at protesters, employing tanks against demonstrations, and conducting arrests. The towns of Rastan and Talbiseh, and Maarat al-Numaan were besieged in early June.[109] On 30 June, large protests erupted against the Assad government in Aleppo, Syria's largest city.[110] On 3 July, Syrian tanks were deployed to Hama, two days after the city witnessed the largest demonstration against Bashar al-Assad.[111]

During the first six months of the uprising, the inhabitants of Syria's two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo, remained largely uninvolved in the anti-government protests.[112] The two cities' central squares have seen rallies of thousands of pro-Assad protestors marching in support of the Assad government, organized by the Ba'ath party.[113]

On 3 June, about 30,000 protestors marched in Jisr ash-Shughur. Security forces dispersed the crowd with tear gas and by firing into the air.[94] On 4 July 2011, Syrian Arab Army launched a military incursion into the city of Jishr al-Shugour, killing hundreds of civilians. The people of the city attempted to stave off the invasion by forming human shields. When Ba'athist commanding officers issued orders to shoot at the demonstrators, hundreds of soldiers refused to obey and defected from the military. As the Syrian military lost control of the situation, Assad government sent helicopters to fire at the defecting soldiers and the crowds of demonstrators. The assault on the city lasted until 12 June 2011.[114][115][116][94]

On 11 July 2011, several Ba'athist cadres besieged and vandalized American and French embassies in Damascus, while chanting pro-Assad slogans "We will die for you, Bashar".[117] On 31 July, a nationwide crackdown, known as the "Ramadan Massacre", launched by Syrian military forces in towns, cities and villages across the country resulted in the killings of at least 142 people and hundreds of injuries. At least 95 civilians were slaughtered in the city of Hama, after Ba'athist military forces shot at crowds of residents and bombed the streets of the city with tanks and heavy weaponry.[118] Some besieged cities and towns fell into famine-like conditions. Al-Balad neighbourhood in Daraa, which had been under a brutal siege by Syrian Arab Armed Forces since late March, was described by the Le Monde newspaper as a "ghetto of death".[119] British foreign secretary William Hague condemned Bashar al-Assad for unleashing indiscriminate violence in Hama, and the German government threatened to impose additional sanctions against the Assad government.[118]

Mass protests and Syrian insurgency: August 2011 – June 2012

[edit]
Protest against the Assad regime in the city of Homs, 3 February 2012

Intensified Ba'athist crackdowns and beginning of Syrian insurgency: August – September 2011

[edit]
Further information: Syrian insurgency

Throughout August, Syrian forces stormed major urban centers and outlying regions, and continued to attack protestors. On 14 August, the Siege of Latakia continued as the Syrian Arab Navy became involved in the military crackdown for the first time. Gunboats fired heavy machine guns at waterfront districts in Latakia, as ground troops and security agents backed by armor stormed several neighborhoods.[120] On 23 August, Syrian opposition factions and various dissidents formed a coalition of anti-Assad groups known as the Syrian National Council.[121]

The Eid ul-Fitr celebrations, started in near the end of August, were suppressed by Assad government after Ba'athist military forces fired on large demonstrations in Homs, Daraa, and the suburbs of Damascus.[122]

Escalation of Syrian insurgency: October 2011 – June 2012

[edit]
Military situation during the Syrian insurgency, 15 March 2012.
  Controlled by Syrian Arab Republic
  Controlled by Syrian opposition

Mass protests, rallies, demonstrations and riots continued throughout October and it was met with violent repression. In October 2011, 4 days of anti-government demonstrations led to beatings and fighting nationwide. Students, workers, employees, retirees, peasants, farmers, university students and street vendors participated in the movement daily. These protests started as 200 participants but it culminated as killings and beating was reported into tens of thousands. As rioting and looting was held, protesters were killed by security forces and in clashes between police and rioters, live ammunition and plastic bullets were fired. During the demonstrations on 18–19 November, 4–18 protesters were killed as they tried to March into Damascus and the residence of Bashar al-Assad, president of Syria. Workers demanded their wages to be paid. Stones and rocks were thrown at pictures of Bashar al-Assad on billboards. During protests in Aleppo in May 2012, police fired tear gas and used gunfire, striking retirees. During demonstrations by farmers and workers in Raqqah in January–April, 21 people were killed in battles. Street protests in the hundreds continued until a raid on universities in September 2012.

Fall of Assad Regime

[edit]
Main article: Fall of the Assad regime

The Syrian Revolution achieved its main goal of achieving the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024 after Assad fled to Moscow. The Fall of Damascus ended the Assad regime as Prime Minister of Syria Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali handed over power to the revolutionaries.

Aftermath

[edit]

"almost two decades before the United States passed the Voting Rights Act... Syrians chose Fares al-Khoury, a Protestant Christian, as their prime minister. The Syrian uprising of 2011 was based on a desire to return to our grand past. It was a protest movement of all faiths... But the Assad regime cracked down with unspeakable horrors. More than 200,000 people have been killed as the regime deployed its full arsenal, including barrel bombs and sarin gas, against civilians. More than 9 million Syrians have been displaced, including more than 3 million refugees, and thousands have been tortured to death in Assad's dungeons. All this occurred while the world looked on."

— Syrian Sufi scholar Muhammad al-Yaqoubi[123]
Further information: 2012–2013 escalation of the Syrian civil war

The unprecedented brutality of Assad regime's crackdown on Syrian civilians resulted in global outcry and aroused strong condemnation from international bodies like the Arab League, United Nations, European Union, etc. Two emergency sessions were convened by the United Nations Human Rights Council is response to Ba'athist regime's brutal crackdown, in 29 April and 18 August 2011, respectively. An investigative mission appointed by the UN found the Assad regime responsible for mass-killings, assassinations, abductions, forced disappearances and other war crimes; as a result of a shoot to kill policy directly ordered by the government. UNHRC High Commissioner urged Security Council to prosecute Assad in the International Criminal Court. During the second emergency session on 18 August, several member states of the Human Rights Council demanded the resignation of Assad, while other countries called on Syrian government to immediately cease all its crackdown efforts and initiate dialogue for a political solution with the protestors.[38][124][125]

On 29 July, a group of defected officers announced the formation of the Free Syrian Army (FSA). Composed of defected Syrian Armed Forces personnel, the rebel militia sought the defence of civilians from army shootings and eventually remove Bashar al-Assad from power. On 23 August, the Syrian National Council was formed as a political counterpart to the FSA. Civilians began forming resistance militias across the country to defend themselves from the attacks of Ba'athist security apparatus.[126][127][128] As the armed resistance began establishing control over vast swathes of regions across Syria throughout 2012, UN officially described the conflict as a "civil war" on 12 June 2012.[37][36]

During the unrest, several Kurdish militias formed the Kurdish Supreme Committee, which declared itself as a self-governing entity and lifted the ban on Kurdish language in territories under its control. The crackdown campaigns were intensified by the regime throughout 2011–12; with Bashar al-Assad ordering Syrian Air Force to launch aerial bombardment of civilian areas. By the end of 2012, more than 60,000 Syrian civilians had been slaughtered by Syrian military forces.[129]

2023 Syrian protests

[edit]
Main article: 2023 southern Syria protests

More than 12 years after the start of the 2011 uprisings, mass-protests erupted in the Druze majority city of Al-Suwayda, protesters chanted slogans calling for downfall of the Assad regime. By August 24, large-scale protests had arosen nation-wide and expanded to the regions of Daraa, Latakia, Tartus, Deir-al-zor, Hasakah and Homs, etc.; resembling the popularity and mass-participation during the Syrian revolution in 2011. Protestors in regime-held areas waved revolutionary banners, chanted anti-government slogans and demanded the downfall of Ba'athist regime.[130][131][132] By the end of August 2023, the nation-wide protests had resembled the revolutionary mass-demonstrations in early 2011.[133][134]

Media coverage and censorship

[edit]
See also: Media coverage of the Syrian civil war
Carlos Latuff's cartoon depicting Bashar al-Assad fleeing from Hamza Ali al-Khatib, the Syrian boy whose killing became a global symbol of Bashar al-Assad's brutality.

Reporting on this conflict was difficult and dangerous from the start: journalists were being attacked, detained, tortured and killed.

Technical facilities (internet, telephone etc.) were being sabotaged by the Syrian government.[citation needed] Both sides in this conflict tried to discredit their opponent by framing or referring to them with negative labels and terms, or by presenting false evidence.

Since demonstrations began in March, the Assad government has imposed a complete media blackout banning independent news coverage, barring foreign free press outlets and arresting reporters who try to cover protests. Some journalists had been reported to have gone missing, been detained, been tortured in custody, or been killed on duty. International media have relied heavily on footage shot by civilians, who would often upload the files on the internet. In its report published in 2012, Committee to Protect Journalists organization described Syria as the third most censored country in the world.[135]

Assad government's cyberforces disabled mobile phones, landlines, electricity, and the Internet in several places. Authorities had extracted passwords of social media sites from journalists through beatings and torture. A pro-Assad hacker group called the Syrian Electronic Army had frequently hacked websites to post Ba'athist propaganda, and the Assad government has been implicated in malware attacks targeted at those reporting on the crisis.[136] Assad government also targeted and tortured political cartoonist Ali Farzat, who had been critical of the crackdown.[137]

International reactions

[edit]
Demonstration in Montreal on 27 March, in support of the Syrian protestors

The Arab League,[138] the European Union,[139] the United Nations,[140] and many Western governments condemned the Syrian government's violent crackdown against the protests, and many expressed support for the Syrian revolution.[141][142][143] Amnesty International organization reported on 6 July 2011 that the Syrian government's violent repression of the inhabitants of the town of Talkalakh amounted to a "systematic campaign of crimes against humanity".[144]

On 9 July, Human Rights Watch organization published a report confirming that Syrian Arab Army (SAA) soldiers were ordered by the Assad government to shoot protesters during demonstrations, as well as take part in arbitrary detentions. The group cited SAA defectors who stated that if they did not obey orders, they would have been shot by Assad loyalists.[145] The New York Times newspaper reported in mid-September that the United States and Turkey (both of whom had condemned regime violence against peaceful protesters in Syria) were working together to prepare for a post-Assad Syria.[146] A November 2011 poll by the Arab American Institute revealed that the overwhelming majority of Arabs side with the revolutionaries against the regime and that support for Bashar had virtually eroded in Shia-majority regions in Lebanon.[147]

On 22 March, Catherine Ashton, the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, issued a statement which said that the European Union "strongly condemns the violent repression, including through the use of live ammunition, of peaceful protests in various locations across Syria".[148] Ashton reiterated the EU's condemnation on 31 July after Assad government's massacre in Hama,[149] which resulted in killings of more than 200 inhabitants of Hama city.[150] Ashton said on 18 August, "The EU notes the complete loss of Bashar al-Assad's legitimacy in the eyes of the Syrian people and the necessity for him to step aside."[151] On 3 August, the United Nations Security Council denounced Assad government's violent repression of protests and issued a statement condemning "the widespread violations of human rights and the use of force against civilians by the Syrian authorities".[152]

Demonstration in Cairo in solidarity with protestors in Syria, 4 February 2012

In a joint statement of its member states released on 6 August, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) grouping denounced "mounting violence and the excessive use of force which resulted in killing and wounding large numbers" and "express[ed] sorrow for the continuous bloodshed".[152] On 12 November, the Arab League announced that it would suspend Syria from the organization if Bashar's government did not stop violence against protestors by 16 November, and invited Syria's opposition parties to join talks in the League's headquarters in Cairo. Syria, Lebanon and Yemen voted against the action, while Iraq abstained from the vote. The League also warned of possible sanctions against Syria.[153][154]

On 23 November 2011, the U.S. embassy in Damascus issued a warning for all American nationals to depart Syria "immediately while commercial transportation is available" on 23 November 2011.[155] On 24 November, a Reuters news dispatch reported U.S. Navy Carrier Strike Group Two operating off the coast of Syria to monitor the ongoing Syrian uprising, with an unnamed Western diplomat in the region noting: "It is probably routine movement. But it is going to put psychological pressure on the regime, and the Americans don't mind that."[156] On 25 November 2011; Russia, China and other BRICS group countries urged Assad government to start talks with the Syrian opposition.[157]

On 4 February 2012, more than 150 protestors gathered outside Syrian embassy in UK in London at 2am., after reports emerged that more than 200 people had been massacred by Assad government forces in the city of Homs. Some protesters were arrested by the British police.[158] Later in the day, another crowd of around 300 protestors clashed with the British police outside the embassy.[159] In Cairo, around 50 protesters ransacked the Syrian embassy in Egypt, on 4 February 2012.[159]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ 88% of whom were killed by government or Russian forces[23][24][25]
  2. ^ Sources:
    • Omri, Mohamed-Salah (2012). "A Revolution of Dignity and poetry". Boundary 2. 39 (1): 137–165. doi:10.1215/01903659-1506283.
    • "The war in Syria may be mostly over, but the revolution is not". None of this would have been possible without the Syrian Revolution of Dignity, a revolution of the mind in every sense of the word, in political, social, cultural and even religious terms.
    • "Migration, Refugees and Conceptualizing Canadian Identity" (PDF). The 'Syrian Revolution of Dignity' sought to restore Syrians' dignity in the face of state violence and corruption.
    • "Helicopters, tanks shelled Syrian town before massacre". The Globe and Mail. 13 July 2012. The banner reads, 'The Syrian Revolution of dignity, Bennish are free'.
    • "Thawrat Alkaramah". A weekly independent magazine, issued in Aleppo, and independently and impartially sheds light on the Syrian Revolution of Dignity to introduce fighters, martyrs, and prominent figures in the Revolution.
    • "Brotherhood forms human chain for Syria in Alexandria". 13 March 2012. He called on all "free Egyptians" to participate in a protest in front of Bibliotheca Alexandrina on Thursday to mark the first anniversary of the "Syrian Revolution of Dignity."
  3. ^ Sources:

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Oliver, Christin (26 October 2010). "Corruption Index 2010: The Most Corrupt Countries in the World – Global Development". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 17 September 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
  2. ^ Phillips, Christopher (2015). "Sectarianism and conflict in Syria". Third World Quarterly. 36 (2). Taylor & Francus: 357–376. doi:10.1080/01436597.2015.1015788. JSTOR 24523162. S2CID 144558644. Archived from the original on 21 October 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2023. The greatest responsibility for sectarianising the conflict lies with the regime
  3. ^ Droz- , Philippe, Vincent (2014). ""State of Barbary" (Take Two): From the Arab Spring to the Return of Violence in Syria". Middle East Journal. 68 (1). Middle East Institute: 33–58. doi:10.3751/68.1.12. JSTOR 43698560. S2CID 143177306. Archived from the original on 6 November 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2023. The use and abuse of sectarianism has been a foundational feature of Assad family rule since November 1970.
  4. ^ C. Hof, Simon, Frederic, Alex. Sectarian Violence in Syria's Civil War. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 2, 4, 9. Alawites, in the service of a family-based regime trying desperately to save itself, have played a central role in violations of human rights and international law that include indiscriminate artillery and aerial bombardments of villages, summary executions, and massacres of civilians. Sunni Arabs.. have inevitably borne the overwhelming brunt of this abuse..This period has witnessed.. the rise to power of an Alawite-dominated regime whose forty-year reign preached secularism only to deepen sectarian fault-lines when challenged, laying the groundwork for a civil war that has torn Syria's complex ethno-religious tapestry... the 1963 coup was accompanied by a dramatic surge of Alawite power in the military leadership. This trend of Alawite consolidation was accelerated by systematic discrimination against Sunnis among the Ba'ath's military adherents, as Alawites sought to further enhance their control.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Zafar, Saad (24 March 2011). "The Assad Poison". AllVoices. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
  6. ^ Mroue, Bassem (18 June 2011). "Bashar Assad Resignation Called For By Syria Sit-In Activists". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  7. ^ Oweis, Khaled; al-Khalidi, Suleiman (8 April 2011). "Pro-democracy protests sweep Syria, 22 killed". Reuters. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
  8. ^ Colvin, Mark (25 March 2011). "Syrian protestors want a regime change". ABC News. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
  9. ^ McShane, Larry (25 March 2011). "Violence erupts in Syria, Jordan; anti-government protestors shot, stoned". New York Daily News. Archived from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
  10. ^ "Syria to lift decades-old emergency law". Al Jazeera. 19 April 2011. Archived from the original on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
  11. ^ "Syrian rebels topple President Assad, prime minister calls for free elections". Reuters. 7 December 2024. Retrieved 7 December 2024.
  12. ^ "Assad flees to Moscow after rebels take Syrian capital, Russian state media report". CBC News. 9 December 2024. Retrieved 9 December 2024.
  13. ^ "Syria's President Bashar al Assad is in Moscow and has been granted asylum, confirms Russian state media". 8 December 2024.
  14. ^ Cooper (2015), p. 21.
  15. ^ Navon, Emmanuel (27 March 2011). "Iran, Hezbollah assisting in Syria protest suppression". Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 30 August 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2024.
  16. ^ "How Iran Keeps Assad in Power in Syria". Inside Iran. 5 September 2011. Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2024.
  17. ^ Tisdall, Simon (9 May 2011). "Iran helping Syrian regime crack down on protesters, say diplomats". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2024.
  18. ^ Oweis, Khaled (29 April 2011). "Muslim Brotherhood endorses Syria protests". Reuters. Archived from the original on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  19. ^ "Almost 3,000 missing in Syria crackdown, NGO says". NOW News. 28 July 2011. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  20. ^ Story, AP. "Syrian troops detain dozens, 3 killed in north". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
  21. ^ "As Syria flares, some U.N.'ers take flight". CNN. 18 August 2011. Archived from the original on 17 August 2011. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
  22. ^ "Syria". GCR2P. 1 December 2022. Archived from the original on 28 January 2023.
  23. ^ a b "Syrian Revolution 13 years on | Nearly 618,000 persons killed since the onset of the revolution in March 2011". Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
  24. ^ "UN Human Rights Office estimates more than 306,000 civilians were killed over 10 years in Syria conflict". United Nations. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2023.
  25. ^ "Civilian Deaths in the Syrian Arab Republic: Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights". United Nations. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 28 June 2022. Over the past ten years, civilians have borne the brunt of the conflict, with an estimated 306,887 direct civilian deaths occurring.
  26. ^ "Syria emergency". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  27. ^ Rania Abouzeid (1 August 2011). "Syrian Military Attacks Protesters in Hama". Time. Archived from the original on 11 April 2017. Retrieved 15 April 2017. A giant Syrian flag is held by the crowd during a protest against President Bashar Assad in the city center of Hama on July 29, 2011
  28. ^ Anthony Shadid (30 June 2011). "Coalition of Factions From the Streets Fuels a New Opposition in Syria". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
  29. ^ Flock, Elizabeth (15 March 2011). "Syria revolution: A revolt brews against Bashar al- Assad's regime". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011.
  30. ^ Nassar, Alaa (18 March 2021). "The Syrian revolution on its 10th anniversary". Syria Direct. Archived from the original on 18 March 2021.
  31. ^ "حماس تتخلى عن الاسد وتؤيد الانتفاضة السورية". Reuters. 8 December 2024.
  32. ^ a b c Katerji, Oz (11 August 2021). "Damascus's False Reconciliation Failed in Daraa". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2023. More than a decade ago, as protests erupted across the Middle East in a series of democratic uprisings that became known as the Arab Spring, [Daraa] was the first place in Syria to cast off the shackles of 40 years of Ba'athist dictatorship.
  33. ^ Laub, Zachary (15 October 2019). "Syria's War and the Descent Into Horror". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2023. Twelve years after protesters in Syria first demonstrated against the four-decade rule of the Assad family, hundreds of thousands of Syrians have been killed
  34. ^ "UN human rights office renews call on Syria to end brutal crackdown". UN News. 23 September 2011. Archived from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2023. "We are extremely alarmed by ongoing reports of the increasingly brutal crackdown by Syrian authorities against protestors in Syria," said Ravina Shamdasani, spokesperson for the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).
  35. ^ "Troops open fire on protests as crackdown continues". France 24. 17 June 2011. Archived from the original on 20 June 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2023. The uprising has proven to be the boldest challenge to the Assad family's 40-year dynasty in Syria. [Assad] inherited power in 2000, raising hopes that [he] might transform his late father's stagnant and brutal dictatorship into a modern state... Now, as his regime escalates a brutal crackdown, it seems increasingly unlikely that he will regain any political legitimacy.
  36. ^ a b "Syria in civil war, says UN official Herve Ladsous". BBC News. 12 June 2012. Archived from the original on 23 January 2016.
  37. ^ a b Charbonneau, Louis (13 June 2012). "Syria conflict now a civil war, U.N. peacekeeping chief says". Reuters. Archived from the original on 21 March 2017.
  38. ^ a b c "Human Rights Council debates situation of human rights in Syrian Arab Republic in Special Session". UN:OHCHR. 22 August 2011. Archived from the original on 12 May 2023.
  39. ^ "Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic" (PDF). United Nations:OHCHR. United Nations General Assembly: Human Rights Council. 15 September 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2023.
  40. ^ Bowen, Jeremy (2013). "Prologue: Before the Spring". The Arab Uprisings: The People Want the Fall of the Regime. Simon & Schuster. pp. 14, 15, 118, 341. ISBN 9781471129827.
  41. ^ "RSF". RSF: Reporters Without Borders. Archived from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  42. ^ Yacoub Oweis, Khaled (22 March 2011). "Fear barrier crumbles in Syrian "kingdom of silence"". Reuters. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  43. ^ a b Flock, Elizabeth (15 March 2011). "Syria revolution: A revolt brews against Bashar al- Assad's regime". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 11 May 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
  44. ^ "How Syria controls its dissidents: Banning travel". The Economist. 30 September 2010. Archived from the original on 12 August 2018.
  45. ^ "Predators: Bashar Al-Assad". Reporters Without Borders. Archived from the original on 8 May 2010.
  46. ^ Fountain, Henry (2 March 2015). "Researchers Link Syrian Conflict to a Drought Made Worse by Climate Change". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 25 April 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
  47. ^ M. Sadowski, Yahya (1987). "Patronage and the Ba'th: Corruption and Control in Contemporary Syria". Arab Studies Quarterly. 9 (4): 442–461. JSTOR 41857946.
  48. ^ Gersh, Nick (6 February 2017). "The Role of Corruption in the Syrian Civil War". GAB. Archived from the original on 19 February 2017.
  49. ^ "'Day of Rage' Protest Urged in Syria". NBC News. 3 February 2011. Archived from the original on 13 September 2024. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
  50. ^ Levinson, Charles; Coker, Margaret; Cairo, Matt Bradley in; Entous, Adam; Washington, Jonathan Weisman in (12 February 2011). "Fall of Mubarak Shakes Middle East". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  51. ^ al-khouy, Firas (6 October 2011). "Graffiti Wars and Syria's Spray Man". Al Akhbar English. Archived from the original on 15 March 2018. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  52. ^ "Mid-East unrest: Syrian protests in Damascus and Aleppo". BBC News. 15 March 2011. Archived from the original on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
  53. ^ Fahim, Kareem; Saad, Hwaida (8 February 2013). "A Faceless Teenage Refugee Who Helped Ignite Syria's War". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 27 January 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  54. ^ Droz-Vincent, Philippe (Winter 2014). ""State of Barbary" (Take Two): From the Arab Spring to the Return of Violence in Syria". Middle East Journal. 68 (1). Middle East Institute: 33–58. doi:10.3751/68.1.12. S2CID 143177306. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 – via HighBeam Research.
  55. ^ Macleod, Hugh (23 April 2011). "Syria: How it all began". Public Radio International. Archived from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
  56. ^ Sinjab, Lina (19 March 2011). "Middle East unrest: Silence broken in Syria". BBC News. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  57. ^ a b "Middle East unrest: Silence broken in Syria". BBC News. 19 March 2011. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
  58. ^ a b "We've Never Seen Such Horror". Human Rights Watch. 1 June 2011. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
  59. ^ "President Assad's interview with SBS News Australia". Retrieved 22 April 2018 – via YouTube.
  60. ^ "Middle East unrest: Syria arrests Damascus protesters". BBC. 16 March 2011. Archived from the original on 5 April 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  61. ^ Al Jazeera Arabic قناة الجزيرة (23 March 2011), اقتحام الأمن السوري المسجد العمري في مدينة درعا, archived from the original on 22 March 2016, retrieved 17 February 2016
  62. ^ "Syria: Seven Police Killed, Buildings Torched in Protests". Israel National News. 21 March 2011. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
  63. ^ a b Holliday, Joseph (December 2011). "The Struggle for Syria in 2011" (PDF). Institute for the Study of War. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
  64. ^ "Officers Fire on Crowd as Syrian Protests Grow". The New York Times. 20 March 2011. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 16 November 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  65. ^ Iddon, Paul (30 July 2012). "A recap of the Syrian crisis to date". Digital Journal. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
  66. ^ Macleod, Hugh (25 April 2011). "Syria: how it all began". Global Post. Archived from the original on 2 January 2014.
  67. ^ Slackman, Michael (25 March 2011). "Syrian Troops Open Fire on Protesters in Several Cities". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
  68. ^ "Syria Timeline: Since the Uprising Against Assad". United States Institute of Peace. 1 January 2021. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  69. ^ a b Macleod, Hugh (25 April 2011). "Syria: how it all began". Global Post. Archived from the original on 3 January 2014.
  70. ^ "Arrest of leader of the Islamic Democratic movement in Syria". Elaph (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
  71. ^ "Jailed prominent Syrian opposition for seven and a half years". Free Syria (in Arabic). 25 January 2011. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
  72. ^ "Syrian authorities detain national identity Adnan Mustafa Abu Ammar". Free Syria (in Arabic). 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
  73. ^ "Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic" (PDF). United Nations:OHCHR. United Nations General Assembly: Human Rights Council. 15 September 2011. p. 13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2023.
  74. ^ "Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic" (PDF). United Nations:OHCHR. United Nations General Assembly: Human Rights Council. 15 September 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2023.
  75. ^ "Police Kill 6 Protesters in Syria". The New York Times. 18 March 2011. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 22 March 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
  76. ^ Glynn Williams, Brian (2017). "6: The New War on ISIS". Counter Jihad: America's Military Experience in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-8122-4867-8.
  77. ^ Lefevre, Raphael (2013). "9: Uprisings in Syria: Revenge on History". Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-19-933062-1.
  78. ^ A. Shoup, John (2018). "10: Bashar al-Asad's Syria: 2000–Present". The History of Syria. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-4408-5834-5.
  79. ^ "Beyond Arms, Syria Uses Arrests Against Uprising". The New York Times. 27 June 2012. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 1 July 2012. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
  80. ^ "Syria: Torture Centers Revealed". Human Rights Watch. 3 July 2012. Archived from the original on 31 July 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
  81. ^ a b "Syria lifts niqab ban, shuts casino, in nod to Sunnis". Reuters. 6 April 2011. Archived from the original on 16 October 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  82. ^ "Opposition: 127 dead as Syrian forces target civilians". CNN. 7 April 2012. Archived from the original on 7 April 2012. Retrieved 23 September 2012.
  83. ^ Oweis, Khaled (22 April 2011). "Almost 90 dead in Syria's bloodiest day of unrest". Reuters. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2011.
  84. ^ al-Khalidi, Suleiman (19 March 2011). "Syrian mourners call for revolt, forces fire tear gas". Reuters. Archived from the original on 22 March 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
  85. ^ "President al-Assad Issues Decree on Discharging Governor of Daraa from His Post". Syrian Arab News Agency. 24 March 2011. Archived from the original on 17 January 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
  86. ^ "In Syrian flashpoint town, more deaths reported". CNN. 25 March 2011. Archived from the original on 26 March 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
  87. ^ al-Hatem, Fadwa (31 May 2011). "Syrians are tired of Assad's 'reforms'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 8 June 2013.
  88. ^ "Stateless Kurds in Syria granted citizenship". CNN. 7 April 2011. Archived from the original on 28 January 2015. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
  89. ^ Hassan, Nidaa; Borger, Julian (10 July 2011). "Syrian 'national dialogue' conference boycotted by angry opposition". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  90. ^ "Syria opens 'national dialogue' with opposition". BBC News. 10 July 2011. Archived from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  91. ^ Oweis, Khaled Yacoub; Karouny, Mariam; al-Khalidi, Suleiman; Aboudi, Sami (21 April 2011). "Syria's Assad ends state of emergency". Reuters. Beirut, Amman, Cairo. Archived from the original on 22 April 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
  92. ^ Macfarquhar, Neil; Stack, Liam (1 April 2011). "In Syria, Thousands Protest, Facing Violence, Residents Say". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  93. ^ a b Shadid, Anthony (25 April 2011). "Syria Escalates Crackdown as Tanks Go to Restive City". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
  94. ^ a b c d "Report of the Fact-Finding Mission on Syria pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution S-16/1" (PDF). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. August 2011. p. 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
  95. ^ "Civilian killings in Syrian demonstrations rises to 800". The Jerusalemn Post. 5 July 2011. Archived from the original on 30 August 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
  96. ^ "No water, power in Syrian protest town". News24. 28 April 2011. Archived from the original on 6 November 2023.
  97. ^ "Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic" (PDF). United Nations:OHCHR. United Nations General Assembly: Human Rights Council. 15 September 2011. p. 118. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2023.
  98. ^ "Syria: Rampant Torture of Protesters". Human Rights Watch. 15 April 2011. Archived from the original on 13 September 2011.
  99. ^ a b Flamand, Hugh Macleod and Annasofie. "Tortured and killed: Hamza al-Khateeb, age 13". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 9 April 2017. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
  100. ^ "Syrian army tanks 'moving towards Hama'". BBC News. 5 May 2011. Archived from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
  101. ^ Abdelaziz, Salma (15 May 2011). "Shallow grave yields several bodies in Syrian city marked by unrest". CNN. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2011.
  102. ^ Wikstrom, Cajsa (3 September 2011). "Escaping Syria's crackdown". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 24 June 2019. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
  103. ^ "Syrian security forces kill "at least eight" in Tall Kalakh". 18 May 2011. Archived from the original on 30 August 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  104. ^ "Syria death toll 'surpasses 1,000'". Al Jazeera. 24 May 2011. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  105. ^ Flamand, Hugh Macleod and Annasofie. "Tortured and killed: Hamza al-Khateeb, age 13". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 9 April 2017. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
  106. ^ "Interactive: Tracking Syria's defections". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 26 September 2013. Retrieved 29 September 2013.
  107. ^ Dagher, Sam; Gauthier-Villars, David (6 July 2012). "In Paris, Diplomats Cheer Syria General's Defection". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2012.
  108. ^ "Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic" (PDF). United Nations:OHCHR. United Nations General Assembly: Human Rights Council. 15 September 2011. pp. 13, 15–17, 21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2023.
  109. ^ "Syrian forces take over northwestern town of Maaret al-Numan". Associated Press. 17 June 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2017 – via Haaretz.
  110. ^ "Syria unrest: Protests in Aleppo as troops comb border". BBC News. 30 June 2011. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
  111. ^ "Syria: 'Hundreds of thousands' join anti-Assad protests". BBC News. 1 July 2011. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
  112. ^ "In Damascus, Amid Uprising, Syrians Act Like Nothing's Amiss". The New York Times. 5 September 2011. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 5 April 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
  113. ^ "Syria: What motivates an Assad supporter?". Global Post. 24 June 2011. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
  114. ^ "Syria town of Jisr al-Shughour braces for army assault". BBC News. 7 June 2011. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
  115. ^ Krietner, Ricky (8 June 2011). "Syrian Army Turned Helicopter Gunships On Defecting Soldiers". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 9 February 2024.
  116. ^ "Eyewitness: The view from the epicentre of the Syrian revolt". Independent. 8 June 2011. Archived from the original on 9 June 2011.
  117. ^ Ali, Nour (11 July 2011). "Syria: Assad loyalists besiege US and French embassies in Damascus". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022.
  118. ^ a b "Syrian army kills at least 95 in Hama". Dawn. Agence France-Presse. 31 July 2011. Archived from the original on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
  119. ^ Clanet, Christian (10 June 2011). "A French Journalist in Dara'a, Syria's 'Ghetto of Death'". Time. Archived from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
  120. ^ Oweis, Khaled Yacoub (14 August 2011). "Tank, navy attack on Syria's Latakia kills 26-witnesses". Reuters. Amman. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
  121. ^ "Syria News". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
  122. ^ "Syrian forces kill seven protesters as Muslims celebrate first day of Eid". Al Arabiya. 30 August 2011. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
  123. ^ al-Yaqoubi, Muhammad (5 December 2014). "To defeat the Islamic State we must first remove Bashar al-Assad". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 16 August 2022.
  124. ^ "Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic" (PDF). United Nations:OHCHR. United Nations General Assembly: Human Rights Council. 15 September 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2023.
  125. ^ Debusmann, Bernd (17 May 2023). "How Syria's Bashar al-Assad got away with murder". WION. Archived from the original on 17 May 2023.
  126. ^ "'Free Syrian Army' poses growing threat to Assad". France 24. 14 October 2011. Archived from the original on 10 April 2017.
  127. ^ Tanir, Ilhan (4 October 2012). "In the Land of the Free Syrian Army". Carnegie endowment. Archived from the original on 19 September 2016.
  128. ^ Yezdani, İpek (23 August 2011). "Syrian dissidents form national council". The Edmond Sun. Archived from the original on 4 December 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2011.
  129. ^ Ahmed, Akbar (2013). "4: Musharraf's Dilemma". The Thistle and the Drone. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-8157-2378-3.
  130. ^ Hezaber, Ali Haj Suleiman, Husam. "Strike, protests in Syria's Sweida enter second day". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 25 August 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  131. ^ Suleiman, Ali Haj (23 August 2023). "Anti-government protests in Syria continue for sixth day". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 25 August 2023.
  132. ^ "Anti-government protests shake Syrian provinces amid anger over economy". The Guardian. 26 August 2023. Archived from the original on 26 August 2023.
  133. ^ Abdulrahim, Raja (31 August 2023). "Rare Protests in Syria Summon Echoes of Arab Spring". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 31 August 2023.
  134. ^ "Syria Protests Spurred by Economic Misery Stir Memories of the 2011 Anti-Government Uprising". Asharq al-Awsat. 29 August 2023. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023.
  135. ^ "10 Most Censored Countries". Committee to Protect Journalists. Archived from the original on 25 July 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2012.
  136. ^ Karam, Zeina (27 September 2011). "Syrian Electronic Army: Cyber Warfare From Pro-Assad Hackers". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
  137. ^ Ali, Nour (25 August 2011). "Syrian forces beat up political cartoonist Ali Ferzat". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 23 June 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
  138. ^ "Saudi Arabia withdraws ambassador from Syria". BBC. 7 August 2011. Archived from the original on 8 August 2011. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
  139. ^ "EU condemns 'unacceptable' repression in Syria". Middle East Online. 22 March 2011. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
  140. ^ "UN chief slams Syria's crackdown on protests". Al Jazeera. 18 March 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  141. ^ "Canada condemns violence in Yemen, Bahrain, Syria". AFP. 21 March 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
  142. ^ "Obama Condemns 'Abhorrent Violence' of Syrian Gov't". Reuters (via Ynetnews). 9 April 2011. Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
  143. ^ Lebanon News. "France condemns violence against protesters in Syria". Archived from the original on 21 April 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  144. ^ "Syria accused of crimes against humanity". Al Jazeera English. 6 July 2011. Archived from the original on 6 September 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
  145. ^ HRW: Syrian troops describe shooting protesters – World news – Mideast/N. Africa – msnbc.com
  146. ^ U.S. Is Quietly Getting Ready for Syria Without Assad By HELENE COOPER nyt.com 19 September 2011]
  147. ^ Zogby, James. "Arab Attitudes Toward Syria: 2011". Archived from the original on 30 October 2011. Retrieved 24 November 2011.
  148. ^ "EU condemns 'unacceptable' repression in Syria". Middle East Online. 22 March 2011. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
  149. ^ "EU condemns 'totally unjustified' Syrian crackdown". Khaleej Times. 31 July 2011. Archived from the original on 31 July 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
  150. ^ Bakri, Nada (4 August 2011). "Civilian Toll Is Mounting in Assault on Syrian City". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 August 2011.
  151. ^ "Thursday, August 18, 2011 - 17:49 - Syria". Al Jazeera Blogs. 18 August 2011. Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2011.
  152. ^ a b "GCC urges end to Syrian 'bloodshed,' calls for reforms". Al Arabiya. 6 August 2011. Archived from the original on 24 July 2014. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
  153. ^ MacFarquhar, Neil (12 November 2011). "Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
  154. ^ "Syria threatened with Arab League suspension". Aljazeera. 12 November 2011. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
  155. ^ "Emergency Message for U.S. Citizens: Significant decrease in the number of commercial flights from Syria". Consular Section. Embassy of the United States of America - Damascus, Syria. 23 November 2011. Archived from the original on 27 November 2011. Retrieved 24 November 2011.
  156. ^ Dina Zayed and Ayman Samir (24 November 2011). "Arab League gives Syria one day to allow monitors before imposing sanctions". News - Reuter. National Post. Retrieved 26 November 2011.
  157. ^ "Russia, China, urge Syria talks, stress U.N. role". Reuters. 25 November 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
  158. ^ Arrests at Syrian embassy protest Archived 11 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, 4 February 2012.
  159. ^ a b 12 arrests during protests at Syrian embassy in London Archived 16 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Daily Telegraph, 4 February 2012.

Works cited

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syrian_revolution&oldid=1264469455"