Jump to content

Politics of Mongolia: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
update
update with references
Line 4: Line 4:
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.


==Socialist period and single party administration==
==Political developments==
From shortly after the [[Outer Mongolian Revolution of 1921|Mongolian Revolution of 1921]] until 1990, the [[Mongolia]]n Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the [[communist]] party––the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party ([[Mongolian People's Party|MPRP]])––was officially permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. [[collective farming|Collectivization]] livestock, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.
From shortly after the [[Outer Mongolian Revolution of 1921|Mongolian Revolution of 1921]] until 1990, the [[Mongolia]]n Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the [[communist]] party––the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party ([[Mongolian People's Party|MPRP]])––was officially permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. [[collective farming|Collectivization]] livestock, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.


==Democratic movement==
The birth of [[perestroika]] in the former [[Soviet Union]] and the democracy movement in eastern [[Europe]] were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the [[Mongolian Democratic Union]], appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform, the [[politburo]] of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.
The birth of [[perestroika]] in the former [[Soviet Union]] and the democracy movement in eastern [[Europe]] were mirrored in Mongolia.
On the morning of 10 December 1989, the first open pro-democracy demonstration met in front of the Youth Cultural Center in Ulaanbaatar.<ref>{{cite news|last=G.|first=Dari|title=
Democracy Days to be inaugurated|publisher=news.mn (in Mongolian)|url=http://politics.news.mn/content/89237.shtml|accessdate=8 July 2013|date=5 December 2011}}</ref> There, [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]] announced the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union.<ref name="CDMongolia">{{cite web|title=Tsakhia Elbegdorj|publisher=Community of Democracies Mongolia|url=http://cdmongolia.mn/tsakhia-elbegdorj/#.UdovIfmmiAg|accessdate=8 July 2013}}</ref> Over the next months activists 13 democratic leaders continued to organize demonstrations, rallies, protests and hunger strikes, as well as teachers' and workers' strikes.<ref name="Politburo">{{cite book|title=Parliaments in Asia|url=http://books.google.mn/books?id=slpaAe40kn0C&pg=PA143&dq=politburo+resignation+led+to+first+multi+party+election+in+mongolia&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OjjaUYv-CuSh4gTsnICYDg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false|last=Ahmed and Norton|first=Nizam U. and Philip|pages=143|publisher=Frank Cass & Co.Ltd|place=London|isbn=0-7146-4951-1|accessdate=8 July 2013|year=1999}}</ref> Activists had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside and the union's activities led to other calls for democracy all over the country.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://baabar.niitlelch.mn/content/112.shtml
|title=Democratic Revolution and Its Terrible Explanations|author=[[Baabar]]|publisher=baabar.mn (in Mongolian)|date=16 November 2009|accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="Democracy's Hero">{{cite web|title=Democracy's Hero: Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj|url=http://www.iri.org/news-events-press-center/news/democracy%E2%80%99s-hero-tsakhiagiin-elbegdorj|publisher=The International Republican Institute|location=Washington|date=21 July 2011|accessdate=8 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mongolia Celebrates 20th Anniversary of Democratic Revolution|url=http://www.iri.org/news-events-press-center/news/mongolia-celebrates-20th-anniversary-democratic-revolution|publisher=The International Republican Institute|accessdate=8 August 2012|date=11 December 2009}}</ref> After extended demonstrations of many thousands of people in subzero weather in the capital city as well as provincial centers, Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party(MPRP) (present [[Mongolian People's Party]])'s Politburo – the authority of the government eventually gave way to the pressure and entered negotiations with the leaders of the democratic movement.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wilhelm|first=Kathy|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=19900312&id=H-FLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=b4sDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4798,2084369|title=Mongolian Politburo resigns en masse|pages=4|newspaper=The Free Lance Star|place=Fredericksburg, VA|date=12 March 1990|accessdate=8 July 2013}}</ref> [[Jambyn Batmönkh]], chairman of Politburo of MPRP's Central Committee decided to dissolve the Politburo and to resign on 9 March 1990.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2199&dat=19900312&id=QkUyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=_uQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4637,3539885|title=Entire Mongolian Politburo resigns|newspaper=Lawrence Journal-World|pages=8A|place=Lawrence, KS|date=12 March 1990|accessdate=8 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Ch.|first=Munkhbayar|url=http://news.dorgio.mn/politics/other/772|title=What was the Mongolian democratic revolution?|publisher=dorgio.mn (in Mongolian)|date=13 March 2013|accessdate=8 July 2013}}</ref> Thus paved the way for the first multi-party elections in Mongolia.<ref name="Politburo" /> Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj announced this news to the hunger strikers and the people those gathered on [[Sükhbaatar Square]] at 10PM on that day after the negotiations between leaders of MPRP and Mongolian Democratic Union.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tsakhia |first=Elbegdorj |editors=Mongolian Democratic Union, New Period Youth Organization, and Mongolia's Young Leaders Foundation|title=The Footstep of Truth is White book "Speech of Ulaan Od newspaper's correspondent Elbegdorj at Young Artists’ Second National Congress"|publisher=Hiimori |place=Ulaanbaatar|year=1999 |pages=15|isbn=99929-74-01-X}}</ref> As a result, Mongolia became the first successful country in Asia to transition into democracy from communist rule.<ref>{{cite web|first=Ganbat|last=Gamba|title=The Mass Public and Democratic Politics in Mongolia|url=http://www.asianbarometer.org/newenglish/publications/workingpapers/no.29.pdf|publisher=Asian Barometer|pages=3|year=2004|place=Taipei|volume=Working Paper Series: No. 29|accessdate=8 July 2013}}</ref> Elbegdorj worked as the Leader of the Mongolian Democratic Union in 1989–1997.<ref name="Sanders 2010 209">{{cite book|last=Sanders|first=Alan J.K.|url=http://books.google.mn/books?id=5JN83EDDLl4C&pg=PA231&dq=elbegdorj&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CzDaUcOSNMfK4ASw1IGICw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=elbegdorj&f=false|title=Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Third edition|publisher=Scarecrow Press|place=Lanham, MD |pages=209|year=2010|accessdate=25 June 2013|isbn=978-0-8108-7452-7}}</ref>

==Multi-party system==
In May 1990, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.


Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a [[State Great Hural|People's Great Hural]] (parliament) were held on 29 July 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Hural first met on 3 September and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democratic Party), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small parliament). The vice president was also a chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution and adopted it on 13 January 1992. The Constitution entered into force on 12 February 1992. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the [[State Great Hural]] (SGH) (parliament).
Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a [[State Great Hural|People's Great Hural]] (parliament) were held on 29 July 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Hural first met on 3 September and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democratic Party), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small parliament). The vice president was also a chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution and adopted it on 13 January 1992. The Constitution entered into force on 12 February 1992. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the [[State Great Hural]] (SGH) (parliament).


The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent [[Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat]] won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition.
The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent [[Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat]] won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition. [[File:President Putin meeting deputies of the Great State Hural-1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[State Great Hural|Mongolia's Parliament]] in session]]


⚫
As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually. There are 76 members of the parliament. They were popularly elected by district in 1992-2012. By 2012 legislative election law, since 2012 parliamentary election, [[mixed-member proportional representation]] began to be used in legislature in Mongolia. 48 of the parliamentary members are popularly elected by district and 28 of them are appointed by the political parties by proportional representation. SGH members elect a speaker and vice speakers from each party or coalition in the government and they serve 4-year term.
[[File:President Putin meeting deputies of the Great State Hural-1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[State Great Hural|Mongolia's Parliament]] in session]]


⚫
Until June 1996 the predominant party in Mongolia was the ex-communist party [[Mongolian People's Party|Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] or MPRP. However, the President of the country was [[Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat]] (Democratic Party) in 1990-1997. Ochirbat was a MPRP member until 1990 but changed to Democratic Party following the democratic revolution.
⚫
As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually. There are 76 members of the parliament. They were popularly elected by district in 1992-2012. By 2012 legislative election law, since 2012 parliamentary election, mixed-member proportional representation began to be used in legislature in Mongolia. 48 of the parliamentary members are popularly elected by district and 28 of them are appointed by the political parties by proportional representation. SGH members elect a speaker and vice speakers from each party or coalition in the government and they serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms.


[[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]], as the chairman of the [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democratic Party]], co-led the [[Democratic Union Coalition]] to its historic victory in the [[Mongolian legislative election, 1996|1996 parliamentary election]]. Democratic Union Coalition of Democratic Party and Social Democratic Party (chairman Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj) was in power in 1996-2000.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lawrence|first=Susan V.|publisher=Congressional Research Service|title=Mongolia: Issues for Congress|url=http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R41867.pdf|date=14 June 2011|accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> [[Mendsaikhany Enkhsaikhan]], election manager of Democratic Union Coalition worked as the Prime Minister in 1996-1998. In 1998, a clause in the constitution was removed that prohibited members of parliament to take cabinet responsibility.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/details.jsp?id=3039|title=Constitution of Mongolia|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|date=13 January 1992|accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> Thus on 23 April 1998, the Parliament elected (61–6) Elbegdorj as the Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web|title=April 1998|url=http://rulers.org/1998-04.html|publisher=rulers.org|date=April 1998|accessdate=21 May 2009}}</ref> Then due to opposition MPRP's demand Elbegdorj lost confidence vote at the Parliament<ref>{{cite book|last=Sanders|first=Alan J.K.|url=http://books.google.mn/books?id=5JN83EDDLl4C&pg=PR68&lpg=PR68&dq=elbegdorj+reconstruction+bank&source=bl&ots=lxglCkERG3&sig=XKva0Dc41sJuO5YIH-4fEie6CZ8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NBrJUdHgL8GqO6DKgHg&ved=0CCsQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=elbegdorj%20reconstruction%20bank&f=false |title=Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Third edition|publisher=Scarecrow Press|place=Lanham, MD |pages=xviii|year=2010|accessdate=25 June 2013|isbn=978-0-8108-7452-7}}</ref> and was replaced by [[Janlavyn Narantsatsralt]] of Democratic Party on 9 December 1998.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kohn|first=Michael|url=http://books.google.mn/books?id=-UnWOmL1a48C&pg=PA109&dq=elbegdorj+narantsatsralt&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3xzJUZazJoeZPYa2gNgH&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=elbegdorj%20narantsatsralt&f=false|title=Dateline Mongolia: An American Journalist in Nomad's Land|publisher=RDR Books|place=Muskegon, MI|pages=109|year=2006|accessdate=25 June 2013|isbn=978-1-57143-155-4}}</ref> [[Janlavyn Narantsatsralt]] had to resign eight months later in July 1999 because of the controversial formulation of a letter to the first deputy prime minister of [[Russia]] about Mongolia-Russian joint [[copper]]-[[molybdenium]] ore mining and processing [[Erdenet Mining Corporation]]. [[Rinchinnyamyn Amarjargal]] became Democratic Party's new chairman and served as the Prime Minister in July 1999-June 2000.
⚫
Until June 1996 the predominant party in Mongolia was the ex-communist party [[Mongolian People's Party|Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] or MPRP. The main opposition party was the [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democratic Party]] or DP that controlled a governing coalition from 1996 to 2000.


In 1997 [[Natsagiin Bagabandi]] was elected as the country's President as a result of [[Mongolian presidential election, 1997|1997 Mongolian presidential election]]. He was re-elected as President in [[Mongolian presidential election, 2001|2001 Mongolian presidential election]] and served until 2005.
From 2000 to 2004 MPRP was back in power, but results of the 2004 elections required the establishing of the first ever coalition government in Mongolia between the MPRP and MDC (Motherland Democratic Coalition).


As a result of [[Mongolian legislative election, 2000|2000 parliamentary elections]], in 2000-2004 MPRP was back in power in the presidency, parliament and government.
⚫
In January 2006, MP Tsogtyn Bataa changed sides from the Motherland Party to the MRPR, giving the latter exactly 50% of the seats. This gave the MPRP the opportunity to withdraw from the coalition, and, with support of several small parties and defectors from the Democratic party, elect [[Miyeegombyn Enkhbold]] as the new prime minister. The events triggered strong protests from civic groups and their followers. Individuals and organizations raised concerns that the government change might have been unconstitutional, but no specific violations could be shown.


The results of the [[Mongolian legislative election, 2004|2004 parliamentary elections]] required the establishing of the first ever coalition government in Mongolia between the MPRP and MDC (Motherland Democratic Coalition). On 20 August 2004, Elbegdorj became the Prime Minister of Mongolia for the second time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forum.mn/en/p_print.php?obj_id=489|title=Ts. Elbegdorj is Prime Minister (August 20, 2004)|publisher=Open Society Forum|date=20 August 2004|accessdate=7 July 2013}}</ref> This time he headed a grand coalition government after the vote in the [[Mongolian legislative election, 2004|2004 parliamentary elections]] had been evenly split between the two major political forces – Democratic Coalition and the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party.<ref>{{cite web|last=Zuckerman|first=Ethan|url=http://www.ethanzuckerman.com/blog/2006/01/13/its-never-to-cold-to-riot-in-ulaanbaatar/|title=It is never too cold to riot in Ulaanbaatar|publisher=ethanzuckerman.com|date=13 January 2006|accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref>
In April 2006, [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]] was elected as a Democratic Party chairman by the two step elections of the party.


In [[Mongolian presidential election, 2005|2005 Mongolian presidential election]] Nambaryn Enkhbayar was elected as the President.
[[File:MPRP Burnt.JPG|right|thumb|300px|[[2008 riot in Mongolia|Violent protests]] that followed the June 2008 election resulted in damage to MPRP Headquarters]]


⚫
In January 2006, MP Tsogtyn Bataa changed sides from the Motherland Party to the MRPR, giving the latter exactly 50% of the seats. This gave the MPRP the opportunity to withdraw from the coalition, and, with support of several small parties and defectors from the Democratic Party, elect [[Miyeegombyn Enkhbold]] of MPRP as the new prime minister. The events triggered strong protests from civic groups and their followers. Individuals and organizations raised concerns that the government change might have been unconstitutional, but no specific violations could be shown.
In October 2007, Enkhbold lost his position as MPRP chairman to [[Sanjaagiin Bayar]]. The MPRP delegates also voted for having Bayar create a new government.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.mongolei.de/news/2007okt4.htm
|title=Aktuelle Nachrichten aus der Mongolei/ 22. bis 28. Oktober 2007
|work=mongoleionline.de
|date=2007-10-28
|accessdate=October 30, 2007
⚫
}}</ref> Enkhbold remained in office<ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/english/international/231283.htm "Mongolian parliament accepts PM's resignation"], Xinhua (china.org.cn), November 8, 2007.</ref> until Bayar was elected on 22 November 2007.<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/11/22/asia/AS-POL-Mongolia-Prime-Minister.php "Mongolia rushes to appoint new prime minister as a budget deadline looms"], Associated Press (''International Herald Tribune''), November 22, 2007.</ref>


In April 2006, [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]] was elected as the chairman of the Democratic Party by the two step elections of the party.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sanders|first=Alan J.K.|url=http://books.google.mn/books?id=5JN83EDDLl4C&pg=PA231&dq=elbegdorj&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CzDaUcOSNMfK4ASw1IGICw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=elbegdorj&f=false|title=Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Third edition|publisher=Scarecrow Press|place=Lanham, MD |pages=209|year=2010|accessdate=25 June 2013|isbn=978-0-8108-7452-7}}</ref>

⚫
In October 2007, Enkhbold lost his position as MPRP chairman to [[Sanjaagiin Bayar]]. The MPRP delegates also voted for having Bayar create a new government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mongolei.de/news/2007okt4.htm|title=Aktuelle Nachrichten aus der Mongolei/ 22. bis 28. Oktober 2007|work=mongoleionline.de|date=2007-10-28|accessdate=October 30, 2007}}</ref> Enkhbold remained in office<ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/english/international/231283.htm "Mongolian parliament accepts PM's resignation"], Xinhua (china.org.cn), November 8, 2007.</ref> until Bayar was elected on 22 November 2007.<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/11/22/asia/AS-POL-Mongolia-Prime-Minister.php "Mongolia rushes to appoint new prime minister as a budget deadline looms"], Associated Press (''International Herald Tribune''), November 22, 2007.</ref>
In Bayar's government, Enkhbold was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister on December 5, 2007.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2600556,prtpage-1.cms "Mongolian Parliament approves new coalition government"], IST, AFP (''Times of India''), December 6, 2007.</ref>
In Bayar's government, Enkhbold was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister on December 5, 2007.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2600556,prtpage-1.cms "Mongolian Parliament approves new coalition government"], IST, AFP (''Times of India''), December 6, 2007.</ref>


The [[Mongolian People's Party|MPRP]] won a clear majority (46 of 76 seats) in [[Mongolian legislative election, 2008|legislative elections on June 29, 2008]]. The [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democrats]] (DP) won 27 seats with the three remaining seats going to minor parties and an independent. After intermediate results were published on July 30, DP chairman [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj|Elbegdorj]] declared that the elections were rigged and that his party would not accept the results. Protests against the election results [[2008 riot in Mongolia|turned violent]] on the evening of July 1, and protesters sacked the MPRP headquarters in downtown [[Ulaanbaatar]]. Five protesters<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/7860539.stm |title=
The [[Mongolian People's Party|MPRP]] won a majority (46 of 76 seats) in [[Mongolian legislative election, 2008|legislative elections on June 29, 2008]]. The [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democrats]] (DP) won 27 seats with the three remaining seats going to minor parties and an independent.
Fatal clashes in Mongolia capital |accessdate=July 2, 2008 |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=BBC World News |location=London |pages= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref> were killed, and around midnight a four-day state of emergency was declared.


On May 24 2009, Democratic Party candidate Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj defeated incumbent Nambaryn Enkhbayar and Elbegdorj became the country's President on 18 June 2009.
On 24 May 2009, in [[Mongolian presidential election, 2009|2009 Mongolian presidential election]], [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democratic Party]] candidate [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]] made a victory over incumbent [[Nambaryn Enkhbayar]] in <ref>{{cite web|title=Mongolia Profile|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15460528|publisher=BBC|accessdate=31 July 2012}}</ref>. [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]] was sworn into office and became the country's president on 18 June 2009.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mongolia's new president sworn in|url=http://www.euronews.com/2009/06/18/mongolia-s-new-president-sworn-in|publisher=euronews.com|date=18 June 2009|accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref>


In 2010 former communist party [[Mongolian People's Party|Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] reverted its name to its pre-revolution name, the [[Mongolian People's Party]]. In 2010 [[Nambaryn Enkhbayar]] established a new political party and named it [[Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (2010-)|Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] after receiving the old name of [[Mongolian People's Party]] from the Supreme Court of Mongolia. Enkhbayar became the chairman of the new party.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.business-mongolia.com/mongolia/tag/n-enkhbayar-chairman-of-new-mprp/|publisher=Business-Mongolia.com|accessdate=30 June 2013|title=Former MPRP is reborn and former President named chairman|date=2 February 2011}}</ref>
In 2010 former communist party [[Mongolian People's Party|Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] reverted its name to its pre-revolution name, the [[Mongolian People's Party]]. After his defeat in 2009 presidential election, in 2010 [[Nambaryn Enkhbayar]] established a new political party and named it [[Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (2010-)|Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] after receiving the old name of [[Mongolian People's Party]] from the Supreme Court of Mongolia. Enkhbayar became the chairman of the new party.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.business-mongolia.com/mongolia/tag/n-enkhbayar-chairman-of-new-mprp/|publisher=Business-Mongolia.com|accessdate=30 June 2013|title=Former MPRP is reborn and former President named chairman|date=2 February 2011}}</ref>


In 2012, Democratic Party won in the parliamentary elections and became the majority at the parliament. Democratic Party established a coalition government with Civil Will-Green Party, and Justice Coalition of new MPRP and Mongolian National Democratic Party due to Democratic Party's seats were not enough at the parliament to establish a government alone by law. On 26 June 2013 incumbent President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, candidate of Democratic Party won presidential election and was sworn into office for his second term on 10 July 2013.
In June 2012 [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democratic Party]] won in the parliamentary elections and became the majority at the parliament. Democratic Party established a coalition government with [[Civil Will-Green Party]], and [[Justice Coalition]] of new MPRP and Mongolian National Democratic Party due to Democratic Party having not enough seats at the parliament to establish a government on its own by law.


Incumbent President [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]], candidate of Democratic Party won the [[Mongolian presidential election, 2013|2013 Mongolian presidential election]] on 26 June 2013<ref>{{cite news|title=Incumbent Mongolian president wins 2nd term on pro-Western, anti-graft platform|url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/incumbent-mongolian-president-wins-2nd-term-on-pro-western-anti-graft-platform/2013/06/26/2bbce73e-deca-11e2-ad2e-fcd1bf42174d_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|place=Washington|accessdate=29 June 2013|date=27 June 2013}}</ref> and was sworn into office for his second term as President on 10 July 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.montsame.gov.mn/en/index.php/politics/item/1427-ts-elbegdorj-takes-oath|author=Khuder|title=Ts.Elbegdorj takes oath|publisher=Montsame News Agency|date=10 July 2013|accessdate=10 July 2013}}</ref> Thus since 2012 Democratic Party has been in power holding the presidency, and the parliament and leading its coalition government.
Thus since 2012 Democratic Party has been holding the Presidency, as the majority at the parliament and leading its coalition government.


Executive branch{{office-table}}
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Mongolia|President]]
|[[President of Mongolia|President]]
|[[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]]
|[[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]]
Line 60: Line 64:
|10 August 2012
|10 August 2012
|}
|}
⚫
The presidential candidates are nominated by parties in the State Great Hural and from these candidates the president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term. The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the national security council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the State Great Khural can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.


==President==
⚫
The government, headed by the prime minister, has a four year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to State Great Hural approval. The Cabinet consists of thirteen ministries.<ref>Montsame News Agency. ''Mongolia''. 2006, Montsame News Agency Foreign Service Office, ISBN 99929-0-627-8, p. 43</ref> Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after a State Great Hural vote for dissolution.
[[File:Tsakhiagiin Elbegdor.jpg|thumb|left|90px|President [[Elbegdorj]]]]
⚫
The presidential candidates are nominated by parties those have seats in the State Great Hural and from these candidates the president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term. The president is the Head of State, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, and Head of the National Security Council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the State Great Khural can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, decrees giving directives become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.


==Government==
The MPRP and a coalition of opposition parties currently rule in a national unity coalition after they both got the same number of seats in 2004. In July 2005 the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) announced a unilateral end to the Grand Coalition Government, and that it was assuming the full power of government. After a series of negotiations, the MPRP elected to allow the government of Prime Minister Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj to remain in power until August 2006, when Deputy Prime Minister Ulaan is scheduled to take the Prime Ministership for the remaining two years of the term.
[[File:Altankhuyag.jpg|thumb|right|105px|Prime Minister Altankhuyag]]
⚫
The government, headed by the prime minister, has a four year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to State Great Hural's approval. The Cabinet consists of thirteen ministries.<ref>{{cite book|publisher=Montsame News Agency|place=Ulaanbaatar|title=Mongolia|year=2006|ISBN=99929-0-627-8|pages=43}}</ref> Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after a State Great Hural vote for dissolution.


===Ministries===
===Ministries===
<small>''General''</small>
⚫
*Environment and Green Development
*Foreign Affairs
*Foreign Affairs
*Finance
*Finance
*Justice and Internal Affairs
*Justice
<small>''Specialized''</small>
*Environment
*Construction and Urban Development
*Culture, Sports and Travel
*Defense
*Defense
*Economic Development
*Education, Culture, and Science
*Education and Science
⚫
*Construction and Urban Development
*Fuel Energy
*Energy
*Health
*Roads, Transport, and Tourism
⚫
*Industry and Agriculture
*Social Welfare and Labor
*Labor
*Industry and Commerce
*Mining
⚫
*Food and Agriculture
*Population Development and Social Welfare
*Health<ref>Montsame News Agency. ''Mongolia''. 2006, Montsame News Agency Foreign Service Office, ISBN 99929-0-627-8, p. 44</ref>
*Roads and Transportation<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pmis.gov.mn/|title=Websites of Government Organizations of Mongolia|publisher=Government of Mongolia|accessdate=3 August 2013}}</ref>

==Legislative branch==
==Parliament==
The '''[[State Great Khural|State Great Assembly]]''' (''Ulsyn Ikh Khural'') has 76 members, elected for a four-year term in single-seat [[electoral district|constituencies]].
The '''[[State Great Hural|State Great Hural]]''' (''Ulsyn Ikh Hural'' (in Mongolian) (the Parliament) is unicameral with 76 seats. [[Mixed-member proportional representation]] is used. 48 of the parliamentary members are popularly elected by district and 28 of them are appointed by the political parties by proportional representation. SGH members elect a speaker and vice speakers from each party or coalition in the government and they serve four year term.


==Political parties and elections==
==Political parties and elections==
[[Image:ArdchilsanGer.JPG|thumb|Ger set up by the [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democratic Party]] for an election campaign in Khövsgöl, 2006]]
[[Image:ArdchilsanGer.JPG|thumb|Ger set up by the [[Democratic Party (Mongolia)|Democratic Party]] for an election campaign in Khövsgöl, 2006]]
{{elect|List of political parties in Mongolia|Elections in Mongolia}}
{{elect|List of political parties in Mongolia|Elections in Mongolia}}
{{Mongolian_presidential_election, 2005}}
{{Mongolian_presidential_election, 2013}}
{{Mongolian_legislative_election, 2004}}
{{Mongolian_legislative_election, 2012}}
{{Mongolian_legislative_election, 2008}}


==Legal system==
==Legal system==
The new constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGKh and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.
The new constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC, confirmed by the SGH and appointed by the President. The Supreme Court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.


Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGKh decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the [[Constitutional Court of Mongolia]], which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.
Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the [[Constitutional Court of Mongolia]], which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for six year term, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.


==Administrative divisions==
==Administrative divisions==
Mongolia is divided in 21 ''[[Aimags of Mongolia|Aimags]]'' (provinces) and 1 municipality/city (''khot'');
Mongolia is divided in 21 ''[[Aimags of Mongolia|Aimags]]'' (provinces) and three municipalities/cities (''khot''):
[[Arkhangai Province|Arkhangai]],
[[Arkhangai Province|Arkhangai]],
[[Bayan-Ölgii Province|Bayan-Ölgii]],
[[Bayan-Ölgii Province|Bayan-Ölgii]],
Line 120: Line 131:
[[Zavkhan Province|Zavkhan]].
[[Zavkhan Province|Zavkhan]].


Local khurals are elected by the 21 aimags plus the capital, [[Ulaanbaatar]]. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar
Local hurals(local parliaments) are elected in the 21 aimags plus the capital, [[Ulaanbaatar]]. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected in provincial subdivisions and urban sub-districts in Ulaanbaatar.


==See also==
==See also==
Line 127: Line 138:


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
<references/>


==External links==
==External links==
* {{en}} {{langicon|ru}} [http://www.pmis.gov.mn/gov_eng.htm Official Website of the Government Organizations of Mongolia]
*[http://www.president.mn/eng ''official website of the Office of the President of Mongolia'']
*[http://www.parliament.mn/en ''official website of the Office of the Parliament of Mongolia'']
*[http://www.pmis.gov.mn ''official website of the Government of Mongolia'']
*[http://www.ku.edu/~herron/ Erik Herron's Guide to Politics in East Central Europe and Eurasia]
*[http://www.ku.edu/~herron/ Erik Herron's Guide to Politics in East Central Europe and Eurasia]


Revision as of 09:56, 3 August 2013

Politics of Mongolia
Constitution
Parliament
Executive
Judiciary
Elections
Administrative divisions
Foreign relations
icon Politics portal

Politics of Mongolia takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.

Socialist period and single party administration

From shortly after the Mongolian Revolution of 1921 until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party––the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP)––was officially permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization livestock, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.

Democratic movement

The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. On the morning of 10 December 1989, the first open pro-democracy demonstration met in front of the Youth Cultural Center in Ulaanbaatar.[1] There, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj announced the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union.[2] Over the next months activists 13 democratic leaders continued to organize demonstrations, rallies, protests and hunger strikes, as well as teachers' and workers' strikes.[3] Activists had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside and the union's activities led to other calls for democracy all over the country.[4][5][6] After extended demonstrations of many thousands of people in subzero weather in the capital city as well as provincial centers, Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party(MPRP) (present Mongolian People's Party)'s Politburo – the authority of the government eventually gave way to the pressure and entered negotiations with the leaders of the democratic movement.[7] Jambyn Batmönkh, chairman of Politburo of MPRP's Central Committee decided to dissolve the Politburo and to resign on 9 March 1990.[8][9] Thus paved the way for the first multi-party elections in Mongolia.[3] Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj announced this news to the hunger strikers and the people those gathered on Sükhbaatar Square at 10PM on that day after the negotiations between leaders of MPRP and Mongolian Democratic Union.[10] As a result, Mongolia became the first successful country in Asia to transition into democracy from communist rule.[11] Elbegdorj worked as the Leader of the Mongolian Democratic Union in 1989–1997.[12]

Multi-party system

In May 1990, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.

Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a People's Great Hural (parliament) were held on 29 July 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Hural first met on 3 September and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democratic Party), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small parliament). The vice president was also a chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution and adopted it on 13 January 1992. The Constitution entered into force on 12 February 1992. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH) (parliament).

The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition.

Mongolia's Parliament in session

As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually. There are 76 members of the parliament. They were popularly elected by district in 1992-2012. By 2012 legislative election law, since 2012 parliamentary election, mixed-member proportional representation began to be used in legislature in Mongolia. 48 of the parliamentary members are popularly elected by district and 28 of them are appointed by the political parties by proportional representation. SGH members elect a speaker and vice speakers from each party or coalition in the government and they serve 4-year term.

Until June 1996 the predominant party in Mongolia was the ex-communist party Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party or MPRP. However, the President of the country was Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat (Democratic Party) in 1990-1997. Ochirbat was a MPRP member until 1990 but changed to Democratic Party following the democratic revolution.

Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, as the chairman of the Democratic Party, co-led the Democratic Union Coalition to its historic victory in the 1996 parliamentary election. Democratic Union Coalition of Democratic Party and Social Democratic Party (chairman Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj) was in power in 1996-2000.[13] Mendsaikhany Enkhsaikhan, election manager of Democratic Union Coalition worked as the Prime Minister in 1996-1998. In 1998, a clause in the constitution was removed that prohibited members of parliament to take cabinet responsibility.[14] Thus on 23 April 1998, the Parliament elected (61–6) Elbegdorj as the Prime Minister.[15] Then due to opposition MPRP's demand Elbegdorj lost confidence vote at the Parliament[16] and was replaced by Janlavyn Narantsatsralt of Democratic Party on 9 December 1998.[17] Janlavyn Narantsatsralt had to resign eight months later in July 1999 because of the controversial formulation of a letter to the first deputy prime minister of Russia about Mongolia-Russian joint copper-molybdenium ore mining and processing Erdenet Mining Corporation. Rinchinnyamyn Amarjargal became Democratic Party's new chairman and served as the Prime Minister in July 1999-June 2000.

In 1997 Natsagiin Bagabandi was elected as the country's President as a result of 1997 Mongolian presidential election. He was re-elected as President in 2001 Mongolian presidential election and served until 2005.

As a result of 2000 parliamentary elections, in 2000-2004 MPRP was back in power in the presidency, parliament and government.

The results of the 2004 parliamentary elections required the establishing of the first ever coalition government in Mongolia between the MPRP and MDC (Motherland Democratic Coalition). On 20 August 2004, Elbegdorj became the Prime Minister of Mongolia for the second time.[18] This time he headed a grand coalition government after the vote in the 2004 parliamentary elections had been evenly split between the two major political forces – Democratic Coalition and the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party.[19]

In 2005 Mongolian presidential election Nambaryn Enkhbayar was elected as the President.

In January 2006, MP Tsogtyn Bataa changed sides from the Motherland Party to the MRPR, giving the latter exactly 50% of the seats. This gave the MPRP the opportunity to withdraw from the coalition, and, with support of several small parties and defectors from the Democratic Party, elect Miyeegombyn Enkhbold of MPRP as the new prime minister. The events triggered strong protests from civic groups and their followers. Individuals and organizations raised concerns that the government change might have been unconstitutional, but no specific violations could be shown.

In April 2006, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj was elected as the chairman of the Democratic Party by the two step elections of the party.[20]

In October 2007, Enkhbold lost his position as MPRP chairman to Sanjaagiin Bayar. The MPRP delegates also voted for having Bayar create a new government.[21] Enkhbold remained in office[22] until Bayar was elected on 22 November 2007.[23] In Bayar's government, Enkhbold was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister on December 5, 2007.[24]

The MPRP won a majority (46 of 76 seats) in legislative elections on June 29, 2008. The Democrats (DP) won 27 seats with the three remaining seats going to minor parties and an independent.

On 24 May 2009, in 2009 Mongolian presidential election, Democratic Party candidate Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj made a victory over incumbent Nambaryn Enkhbayar in [25]. Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj was sworn into office and became the country's president on 18 June 2009.[26]

In 2010 former communist party Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party reverted its name to its pre-revolution name, the Mongolian People's Party. After his defeat in 2009 presidential election, in 2010 Nambaryn Enkhbayar established a new political party and named it Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party after receiving the old name of Mongolian People's Party from the Supreme Court of Mongolia. Enkhbayar became the chairman of the new party.[27]

In June 2012 Democratic Party won in the parliamentary elections and became the majority at the parliament. Democratic Party established a coalition government with Civil Will-Green Party, and Justice Coalition of new MPRP and Mongolian National Democratic Party due to Democratic Party having not enough seats at the parliament to establish a government on its own by law.

Incumbent President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, candidate of Democratic Party won the 2013 Mongolian presidential election on 26 June 2013[28] and was sworn into office for his second term as President on 10 July 2013.[29] Thus since 2012 Democratic Party has been in power holding the presidency, and the parliament and leading its coalition government.

Executive branch

Main office-holders
Office Name Party Since
President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj Democratic Party 18 June 2009
Prime Minister Norovyn Altankhuyag Democratic Party 10 August 2012

President

President Elbegdorj

The presidential candidates are nominated by parties those have seats in the State Great Hural and from these candidates the president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term. The president is the Head of State, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, and Head of the National Security Council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the State Great Khural can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, decrees giving directives become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.

Government

File:Altankhuyag.jpg
Prime Minister Altankhuyag

The government, headed by the prime minister, has a four year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to State Great Hural's approval. The Cabinet consists of thirteen ministries.[30] Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after a State Great Hural vote for dissolution.

Ministries

General

  • Environment and Green Development
  • Foreign Affairs
  • Finance
  • Justice

Specialized

  • Construction and Urban Development
  • Culture, Sports and Travel
  • Defense
  • Economic Development
  • Education and Science
  • Energy
  • Health
  • Industry and Agriculture
  • Labor
  • Mining
  • Population Development and Social Welfare
  • Roads and Transportation[31]

Parliament

The State Great Hural (Ulsyn Ikh Hural (in Mongolian) (the Parliament) is unicameral with 76 seats. Mixed-member proportional representation is used. 48 of the parliamentary members are popularly elected by district and 28 of them are appointed by the political parties by proportional representation. SGH members elect a speaker and vice speakers from each party or coalition in the government and they serve four year term.

Political parties and elections

Ger set up by the Democratic Party for an election campaign in Khövsgöl, 2006
For other political parties, see List of political parties in Mongolia. An overview on elections and election results is included in Elections in Mongolia.

Template:Mongolian presidential election, 2013 Template:Mongolian legislative election, 2012

The new constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC, confirmed by the SGH and appointed by the President. The Supreme Court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.

Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court of Mongolia, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for six year term, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.

Administrative divisions

Mongolia is divided in 21 Aimags (provinces) and three municipalities/cities (khot): Arkhangai, Bayan-Ölgii, Bayankhongor, Bulgan, Darkhan-Uul, Dornod, Dornogovi, Dundgovi, Govi-Altai, Govisümber, Khentii, Khovd, Khövsgöl, Ömnögovi, Orkhon, Övörkhangai, Selenge, Sükhbaatar, Töv, Uvs, Zavkhan.

Local hurals(local parliaments) are elected in the 21 aimags plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected in provincial subdivisions and urban sub-districts in Ulaanbaatar.

See also

References

  1. ^ G., Dari (5 December 2011). "Democracy Days to be inaugurated". news.mn (in Mongolian). Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  2. ^ "Tsakhia Elbegdorj". Community of Democracies Mongolia. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  3. ^ a b Ahmed and Norton, Nizam U. and Philip (1999). Parliaments in Asia. London: Frank Cass & Co.Ltd. p. 143. ISBN 0-7146-4951-1. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  4. ^ Baabar (16 November 2009). "Democratic Revolution and Its Terrible Explanations". baabar.mn (in Mongolian). Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  5. ^ "Democracy's Hero: Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj". Washington: The International Republican Institute. 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  6. ^ "Mongolia Celebrates 20th Anniversary of Democratic Revolution". The International Republican Institute. 11 December 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  7. ^ Wilhelm, Kathy (12 March 1990). "Mongolian Politburo resigns en masse". The Free Lance Star. Fredericksburg, VA. p. 4. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  8. ^ "Entire Mongolian Politburo resigns". Lawrence Journal-World. Lawrence, KS. 12 March 1990. pp. 8A. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  9. ^ Ch., Munkhbayar (13 March 2013). "What was the Mongolian democratic revolution?". dorgio.mn (in Mongolian). Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  10. ^ Tsakhia, Elbegdorj (1999). The Footstep of Truth is White book "Speech of Ulaan Od newspaper's correspondent Elbegdorj at Young Artists’ Second National Congress". Ulaanbaatar: Hiimori. p. 15. ISBN 99929-74-01-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ Gamba, Ganbat (2004). "The Mass Public and Democratic Politics in Mongolia" (PDF). Taipei: Asian Barometer. p. 3. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  12. ^ Sanders, Alan J.K. (2010). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Third edition. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-8108-7452-7. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  13. ^ Lawrence, Susan V. (14 June 2011). "Mongolia: Issues for Congress" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  14. ^ "Constitution of Mongolia". World Intellectual Property Organization. 13 January 1992. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  15. ^ "April 1998". rulers.org. April 1998. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
  16. ^ Sanders, Alan J.K. (2010). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Third edition. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. pp. xviii. ISBN 978-0-8108-7452-7. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  17. ^ Kohn, Michael (2006). Dateline Mongolia: An American Journalist in Nomad's Land. Muskegon, MI: RDR Books. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-57143-155-4. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  18. ^ "Ts. Elbegdorj is Prime Minister (August 20, 2004)". Open Society Forum. 20 August 2004. Retrieved 7 July 2013.
  19. ^ Zuckerman, Ethan (13 January 2006). "It is never too cold to riot in Ulaanbaatar". ethanzuckerman.com. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  20. ^ Sanders, Alan J.K. (2010). Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Third edition. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-8108-7452-7. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  21. ^ "Aktuelle Nachrichten aus der Mongolei/ 22. bis 28. Oktober 2007". mongoleionline.de. 2007-10-28. Retrieved October 30, 2007.
  22. ^ "Mongolian parliament accepts PM's resignation", Xinhua (china.org.cn), November 8, 2007.
  23. ^ "Mongolia rushes to appoint new prime minister as a budget deadline looms", Associated Press (International Herald Tribune), November 22, 2007.
  24. ^ "Mongolian Parliament approves new coalition government", IST, AFP (Times of India), December 6, 2007.
  25. ^ "Mongolia Profile". BBC. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
  26. ^ "Mongolia's new president sworn in". euronews.com. 18 June 2009. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  27. ^ "Former MPRP is reborn and former President named chairman". Business-Mongolia.com. 2 February 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
  28. ^ "Incumbent Mongolian president wins 2nd term on pro-Western, anti-graft platform". The Washington Post. Washington. 27 June 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
  29. ^ Khuder (10 July 2013). "Ts.Elbegdorj takes oath". Montsame News Agency. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  30. ^ Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar: Montsame News Agency. 2006. p. 43. ISBN 99929-0-627-8.
  31. ^ "Websites of Government Organizations of Mongolia". Government of Mongolia. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politics_of_Mongolia&oldid=566967261"