Hispanic Americans in World War II

Major General Pedro del Valle (second from left) is greeted by Colonel "Chesty" Puller on Pavuvu in late October 1944, while Major General William H. Rupertus (far left) looks on

Hispanic Americans in World War II fought in every major battle in the European Theatre, from North Africa to the Battle of the Bulge, and in the Pacific Theater of Operations, from Bataan to Okinawa. Hispanics, who constitute the largest minority group in the United States, have participated in every military conflict in which the United States has been involved from the American Revolution to the present day. During the World War II era, the Department of Defense classified non-black Hispanics as Caucasians and black- or dark-skinned Hispanics as African-Americans, and as a result of this official statistics recognizing Hispanic contributions during World War II are not available. Coverage of this lack of documentation, as well as that of the deeds and contributions themselves that Hispanics have made to the United States war effort, is often lacking in history books.

Hispanics in the United States (Hispanic American) is one of several terms of ethnicity employed to categorize any person, of any racial background, of any country and of any religion who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or is of non-Hispanic origin, but has an ancester from a Spanish-speaking Latin America. The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cubans. Hispanics also include people from the Caribbean and South and Central America.

When a Japanese Imperial Navy carrier fleet launched an unexpected attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Hispanics, who were subject to widespread discrimination both at home and the military, joined the ranks of the Army, Navy and Marine Corps, either as volunteers or as a result of the draft in defense of the United States. As members of the Armed Forces, they guarded U.S. military installations in the Caribbean and saw active combat participation in both the European and Pacific Theatres of the war. Their participation included not only the battlefields on foreign shores, but also the home front. This was especially true for the hundreds of women who joined the WAAC's and WAVES, serving either as nurses or in administrative positions, and those who worked in the manufacturing plants which produced munitions and material (commonly known as “Rosie the Riveter”) during the war, while the men, who traditionally performed this work, were engaged in combat.

According to the National World War II Museum, between 250,000 and 500,000 Hispanic men and women served in the Armed Forces during WW II. However, this is a rough estimate and the exact number of Hispanics who served will never be known. The only racial groups to have separate stats kept were African-Americans and Asian-Americans. Puerto Ricans and the Hispanics who resided in the island of Puerto Rico were assigned to the 65th Infantry Regiment or to the Puerto Rico National Guard. These were the only all Hispanic units whose stats were kept and therefore, that is why it is known that over 53,000 Puerto Ricans and Hispanics who resided in the island served in the war. Hispanics who resided in the mainland of the United States and who were fluent in English were assigned to regular military units, otherwise they were assigned to units made up of mostly Hispanics. Those who were of fair skin color were assigned to units made up of Caucasians and those who were of dark skin color were sent to the segregated all black military units. Because of the lack of documentation, the exact number of the Hispanics who died in defense of the United States is unknown. According to “Undaunted Courage Mexican American Patriots Of World War II", published in 2005 by Latino Advocates for Education, Inc., at least 9,170 Hispanics gave their lives for their country. Those estimates are based on the listings of military service personnel that were complied from military records, historical documentation or personal accounts.

European Theater

The European Theatre of World War II refers to an area of heavy fighting across Europe which occurred, from September 1, 1939 to May 8, 1945, where the Allied forces fought the Axis powers. The European Theater was subdivided into three theatres: the Eastern Front, the Western Front and the Mediterranean Theater. Even though the majority of Hispanic Americans served in regular units, there were some units, in addition to the 65th Infantry Regiment from Puerto Rico, which were made up mostly of Hispanics and which were involved in active combat. One of these units was 141st Regiment of the 36th Texas Infantry.

Hispanics of the 141st Regiment of the 36th Infantry Division from Texas were some of the first American troops to land on Italian soil at Salerno. Company E of the 141st Regiment of the 36th Texas Infantry Division was entirely made up of Hispanics. The 36th Infantry Division saw combat in Italy and France, enduring heavy casualties during the controversial crossing of the Rapido River near Cassino, Italy.

65th Infantry Regiment

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Soldiers of the 65th Infantry training in Salinas, Puerto Rico, August 1941

In 1943, the 65th Infantry was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus. The 295th Infantry Regiment followed in 1944, departing from San Juan, Puerto Rico to the Panama Canal Zone. Among those who served with the 295th Regiment in the Panama Canal Zone was a young Second Lieutenant by the name of Carlos Betances Ramirez, who would later become the only Puerto Rican to command a United States Army Battalion in the Korean War. That same year, the 65th Infantry was sent to North Africa, arriving at Casablanca, where they underwent further training. By April 29, 1944, the Regiment had landed in Italy and moved on to Corsica.

On September 22, 1944, the 65th Infantry landed in France and was committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava. The 3rd Battalion, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Juan Cesar Cordero Davila, fought against and defeated Germany's 34th Infantry Division's 107th Infantry Regiment. There were 47 battle casualties, including Sergeant Angel Martinez from the town of Sabana Grande, who became the first Puerto Rican to be killed in action from the 65th Infantry. On March 18, 1945, the regiment was sent to the District of Mannheim and assigned to military occupation duties. The regiment suffered a total of 23 soldiers killed in action. One of the most decorated Hispanic soldiers in the European Theater was a member of the 65th Infantry who was reassigned to the 3rd U.S. Infantry Division because of his ablility to speak and understand English. He was Sergeant First Class Agustin Ramos Calero.

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Sergeant First Class Agustin Ramos Calero

Sergeant First Class Agustin Ramos Calero was born and raised in the town of Isabela, in the northern region of Puerto Rico, He joined the U.S. Army in 1941 and was assigned to Puerto Rico's 65th Infantry Regiment at Camp Las Casas in Santurce. There he received his training as a rifleman. At the outbreak of World War II, Calero was reassigned to the 3rd U.S. Infantry Division and sent to Europe. In 1945, Calero's company was in the vicinity of Colmar, France and engaged in combat against a squad of German soldiers in what is known as the Battle of Colmar Pocket. Calero attacked the enemy squad, killing 10 and capturing 21 shortly before being wounded himself. For these actions, he was awarded the Silver Star Medal and received the nickname "One-Man Army" from his comrades. By the time the war ended, Calero had been wounded a total of four times during combat in Europe. He was awarded a total of 22 decorations and medals for his actions, making him one of the most decorated Hispanic soldiers in the U.S. military during World War II. Among his many decorations were the Silver Star Medal, 4 Purple Heart Medals and the French Croix de Guerre.

Pacific Theater

The Pacific Theater of Operations (PTO) is the term used in the United States for all military activity between the Allies and Japan, from 1937 to 1945, in the Pacific Ocean and the countries bordering it, during World War II. There were three units made up mostly of Hispanic Americans which served in the battlefields of the Pacific. These were the 200th Coast Artillery and the 515th Anti-Aircraft Artillery battalions from New Mexico, whose members participated in the infamous "Bataan Death March" and the 158th Regimental Combat Team from Arizona.

Bataan Death March

Members of New Mexico's 200th Coast Artillery (AA) manning a position near Manila

Two National Guard units, the 200th and the 515th battalions, were activated in New Mexico in 1940. Made up mostly of Spanish speaking Hispanics from New Mexico, Arizona and Texas, the two battalions were sent to Clark Field in the Philippine Islands. Shortly after the Japanese Imperial Navy launched its surprise attack on the American Naval Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces attacked the American positions in the Philippines. General Douglas MacArthur moved his forces, which included the 200th and 515th, to the Bataan Peninsula. Here, they fought alongside their Filipino comrades and made a three-month stand against the invading forces. By April 9, 1942, rations, medical supplies, and ammunition dwindled and became scarce thus, the starving and outnumbered, troops surrendered to the Japanese. The men of the 200th and 515th battalions laid down their arms after being given a direct order. These Hispanic and non-Hispanic soldiers endured the 12-day, 85-mile “Bataan Death March” alongside their Filipino comrades, from Bataan to the Japanese prison camps and remained in captivity for 34 months. They were marched for days in the scorching heat through the Philippine jungles. Those who survived faced the hardships of a prisoner of war camp. Others were wounded or killed when unmarked enemy ships transporting prisoners of war to Japan were sunk by U.S. air and naval forces.

Pvt. Ralph Rodriguez of the 200th Coast Artillery regiment was 25 years old and was a survivor of the Bataan Death March. He witnessed the following ordeal during the Bataan Death March.

“The people started falling off the road,” Rodriguez said. “The penalty for exhaustion was execution by an enemy guard, the guard would stab him and then kick him and roll him over,” he said. The march killed 10,000. At the end of their journey was a brutal prison camp. The weak were taken away. “They would put ‘em in the zero ward, they called it,” said Rodriguez. “From there, they took the bodies every day for burial.”

Corporal Agapito E. "Gap" Silva (1919–2007), was also a member of the 200th Coast Artillery Regiment who survived the Bataan Death March. He was held at Cabanatuan prison camp in the Philippines and was assigned to the “burial details” when hundreds of prisoners were dying each month of disease and starvation at Cabanatuan. He later was transported to Fukuoka prison camp #17, a Japanese POW prison camp near Omuta, Japan and forced as a slave laborer to work in a coal plant. Silva narrated the following in an interview about his experiences as a prisoner of war.

"The POWs (prisoner of war) faced constant danger working in the coal mines. It was so unbearable, Silva said, that many of the men would resort to self-inflicted injuries such as breaking their arms and legs to avoid working 10 to 12 hour days."

He and more than 1,900 American POWs were forced to work in coal mine camps encircled by electrical fences. Silva would spend 3 1/2 years in the Japanese POW camps before the war ended in September 1945. He was the recipient of the Bronze Star and Purple Heart Medal.

158th Regimental Combat Team

The 158th Regimental Combat Team, an Arizona National Guard unit comprised of mostly Hispanic soldiers, also fought in the Pacific Theatre. Early in the war, the 158th, nicknamed the "Bushmasters", had been deployed to protect the Panama Canal and had completed much jungle training. The unit later fought the Japanese in the New Guinea area in heavy combat and was involved in the liberation of the Philippine Islands. General MacArthur referred to them as "the greatest fighting combat team ever deployed for battle." The 158th was selected to spearhead the invasion of Japan and was sent to attack the island of Tanega Shima to silence Japanese air warning stations. The planned invasion of Japan was never realized and upon Japan's surrender the unit was sent on October 13, 1945 to Yokohama, Japan as part of the United States Army of occupation.

PFC Guy Gabaldon

Among the Hispanics who distinguished themselves in the Pacific Theatre was Guy Gabaldon, a young Marine who single-handedly captured over one thousand enemy civilians and troops.

Guy Gabaldon

PFC Guy Gabaldon (1926–2006) was adopted at the age of 12 by parents of Japanese-American heritage. At the outbreak of World War II, his adoptive family was placed in a relocation camp. Gabaldon joined the Marines when he was only 17 years old. He was a Private First Class (PFC) when his unit was engaged in the Battle of Saipan in 1944. Gabaldon, who acted as the Japanese interpreter for the Second Marines, displayed extreme courage and initiative in single-handedly capturing enemy civilian and military personnel. Working alone in front of the lines, he daringly entered enemy caves, pillboxes, buildings, and jungle brush, frequently in the face of hostile fire, and succeeded in not only obtaining vital military information, but in capturing well over one thousand enemy civilians and troops. He was nominated for the Medal of Honor, however he was awarded the Silver Star instead. This was later upgraded to the Navy Cross, the Marines second highest decoration for heroism. He captured more enemy soldiers then Sergeant Alvin York, who was awarded the Medal of Honor, during World War I, for having captured 132 enemy German soldiers. Gabaldon’s actions on Saipan were later memorialized in the film Hell to Eternity, in which he was portrayed by actor Jeffrey Hunter.

Aviators

Hispanics not only served in ground and sea bound combat units, but they also distinguished themselves as fighter pilots and as bombardiers.

A “flying ace” or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat. The term “ace in a day” is used to designate a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more enemy aircraft in a single day. Since World War I, a number of pilots have been honored as “Ace in a Day”, however, the honor of being the last "Ace in a Day” for the United States in World War II belongs to First Lieutenant Oscar Francis Perdomo of the 464th fighter squadron, 507th fighter Group.

Lt. Oscar Francis Perdomo

1st Lt. Oscar Francis Perdomo, (1919–1976), the son of Mexican parents, was born in El Paso, Texas. When the war broke out, Perdomo joined the United States Army Air Force (USAAF) as an aviation cadet. He was trained to pilot the P-47 Thunderbolt. After receiving his pilot training, he was assigned to the 464th fighter squadron, which was part of the 507th fighter group that was sent overseas to the Pacific to the Island of Ie Shima off the west coast of Okinawa.

The atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan on August 9th, 1945, but while the Allies awaited Japan’s response to the demand to surrender, the war continued. On August 13, 1945, 1st Lt. Oscar Perdomo shot down four Nakajima “Oscar” fighters and one Yokosuka “Willow” Type 93 biplane trainer. This action took place near Keijo/Seoul, Korea when 38 Thunderbolts of the 507th Fighter Wing, encountered approximately 50 enemy aircraft. This action was Lt. Perdomo's tenth and final combat mission, and the five confirmed victories made him an “Ace in a Day” and earned him the distinction of being the last “Ace” of World War II. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in action and the Air Medal with one oak leaf cluster.

Many other Hispanics served in with distinction in aerial combat including, Captain Michael Brezas, Lieutenant Colonel Donald S. Lopez, Sr., Commander Eugene A. Valencia Jr., Captain Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini, Captain Robert L. Cardenas, Technical Sergeant Clement Resto and Corporal Frank Medina.

Commander Eugene A. Valencia, Jr., U.S. Navy fighter ace, Commander Valencia is credited with 23 air victories in the Pacific during World War II. Valencia's decorations include the Navy Cross, five Distinguished Flying Crosses, and six Air Medals.

Captain Michael Brezas, USAAF fighter ace. Captain Brezas arrived in Lucera, Italy during the summer of 1944, joining the 48th Fighter Squadron of the 14th Fighter Group. Flying the P-38 aircraft, Lt. Brezas downed 12 enemy planes within two months. He received the Silver Star Medal, the Distinguished Flying Cross, and the Air Medal with eleven oak leaf clusters.

Lieutenant Colonel Donald S. Lopez, Sr., USAAF fighter ace. Lt. Col. Lopez was assigned to the 23rd Fighter Group under the command of General Claire Chennault. The mission of the fighter group (the "Flying Tigers") was to help defend the Chinese nationals against their Japanese invaders. During 1943–1944, Lopez was credited with shooting down five Japanese fighters, four in a Crutiss P-40's and one in a North American P-51.

Captain Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini, Royal Air Force and USAAF. Gilormini was a flight commander whose last combat mission was attacking the airfield at Milano, Italy. His last flight in Italy gave air cover for General George C. Marshall's visit to Pisa. Gilormini was the recipient of the Silver Star Medal, five Distinguished Flying Crosses, and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters. Gilormini later became the Founder of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and retired as Brigadier General.

Captain Robert L. Cardenas, USAAF, served as a B-24 aircraft pilot in the European Theater of Operations with the 506th Bombardment Squadron. He was awarded the Air Medal and two oak leaf clusters for bombing missions before being shot down over Germany in March 1944. Despite head wounds from flak, he made his way back to Allied control. On October 14, 1947, Cardenas flew the B-29 launch aircraft that released the X-1 experimental rocket plane in which Charles E. Yeager, a captain at the time, became the first man to fly faster than the speed of sound. Cardenas retired as Brigadier General.

Technical Sergeant Clement Resto, USAAF. Though not an “ace”, T/Sgt Resto served with the 303rd Bomb Group and participated in numerous bombing raids over Germany. During a bombing mission over Duren, Germany, Resto's plane, a B-17 Flying Fortress, was shot down . He was captured by the Gestapo and sent to Stalag XVII-B where he spent the rest of the war as a prisoner of war. Resto, who lost an eye during his last mission, was awarded a Purple Heart, a POW Medal and an Air Medal with one battle star after he was liberated from captivity.

Corporal Frank Medina, USAAF, was an air crew member on a B-24 that was shot down over Italy. He was the only crewmember to evade capture. Medina explained that his ability to speak Spanish had allowed him to communicate with friendly Italians who helped him avoid capture for eight months behind enemy lines. During a Defense Department tribute to Hispanics who participated in World War II, Medina said:

"Thank the good Lord for making me a Latino." "So you see," he continued, "there's an advantage to being a Latino."

Servicewomen

Traditional Hispanic cultural values expected women to be homemakers, thus they rarely left the home to earn an income. As such, women were discouraged from joining the military. Only a small number of Hispanic women joined the military before World War II. However, with the outbreak of World War II, cultural prohibitions began to change. With the creation of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), predecessor of the Women's Army Corps (WAC), and the U.S. Navy WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) women could attend to certain administrative duties left open by the men who were reassigned to combat zones. In 1944, the Army sent recruiters to Puerto Rico to recruit women for the Women’s Army Corps (WAC). Over 1,000 applications were received for the unit, which was to be composed of only 200 women. After their basic training at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, the Puerto Rican WAC unit was assigned to the Port of Embarkation of New York City to work in military offices that planned the shipment of troops around the world. Not all of the WAAC units were stationed in the mainland USA. On January 1943, the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company became the first WAAC unit to go overseas when they went to North Africa. Serving overseas was dangerous for these women. If captured, WAACs, as "auxiliaries" serving with the Army rather than in it, did not have the same protections under international law as male soldiers. While most women who served in the military joined the WAACs, a smaller number of women served in the Naval Women’s Reserve (the WAVES).

One of the members of the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company was Tech4 Carmen Contreras-Bozak, who served in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s theatre headquarters.

Tech4 Carmen Contreras-Bozak

Tech4 Carmen Contreras-Bozak joined the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) in 1942 and was sent to Fort Lee, Virginia for training. Contreras volunteered to be part of the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company, thus becoming the first Hispanic to serve as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions. The unit was the first WAAC unit to go overseas, setting sail from New York Harbor for Europe on January 1943.

Contreras' unit arrived in Northern Africa on January 27, 1943 and rendered overseas duties in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s theatre headquarters. The unit had to deal with nightly German air raids. Contreras remembers that the women who served abroad were not treated like the regular Army servicemen. They did not receive overseas payment nor could they receive government life insurance. These women had no protection if they became ill, wounded or captured. Contreras served until 1945 and earned the following decorations, European-African Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with 2 Battle Stars, World War II Victory Medal, American Campaign Medal, Women's Army Corps Service Medal and the Army Good Conduct Medal.

There were many other Hispanic Servicewomen like Conterras who served either in the WAAC‘s, WAVE‘s or MCWR (Marine Corps Women’s Reserve’s) among them Maria Rodriguez-Denton and Sergeant Mary Castro.

LTJG Maria (Rodriguez) Denton, the Navy assigned LTJG Denton as a library assistant at the Cable and Censorship Office in New York City. It was Lt. Denton who forwarded the news (through channels) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended.

Sergeant Mary Castro was the first Hispanic woman from San Antonio, Texas, to join the WAAC. According to her own account, seven men in her family were fighting in the Pacific Theatre and she hoped that by joining the military that she would be able to help bring home her family members. She was trained at the Army’s radio school in St. Louis, Missouri, there she learned to transcribe encoded radio messages. She continued to serve as a drill instructor in the Women’s Army Corps.

Nurses

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Puerto Rican nurses in Camp Tortuguero

When the United States entered World War II, the military was in need of nurses. Hispanic nurses wanted to volunteer for service, however they were not accepted into the Army or Navy Nurse Corps. As a result, many women went to work in the factories which produced military equipment. As more Hispanic men joined the armed forces a need for bilingual nurses became apparent and the Army started to recruit Hispanic nurses. In 1944, the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) decided to accept Puerto Rican nurses. Thirteen women submitted applications, were interviewed, underwent physical examinations, and were accepted into the ANC. Eight of these nurses were assigned to the Army Post at San Juan, Puerto Rico where they were valued for their bilingual abilities. Five nurses were assigned to work at the hospital at Camp Tortuguero in Puerto Rico. One of these nurses was Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler.

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2nd Lt. Carmen Lozano Dumler

Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler was born and raised in San Juan, Puerto Rico, where she also received her primary and secondary education. After graduating from high school, she enrolled in the Presbyterian Hospital School of Nursing in San Juan where she became a certified nurse in 1944. In August 21, 1944, she was sworn in as a 2nd Lieutenant and assigned to the 161st General Hospital in San Juan, where she continued to receive further training. Upon completing her advanced training, she was sent to Camp Tortugero where she also assisted as an interpreter whenever needed.

In 1945, Lozano was reassigned to the 359th Station Hospital of Ft. Read, Trinidad and Tobago, British West Indies, there she attended wounded soldiers who had returned from Normandy, France. After the war, Lozano, like so many other women in the military, returned to civilian life. She continued her nursing career in Puerto Rico until she retired in 1975.

Another Hispanic nurse who distinguished herself in her service was Lieutenant Maria Roach. Lieutenant Maria (Garcia) Roach, a recipient of two Bronze Star Medals and an Air Medal, who served as a flight nurse with the Army Nurse Corps in the China-Burma-India Theater of Operations.

Senior Officers

Hispanics served as senior military officers during World War II. Most of them were graduates of the United States Naval Academy. The two highest ranking Hispanic officers who played an instrumental role in the war were Major General (Later Lieutenant General) Pedro del Valle, the first Hispanic to reach the rank of General in the Marine Corps and Brigadier General (later Lieutenant General) Elwood R. “Pete” Quesada of the Army Air Forces.

Major General Pedro del Valle

Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle

Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle (1893–1978), as a Colonel del Valle was the Commanding Officer of the 11th Marine Regiment, (artillery). Upon the outbreak of World War II, del Valle led his regiment during the seizure and defense of Guadalcanal, providing artillery support for the 1st Marine Division. In the Battle of Tenaru, the fire power provided by del Valle's artillery units killed many assaulting Japanese soldiers before they ever reached the Marine positions. The attackers were killed almost to the last man. The outcome of the battle was so stunning that the Japanese commander, Colonel Ichiki Kiyonao, committed seppuku shortly afterwards. General Alexander Vandegrift, impressed with del Valle's leadership recommended his promotion and on October 1, 1942, del Valle became a Brigadier General. Vandegrift retained del Valle as head of the 11th Marines, the only time that the 11th Marines has ever had a general as their commanding officer. In 1943, he served as Commander of Marine Forces overseeing Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and the Russell and Florida Islands.

On April 1, 1944, del Valle, as Commanding General of the Third Corps Artillery, III Marine Amphibious Corps, took part in the Battle of Guam and was awarded a Gold Star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit. The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that no one man could be singled out for commendation. Instead each man was given a letter of commendation by del Valle, which was carried in his record books.

In late October 1944, he succeeded Major General William Rupertus as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division, being personally greeted to his new command by Colonel Lewis Burwell "Chesty" Puller. At the time, the 1st Marine Division was training on the island of Pavuvu for the invasion of Okinawa. On May 29, 1945, del Valle participated in one of the most important events that led to victory in Okinawa. After five weeks of fighting, del Valle ordered Company A of the 1st Battalion 5th Marines to capture Shuri Castle, a medieval fortress of the ancient Ryukyuan kings. Seizure of Shuri Castle represented a moral blow for the Japanese and was an undeniable milestone in the Okinawa campaign. The fighting in Okinawa would continue for 24 more days. Del Valle was awarded a Distinguished Service Medal for his leadership during the battle and the subsequent occupation and reorganization of Okinawa.

Brigadier General Elwood R. Quesada

Brig. Gen. Elwood R. Quesada

Lieutenant General Elwood R. “Pete” Quesada, (1904–1993)—as a Brigadier General in October 1940—was assigned to intelligence in the Office of the Chief of Air Corps. He became commanding general of the 9th Fighter Command where he established advanced headquarters on the Normandy beachhead on D-Day plus one, and directed his planes in aerial cover and air support for the Allied invasion of the European continent. He was the foremost proponent of "the inherent flexibility of air power," a principle he helped prove during World War II.

In December 1942, a year after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Quesada took the First Air Defense Wing to North Africa in the heat of battle. Shortly thereafter, he was given command of the XII Fighter Command and in this capacity would work out the mechanics of close air support and Army-Air Force cooperation.

The successful integration of air and land forces in the Tunisia campaign forged by Quesada and the Allied leaders became a blueprint for operations incorporated into Army Air Forces field regulations—FM 100-20, "Command and Employment of Air Power," first published on July 21, 1943—and provided the Allies with their first victory in the European war. Principles such as the co-equality of ground and air force commanders, centralized command of tactical aircraft to exploit "the inherent flexibility of air power," and the attainment of air superiority over the battlefield as a prerequisite for successful ground operations formed the core of tactical air doctrine. In October 1943, Quesada assumed command of the IX Fighter Command in England, and his forces provided air cover for the greatest invasion in history, the landings on Normandy Beach. Among Quesada’s many military decorations were the following: Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster; Distinguished Flying Cross; Purple Heart and an Air Medal with two silver stars.

A number of other Hispanics served in senior leadership positions during World War II, including Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas, Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest Garcia, Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl, Admiral Horacio Rivero, Colonel Jaime Sabater and Rear Admiral Henry G. Sanchez.

Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas, USN, was an Executive Officer of the USS Texas, which participated in the invasions of North Africa and Normandy (D-Day) during World War II. In 1945, he became the first Commanding officer of the USS Grundy (APA-111).

Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest Garcia, USN, was the commander of the destroyer USS Sloat and saw action in the invasions of Africa, Sicily, and France.

Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl, USN, a World War I Navy Cross recipient who served as Captain of the USS Vincennes (CA-44) during World War II. The Vincennes was engaged in combat against a fleet of Japanese ships just off Guadalcanal and received 85 direct hits. Riefkohl ordered his men to abandon ship. The sailors manned the life rafts, among them Ensign C. Kenneth Ruiz, who later become a submarine commander.

Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr., USN, he served aboard the USS San Juan (CL-54) and was involved in providing artillery cover for Marines landing on Guadalcanal, Marshall Islands, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Rivero eventually reached the rank of Full-Admiral (four-stars) and in October 1962, find himself in the middle of the Cuban Missile Crisis. As Commander of amphibious forces, Atlantic Fleet, he was on the front line of the vessels sent to the Caribbean by President Kennedyto stop the Cold War from escalating into World War III.

Colonel Jaime Sabater, USMC, during WWII, commanded the 1st Battalion, 9th Marines during the Bougainville amphibious operations.

Rear Admiral Henry G. Sanchez, USN, then-LCDR Sanchez commanded VF-72, a F4F squadron of 37 aircraft, onboard the USS Hornet (CV-8) from July to October 1942. His squadron was responsible for shooting down 38 Japanese airplanes during his command tour, which included the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands.

Submarine Commanders

Captain Marion Frederic Ramirez de Arellano

Captain Marion Frederic Ramirez de Arellano, (1913–1980) USN, participated in five war patrols. He led the effort to rescue five Navy pilots and one enlisted gunner off Wake Island, and contributed to the sinking of two Japanese freighters and damaging a third. For his actions, he was awarded a Silver Star Medal and a Legion of Merit Medal.

After a brief stint at the Navy Yard on Navy Yard on Mare Island, he was reassigned to the USS Skate, a Balao class submarine. He participated in the Skates first three war patrols and was awarded a second Silver Star Medal for his contributions in the sinking the Japanese light cruiser Japanese light cruiser Agano, on his third patrol. The Agano had survived a previous torpedo attack by submarine USS Scamp.

In April 1944, Ramirez de Arellano as named Commanding Officer of the USS Balao. He participated in his ship's war patrols 5, 6 and 7. On July 5, 1944, Ramirez de Arellano led the rescue of three downed Navy pilots in the Palau area. On December 4, 1944, the Balao departed from Pearl Harbor to patrol in the Yellow Sea. The Balao engaged and sunk the Japanese cargo ship Daigo Maru on January 8, 1945. Ramirez de Arellano was awarded a Bronze Star Medal with Combat V and a Letter of Commendation.

Two other notable Hispanic submarine commanders were Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benitez and Captain C. Kenneth Ruiz.

Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benitez, USN, was a Lieutenant Commander and saw action aboard submarines and on various occasions weathered depth charge attacks. For his actions, he was awarded the Silver and Bronze Star Medals. Benitez would go on to play an important role in the first American undersea spy mission of the Cold War as commander of the submarine USS Cochino in what became known as the "Cochino Incident".

Captain C. Kenneth Ruiz, USN, Ruiz was a crew member of the cruiser USS Vincennes (CA-44), during the Battle of Savo Island. After being rescued at sea and sent to Pearl Harbor, he got a personal invitation by Admiral Chester Nimitz to join the Submarine Service. He was named Captain of the submarine USS Pollack and participated in eight war patrols in the hostile waters of the Pacific during WWII.

Recipients of the Medal of Honor

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(L-R) Army and Navy (Marines) Medals of Honor

The Medal of Honor, sometimes referred to as the Congressional Medal of Honor, is the highest military decoration in the United States bestowed "for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of life, above and beyond the call of duty, in actual combat against an armed enemy force." The medal is awarded by the President of the United States on behalf of the Congress. Joe P. Martinez was the first Hispanic Medal of Honor recipient, from a total of 13, during World War II. His posthumous award was the first for combat heroism on American soil since the Indian Campaigns.

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Pvt. Joseph Pantillion Martinez

Pvt. Joe P. Martinez, whose birth name was Joseph Pantillion Martinez, was one of nine children born to a family of Mexican immigrants. His family moved to Ault, Colorado and on August 1942, he was drafted into the United States Army and sent to Camp Roberts in California where he received his basic training.

On May 26, 1943, the 32nd Infantry Regiment was engaged in combat in the vicinity of Fish Hook Ridge, in the Aleutian Islands, against enemy troops. The regiment was pinned down by enemy fire. Pvt. Martinez, on his own account led two assaults. He fired his rifle into the Japanese foxholes and occasionally he stopped to urge his comrades on. His example inspired the men of his unit to follow. Martinez was shot in the head as he approached one final foxhole after the second assault, dying of the wound the following day. Because of his actions the pass was taken, and its capture was an important preliminary to the end of organized hostile resistance. Martinez was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor, highest military decoration of the United States.

Of the 13 Medals of Honor awarded to Hispanics, six were awarded posthumously. Texas is the state that accounted for the most Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients in World War II with a total of five. The following is a list of the 13 Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients in alphabetical order by last names, followed by branch of service, place and date of action. An asterisk after the name indicates that the award was given posthumously.

1. Lucian Adams: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: St. Die, France, October 1944.
2. Rudolph B. Davila: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Artena, Italy, 28 May, 1944. Davila was of Hispanic-Filipino descent and the only person of Filipino ancestry to receive the medal for his actions in the war in Europe.
3. Marcario Garcia: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Near Grosshau, Germany, November 27, 1944. Garcia was the first Mexican national Medal of Honor recipient.
4. Harold Gonsalves*: United States Marine Corps. Place and Date of Action: Ryūkyū Chain, Okinawa, April 15, 1945.
5. David M. Gonzales*: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Villa Verde Trail, Luzon, Philippine Islands, April 25, 1945.
6. Silvestre S. Herrera: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Near Mertzwiller, France, March 15, 1945. Herrera is the only living person authorized to wear the Medal of Honor and Mexico's equivalent "Premier Merito Militar" (Order of Military Merit). The Order of Military Merit is Mexico's highest award for valor. The Medal was awarded to Herrera, who was a Mexican citizen by birth.
7. Jose M. Lopez: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Near Krinkelt, Belgium, December 17, 1944.
8. Joe P. Martinez*: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Attu, Aleutians, May 26, 1943. Martinez was the first Hispanic American recipient who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for combat heroism on American soil during World War II.
9. Manuel Perez Jr.*: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Fort William McKinley, Luzon, Philippine Islands, February 13, 1945.
10. Cleto L. Rodriguez: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Paco Railroad Station, Manila, Philippine Islands, February 9, 1945.
11. Alejandro R. Ruiz: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Okinawa, Japan, April 28, 1945.
12. Jose F. Valdez*: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Rosenkrantz, France, January 25, 1945.
13. Ysmael R. Villegas*: United States Army. Place and Date of Action: Villa Verde Trail, Luzon, Philippine Islands, March 20, 1945.

Top military decorations awarded to Hispanic Americans

Hispanics were recipients of every major U.S. military decoration during World War II. They have also been honored with military awards from other counties. 31 Hispanics were awarded the Belgium Croix de Guerre and 3 Hispanics received the French Croix de Guerre. The figures in the following table were derived from the book “Undaunted Courage Mexican American Patriots Of World War II” published in 2005 by Latino Advocates for Education, Inc. and according to Rogelio C. Rodriguez of the LAE, the figures are based on listings of military service personnel that have been complied from military records, historical documentation, or personal accounts.

Hispanics: U.S. Armed Forces Awards

Armed Forces Awards in WW II	Numbers
File:Army-Navy.jpg Medal of Honor	13
Distinguished Service Cross	140
File:Navycross1.jpg Navy Cross Medal	25
Legion of Merit	323
Silver Star Medal	2006
Bronze Star Medal	1352
Distinguished Flying Cross	55
Purple Heart Medal	3378
Air Medal	237

Hero Street, USA

Purple Heart Medal

In the mid-West town of Silvis, Illinois, the former Second Street is now known as Hero Street USA. The muddy block and a half long street was home to Mexican immigrants who worked the railroads. The 22 families who lived on the street were a close-knit group. From this small street, 84 men served in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. The street contributed more men to military services in World War II and Korea than any other street of comparable size in the U.S. In total, eight men from Hero Street gave their lives during World War II—Joseph Gomez, Peter Macias, Johnny Muños, Tony Pompa, Frank Sandoval, Joseph “Joe” Sandoval, William “Bill” Sandoval and Claro Soliz. Second Street‘s name was changed to Hero Street in honor to these men and their families.

Sacrifice of the Sandoval Families: Of the 22 families on Second Street, the two Sandoval families had a total of thirteen men who served in the armed forces and of these, three gave their lives in service during World War II. The Sandoval’s were two families of Mexican immigrants, with the same surname, who settled in the town of Silvis, Illinois and lived on Second Street.

Edubigis and Angelina Sandoval immigrated to the U.S. with a dream of having a better life. When the news reached Silvis that the Japanese had attacked Pearl Harbor, two of the Sandoval sons, Joe and Frank Sandoval joined the U.S. Army, Joe was sent to combat in Africa, the Middle East and Europe with the 41st Armored Infantry Division. Frank was assigned to the 209 Combat Engineering Battalion and served in the Pacific. Frank was the first of the Sandoval’s to die and Joe followed a year later.

Joseph and Carmen Sandoval also immigrated to the United States from Mexico. When the war broke out, their son Bill asked for permission to enlist in the Army. Both parents consented to their son's request to serve the country. Bill Sandoval was trained as a paratrooper and was assigned to the 82nd Airborne Division. He was killed during a combat mission on October 6, 1944.

There were many other families all over the country, like the Sandoval’s, who had multiple members join the Armed Forces. The Banuelo family, originally from Mexico and who resided in Los Angeles, California, the Garcia family from Los Angeles, California and the Mora family from Laredo, Texas, each had six siblings who served in the military during the war, however one family, the Nevarez family, from Los Angeles, California, had a total of 8 siblings serving in the Armed Forces.

Discrimination

On July 4, 1776 the Founding Fathers of the United States signed their names to the Declaration of Independence, a document which was supposed to guarantee basic freedoms to all the citizens of the new nation. The equality declared in 1776 has been denied to many men and women of various races and religions at one time or another. Prejudice, discrimination and intolerance often arose from fear, suspicion and anger. At different times in the history of the U.S. people have been denied their rights because of their ethnicity.

Racial discrimination practiced against Hispanics, including Puerto Ricans on the United States' East Coast and Mexican Americans in California and the Southwest, was widespread and was not limited to civilians. During World War II, the United States Army was segregated. Hispanics, including the Puerto Ricans who resided on the mainland and were fluent in English served alongside their "white" counterparts. Those who were not fluent in English were assigned to units made up mostly of Hispanics. "Black" Hispanics were assigned to units made up mostly of African-Americans. The majority of the Puerto Ricans from the island served in Puerto Rico's segregated units, like the 65th Infantry and the Puerto Rico National Guard's 285th and 296th regiments. The following are a narrations of some Hispanics who served in regular Army units and experienced the racial discrimination of the day.

In the military

In an interview, PFC Raul Rios Rodriguez from Puerto Rico said that during his basic training at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, he had encountered a strict drill instructor who was particularly harsh on the Hispanic and black soldiers in his unit. He stated that he remains resentful of the discriminatory treatment that Latino and black soldiers received during basic training.

“We were all soldiers; we were all risking our lives for the United States. That should have never been done, Never."

Rios Rodriguez was shipped to Le Havre, France, assigned to guard bridges and supply depots in France and Germany with the 18th Infantry Regiment, 1st Infantry Division.

Another soldier from Puerto Rico, PFC Felix Lopez-Santos was drafted into the Army and sent to Fort Dix in New Jersey for training. Lopez-Santos went to Milne Bay and then to the small island of Woodlark, both in New Guinea, where he was in the communications department, using telephone wires to communicate to the troops during the war. In an interview, Lopez-Santos stated that in North Carolina he witnessed some forms of racial discrimination, but never experienced it for himself. He stated,

"I remember seeing some colored people (African-Americans) refused service at a restaurant, I believe that I was not discriminated against because of my blue eyes and fair complexion."

PFC Norberto Gonzalez was born in Cuba and moved to New York City in 1944 where he joined the Army. He was assigned to an all-white battalion and is soon subject to discrimination. In Gonzalez’s own words:

"They would ask me a lot what my name was and where I was born, and I constantly found myself explaining this to everyone. Once they knew who I was, they would treat me differently."

He requested a transfer to a black segregated battalion because of the discrimination he felt and said that it was only then when he felt comfortable.

“My relationship with the soldiers in my battalion was good; they were down-to-earth people. I felt good. I felt like I could progress with them”.

Cpl. Alfonso Rodriguez, a Mexican-American, was born in Santa Fe, New Mexico. In 1941, he joined the Army, where he would face racial discrimination. According to Rodriguez: "I was in recruit training the first time that I felt racial discrimination." He recalled one incident when he and fellow Mexican-American soldiers were sitting around speaking Spanish when a white soldier approached them. The white soldier demanded that the men stop speaking Spanish and speak English, “like Americans.” After arguing, Rodriguez said the white soldier, who was much bigger than he was, slapped him around and stormed off. Several weeks later, after a friend taught him some boxing moves, Rodriguez confronted the white soldier with his newfound boxing skills.

“I was angry,” Rodriguez said. "When I hit him, I laid him out on the floor. He took off running and never bothered us anymore."

Rodriguez’s first taste of combat was in New Guinea in 1944. His unit participated in the invasion of Los Negros Island. He recalls the racial remarks made by a Captain while he was wounded. “That was the first time I was called a smart-ass Mexican,” said Rodriguez, speaking of an incident that occurred in the Philippines. Rodriguez earned a Bronze Star and four Purple Heart medals before he returned home.

After returning home

Hispanic soldiers had to deal with discrimination upon their return home as a result of the segregation policies in effect in many states. Segregation is the practice of separating people on the basis of their race or ethnicity. Some men were not allowed to sit at the same table with their "white" comrades in restaurants. According to Pvt. Nicanor Aguilar:

"There was the same discrimination in Grand Falls (Texas), if not worse," Aguilar recalls. "First, we’d work for a dollar a day. After the war, they raised it to $2 [for] 10 hours. And the whites would get $18 (a day) in the petroleum (field)."

"I would see (signs that read) "No Mexicans, whites only." There was only one (restaurant) that would serve us."

Discrimination was not limited to those who returned alive, but in some cases, such as Pvt. Felix Longoria, it was also practiced against those who gave their lives for their country.

Pvt. Felix Longoria, Jr.

Pvt. Felix Longoria, from Three Rivers, Texas, was drafted into the US Army on November 11, 1944. At the age of 25, he left Texas, leaving behind his wife and four-year-old daughter. Seven months later, he was killed in action while on a voluntary patrol in the Cagayan Valley, Luzon, Philippines. His remains were returned in 1949 and the widow, Beatrice Longoria, attempted to make the funeral arrangements in the town's only funeral parlor. The owner of the funeral parlor denied the Longoria family the use of the parlor under the grounds that "the whites would not like it". Dr. Hector P. Garcia, who founded the American G.I. Forum, and then U.S. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas intervened. Senator Johnson, Lady Bird Johnson, Congressman John Lyle, and President Truman's military aide, Gen. Harry H. Vaughan joined the Longoria family for a full military burial with honors at Arlington National Cemetery on February 16, 1949. Senator Johnson stated:

"This injustice and prejudice is deplorable. I am happy to have a part seeing that this Texas hero is laid to rest with the honor and dignity his service deserves."

Homefront

File:Darnaz.jpg

Desi Arnaz

Entertainment provided by the United Service Organizations, Inc. (USO) helped to lift the morale of our troops. Some Hispanics in the entertainment business served our country in this manner. One of the most notable was Desi Arnaz.

Cuban bandleader, Desi Arnaz, who in the 1950s produced and starred alongside his wife Lucille Ball, in the popular television sitcom “I Love Lucy”, was drafted into the Army in 1943. The Army classified him for limited service because a of prior knee injury and as a result he was assigned to direct the U.S.O. programs at a military hospital in the San Fernando Valley, California. He served until 1945.

Economics of War

When the United States entered World War II, it was expected that Hispanic Americans would not only serve their country in the military, but also as civilians who remained on the home front. Hispanic American men and women who lived in the mainland, benefited from the sudden economic boom as a result of the war; and the doors opened for many of the migrants who were searching for jobs. Puerto Ricans, both male and female, found themselves employed in factories and ship docks, producing both domestic and warfare goods in what became known as the "The Great Migration" of Puerto Ricans to New York. The new migrants gained the knowledge and working skills that would serve them well.

Rosie the Riveter

Perhaps the most enduring image of American life on the home front is that of "Rosie the Riveter" by J. Howard Miller, inspired by a Norman Rockwell drawing. "Rosie" came to symbolize the ideal female war worker–she was strong and patriotic, yet retained her feminine look.

Prior to World War II, many women had been homemakers and rarely left the home to earn a living. This was especially true in the traditional Hispanic culture. Previously, the federal government had discouraged women, especially married ones, from seeking paid employment during the Depression. The need for workers in war industries led to a reversal of this policy. The first jobs that were given to women included secretarial work, sewing for the Red Cross and winding bandages to send overseas to the men in combat.

When men began to leave their jobs for military service, women began to fill in the gaps and entered traditionally "male" occupations. They helped to build airplanes, made ammunition in factories, and worked in shipyards.

Isabel Solis-Thomas and Elvia Solis were born in Veracruz, Mexico. The Solis family immigrated to the United States and moved to Brownsville, Texas. Mrs. Solis-Thomas remembers experiencing discrimination as a youth, even from people of her own ancestry. She remembered a Mexican-American teacher once telling the class that no matter how much Mexican-American girls applied themselves, they would never accomplish anything more than being housekeepers.

When World War II broke out, both sisters volunteered to become “Rosie the Riveter” machinists, welding pipes and repairing cargo ships by the war’s end with women of all races from all over the country. Mrs. Solis-Thomas said recruiters wanted women who were small, short and thin for crawling into dangerous places in the ships. She said she worked nine-hour days, six days a week, striking and sealing steel rods with precision and purpose.

“It (the war) was in full force,” Mrs. Solis-Thomas said. “And that’s why they needed us to go and help them to build these ships to get them out because they needed the ammunition, they needed the food and they needed to transport these boys where they had to go.”

“I was so proud because, man, I did it just exactly the way they wanted (me) to,” Mrs. Solis-Thomas said. “And here I come out, and they said, “Hi, shorty. You did pretty good.”

Over 250,000 airplanes were produced between 1939 and 1945. As a result these airplanes were in need of mechanics. The following is the narration of Josephine Ledesma who worked as an airplane mechanic form 1942 to 1944.

Josephine Ledesma, from Austin, Texas, was 24 when the war broke out. At that time, her husband, Alfred, was drafted and she decided to volunteer to work as an airplane mechanic. Even though the Army waived her husband’s duty, she was sent to train at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas, where she was the only Mexican-American woman on the base. After her training, she was sent to Bergstrom Air Field. According to Ledesma “In Bergstrom Field our duty was 'to keep them flying.' We were taking care of all transit aircraft that came that needed repairs.” There were two other women, both non-Hispanic, at Bergstrom Air Field, and several more in Big Spring, all working in the sheet metal department. At Big Spring, she was the only woman working in the hangar. She worked as a mechanic between from 1942 to 1944.

Postscript

End of the War

The American participation in the World War II came to an end in Europe on May 8, 1945, "V-E Day" (Victory in Europe Day), with Germany's surrender and in the Asian theater on August 14, 1945, "V-J Day" (Victory over Japan Day), when the Japanese surrendered by signing the Japanese Instrument of Surrender.

Many of the men and women who were discharged from the military after the war returned to their civilian jobs or made use of the educational benefits of the G.I. Bill. However, there were many who continued in the military as career soldiers and went on to serve in the Korean War. Women were now considered a valuable asset to the national work force and many preferred to remain in their jobs and were no longer looked upon by the American public in general only as homemakers.

Honoring Hispanics

The memory of many of our heroes has been honored in various ways. Some their names can be found on ships, in parks and inscribed in monuments. Captain Linda Garcia Cubero (USAF), while serving as Special Assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense, supervised the development of a United States commemorative stamp to honor Hispanics who served in America's defense. The stamp was designed to honor the ten Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients still alive and was unveiled on October 31, 1984.

Latino organizations and writers documented the Hispanic experience in World War II: most notably the U.S. Latino & Latina WWII Oral History Project, launched by Professor Maggie Rivas-Rodriguez of the University of Texas.

There are still cases—such as the controversial film The War, a documentary about World War II by filmmaker Ken Burns that will air on PBS in September 2007—that make no mention of Hispanic contributions. The failure to include any Hispanics in the film has been recognized and criticized by ordinary citizens, Hispanic leaders, and Congressional leaders alike. As a result of public pressure, officials in PBS have announced that Burns' documentary will include additional content incorporating the Hispanic contributions to the war effort.

See also

• List of Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients
• World War II
• Bataan Death March
• 65th Infantry Regiment

External links

• World War II By The Numbers”, Education at the World War II Museum. The National World War II Museum, Retrieved on June 1, 2007.
• Hispanic experience in the military service
• “Commands” - Puerto Rico's 65th Infantry Regiment
• “Puerto Rican Soldier” August 2005 publication
• Pentagon Hosts Salute to Hispanic World War II Veterans, U.S. Department of Defense
• Hispani - American Medal of Honor Recipients
• Hero Street Monument
• The Contributions of Hispanic Servicewomen
• Latinos and Latinas & WWII Oral History Project
• Bellafaire, Judith A. The Women's Army Corps: A Commemoration of World War II Service", U.S. Army Center of Military History

Further reading

• 65th Infantry Division. Turner Publishing. 1997. ISBN 1563111187.
• del Valle, Pedro (1976). Semper fidelis: An autobiography. Christian Book Club of America. ASIN B0006COTKO.
• Esteves, General Luis Raúl (1955). ¡Los Soldados Son Así!. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Star Publishing Co. Retrieved 2007-03-20.
• Gordy, Bill (1945). Right to be proud: History of the 65th infantry division's march across Germany. J. Wimmer. ASIN B0007J8K74.
• Lederer, Commander William J., USN (1950). The Last Cruise: The Story of the Sinking of the Submarine, U.S.S. Cochino. Sloane. ASIN B0007E631Y.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Fernandez, Virgil (2006). Hispanic Military Heroes. VFJ Publishing. ISBN-13: 978-0967587615.
• Hughes, Thomas Alexander (2002). Overlord: General Pete Quesada and the Triumph of Tactical Air Power in World War II. Free Press. ISBN-13: 978-0743247832.
• Arthur, Anthony (1987). Bushmasters: America's jungle warriors of World War II. St. Martin's Press. ASIN: B000OK9CTQ.
• Latino Advocates for Education, Inc (2005). Undaunted Courage Mexican American Patriots Of World War II. Latino Advocates for Education, Inc.