Jump to content

HIV: Difference between revisions

This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
m →‎Recombination: Added 1 doi to a journal cite using AWB (10383)
WS1979 (talk | contribs)
34 edits
Line 56: Line 56:


Nef also interacts with [[SH3 domain]]s. The Vpu protein (p16) influences the release of new virus particles from infected cells.<ref name=compendia/> The ends of each strand of HIV RNA contain an RNA sequence called the [[long terminal repeat]] (LTR). Regions in the LTR act as switches to control production of new viruses and can be triggered by proteins from either HIV or the host cell. The [[Retroviral Psi packaging element|Psi element]] is involved in viral genome packaging and recognized by Gag and Rev proteins. The SLIP element (TTTTTT) is involved in the frameshift in the Gag-Pol reading frame required to make functional Pol.<ref name=compendia/>
Nef also interacts with [[SH3 domain]]s. The Vpu protein (p16) influences the release of new virus particles from infected cells.<ref name=compendia/> The ends of each strand of HIV RNA contain an RNA sequence called the [[long terminal repeat]] (LTR). Regions in the LTR act as switches to control production of new viruses and can be triggered by proteins from either HIV or the host cell. The [[Retroviral Psi packaging element|Psi element]] is involved in viral genome packaging and recognized by Gag and Rev proteins. The SLIP element (TTTTTT) is involved in the frameshift in the Gag-Pol reading frame required to make functional Pol.<ref name=compendia/>

===Immune response===
====Innate immune response====
[[Innate immune system|Innate immune cells]] (e.g., [[dendritic cells]] (DCs) and [[natural killer cells]] (NK cells)) are the first line of defence which HIV encounters upon entry to the body. Epidermal DCs, expressing [[CD1a]] and [[Birbeck granules]], are probably among the first immune cells to combat HIV at the [[mucosal surfaces]]. NK cells proliferate in response to [[type 1 interferon]] secreted by DCs.<ref>http://bitesized.immunology.org/pathogens-and-disease/human-immunodeficiency-virus-hiv</ref>

====Why does the immune system fail to fight the HIV virus?====
By infecting [[CD4+ T cells]], HIV is able to replicate predominantly in activated [[T cells]] and paralyse one of the main components of the [[adaptive immune system]]. HIV has been known to hide from anti-HIV antibodies by expressing non-immunogenic [[glycans]] on key antibody [[epitopes]].




===Tropism===
===Tropism===

Revision as of 12:05, 21 August 2014

This article is about the virus. For the disease, see HIV/AIDS. For other uses, see HIV (disambiguation).

"AIDS virus" redirects here. For the computer virus, see AIDS (computer virus).

Human immunodeficiency virus
Scanning electron micrograph of HIV-1 (in green) budding from cultured lymphocyte. Multiple round bumps on cell surface represent sites of assembly and budding of virions.
Virus classification
Group:
Group VI (ssRNA-RT)
Order:
Unassigned
Family:
Retroviridae
Subfamily:
Orthoretrovirinae
Genus:
Lentivirus
Species
  • Human immunodeficiency virus 1
  • Human immunodeficiency virus 2

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus) that causes the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),[1][2] a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. Without treatment, average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype.[3] Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells.

HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells.[4] HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through a number of mechanisms, including apoptosis of uninfected bystander cells,[5] direct viral killing of infected cells, and killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells.[6] When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections.

Virology

Classification

See also: Subtypes of HIV
Comparison of HIV species
Species Virulence Infectivity Prevalence Inferred origin
HIV-1 High High Global Common Chimpanzee
HIV-2 Lower Low West Africa Sooty Mangabey

HIV is a member of the genus Lentivirus,[7] part of the family Retroviridae.[8] Lentiviruses have many morphologies and biological properties in common. Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long-duration illnesses with a long incubation period.[9] Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped RNA viruses. Upon entry into the target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted (reverse transcribed) into double-stranded DNA by a virally encoded reverse transcriptase that is transported along with the viral genome in the virus particle. The resulting viral DNA is then imported into the cell nucleus and integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded integrase and host co-factors.[10] Once integrated, the virus may become latent, allowing the virus and its host cell to avoid detection by the immune system. Alternatively, the virus may be transcribed, producing new RNA genomes and viral proteins that are packaged and released from the cell as new virus particles that begin the replication cycle anew.

Two types of HIV have been characterized: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the virus that was initially discovered and termed both LAV and HTLV-III. It is more virulent, more infective,[11] and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally. The lower infectivity of HIV-2 compared to HIV-1 implies that fewer of those exposed to HIV-2 will be infected per exposure. Because of its relatively poor capacity for transmission, HIV-2 is largely confined to West Africa.[12]

Structure and genome

Main article: Structure and genome of HIV
Diagram of HIV

HIV is different in structure from other retroviruses. It is roughly spherical[13] with a diameter of about 120 nm, around 60 times smaller than a red blood cell, yet large for a virus.[14] It is composed of two copies of positive single-stranded RNA that codes for the virus's nine genes enclosed by a conical capsid composed of 2,000 copies of the viral protein p24.[15] The single-stranded RNA is tightly bound to nucleocapsid proteins, p7, and enzymes needed for the development of the virion such as reverse transcriptase, proteases, ribonuclease and integrase. A matrix composed of the viral protein p17 surrounds the capsid ensuring the integrity of the virion particle.[15]

This is, in turn, surrounded by the viral envelope that is composed of two layers of fatty molecules called phospholipids taken from the membrane of a human cell when a newly formed virus particle buds from the cell. Embedded in the viral envelope are proteins from the host cell and about 70 copies of a complex HIV protein that protrudes through the surface of the virus particle.[15] This protein, known as Env, consists of a cap made of three molecules called glycoprotein (gp) 120, and a stem consisting of three gp41 molecules that anchor the structure into the viral envelope.[16] This glycoprotein complex enables the virus to attach to and fuse with target cells to initiate the infectious cycle.[16] Both these surface proteins, especially gp120, have been considered as targets of future treatments or vaccines against HIV.[17]

Structure of the RNA genome of HIV-1

The RNA genome consists of at least seven structural landmarks (LTR, TAR, RRE, PE, SLIP, CRS, and INS), and nine genes (gag, pol, and env, tat, rev, nef, vif, vpr, vpu, and sometimes a tenth tev, which is a fusion of tat env and rev), encoding 19 proteins. Three of these genes, gag, pol, and env, contain information needed to make the structural proteins for new virus particles.[15] For example, env codes for a protein called gp160 that is broken down by a cellular protease to form gp120 and gp41. The six remaining genes, tat, rev, nef, vif, vpr, and vpu (or vpx in the case of HIV-2), are regulatory genes for proteins that control the ability of HIV to infect cells, produce new copies of virus (replicate), or cause disease.[15]

The two Tat proteins (p16 and p14) are transcriptional transactivators for the LTR promoter acting by binding the TAR RNA element. The TAR may also be processed into microRNAs that regulate the apoptosis genes ERCC1 and IER3.[18][19] The Rev protein (p19) is involved in shuttling RNAs from the nucleus and the cytoplasm by binding to the RRE RNA element. The Vif protein (p23) prevents the action of APOBEC3G (a cellular protein that deaminates Cytidine to Uridine in the single stranded viral DNA and/or interferes with reverse transcription[20]). The Vpr protein (p14) arrests cell division at G2/M. The Nef protein (p27) down-regulates CD4 (the major viral receptor), as well as the MHC class I and class II molecules.[21][22][23]

Nef also interacts with SH3 domains. The Vpu protein (p16) influences the release of new virus particles from infected cells.[15] The ends of each strand of HIV RNA contain an RNA sequence called the long terminal repeat (LTR). Regions in the LTR act as switches to control production of new viruses and can be triggered by proteins from either HIV or the host cell. The Psi element is involved in viral genome packaging and recognized by Gag and Rev proteins. The SLIP element (TTTTTT) is involved in the frameshift in the Gag-Pol reading frame required to make functional Pol.[15]

Immune response

Innate immune response

Innate immune cells (e.g., dendritic cells (DCs) and natural killer cells (NK cells)) are the first line of defence which HIV encounters upon entry to the body. Epidermal DCs, expressing CD1a and Birbeck granules, are probably among the first immune cells to combat HIV at the mucosal surfaces. NK cells proliferate in response to type 1 interferon secreted by DCs.[24]

Why does the immune system fail to fight the HIV virus?

By infecting CD4+ T cells, HIV is able to replicate predominantly in activated T cells and paralyse one of the main components of the adaptive immune system. HIV has been known to hide from anti-HIV antibodies by expressing non-immunogenic glycans on key antibody epitopes.


Tropism

Main article: HIV tropism
Diagram of the immature and mature forms of HIV

The term viral tropism refers to the cell types a virus infects. HIV can infect a variety of immune cells such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and microglial cells. HIV-1 entry to macrophages and CD4+ T cells is mediated through interaction of the virion envelope glycoproteins (gp120) with the CD4 molecule on the target cells and also with chemokine coreceptors.[16]

Macrophage (M-tropic) strains of HIV-1, or non-syncitia-inducing strains (NSI; now called R5 viruses[25] ) use the β-chemokine receptor CCR5 for entry and are, thus, able to replicate in macrophages and CD4+ T cells.[26] This CCR5 coreceptor is used by almost all primary HIV-1 isolates regardless of viral genetic subtype. Indeed, macrophages play a key role in several critical aspects of HIV infection. They appear to be the first cells infected by HIV and perhaps the source of HIV production when CD4+ cells become depleted in the patient. Macrophages and microglial cells are the cells infected by HIV in the central nervous system. In tonsils and adenoids of HIV-infected patients, macrophages fuse into multinucleated giant cells that produce huge amounts of virus.

T-tropic isolates, or syncitia-inducing (SI; now called X4 viruses[25] ) strains replicate in primary CD4+ T cells as well as in macrophages and use the α-chemokine receptor, CXCR4, for entry.[26][27][28] Dual-tropic HIV-1 strains are thought to be transitional strains of HIV-1 and thus are able to use both CCR5 and CXCR4 as co-receptors for viral entry.

The α-chemokine SDF-1, a ligand for CXCR4, suppresses replication of T-tropic HIV-1 isolates. It does this by down-regulating the expression of CXCR4 on the surface of these cells. HIV that use only the CCR5 receptor are termed R5; those that use only CXCR4 are termed X4, and those that use both, X4R5. However, the use of coreceptor alone does not explain viral tropism, as not all R5 viruses are able to use CCR5 on macrophages for a productive infection[26] and HIV can also infect a subtype of myeloid dendritic cells,[29] which probably constitute a reservoir that maintains infection when CD4+ T cell numbers have declined to extremely low levels.

Some people are resistant to certain strains of HIV.[30] For example, people with the CCR5-Δ32 mutation are resistant to infection with R5 virus, as the mutation stops HIV from binding to this coreceptor, reducing its ability to infect target cells.

Sexual intercourse is the major mode of HIV transmission. Both X4 and R5 HIV are present in the seminal fluid, which is passed from a male to his sexual partner. The virions can then infect numerous cellular targets and disseminate into the whole organism. However, a selection process leads to a predominant transmission of the R5 virus through this pathway.[31][32][33] How this selective process works is still under investigation, but one model is that spermatozoa may selectively carry R5 HIV as they possess both CCR3 and CCR5 but not CXCR4 on their surface[34] and that genital epithelial cells preferentially sequester X4 virus.[35] In patients infected with subtype B HIV-1, there is often a co-receptor switch in late-stage disease and T-tropic variants appear that can infect a variety of T cells through CXCR4.[36] These variants then replicate more aggressively with heightened virulence that causes rapid T cell depletion, immune system collapse, and opportunistic infections that mark the advent of AIDS.[37] Thus, during the course of infection, viral adaptation to the use of CXCR4 instead of CCR5 may be a key step in the progression to AIDS. A number of studies with subtype B-infected individuals have determined that between 40 and 50 percent of AIDS patients can harbour viruses of the SI and, it is presumed, the X4 phenotypes.[38][39]

HIV-2 is much less pathogenic than HIV-1 and is restricted in its worldwide distribution. The adoption of "accessory genes" by HIV-2 and its more promiscuous pattern of coreceptor usage (including CD4-independence) may assist the virus in its adaptation to avoid innate restriction factors present in host cells. Adaptation to use normal cellular machinery to enable transmission and productive infection has also aided the establishment of HIV-2 replication in humans. A survival strategy for any infectious agent is not to kill its host but ultimately become a commensal organism. Having achieved a low pathogenicity, over time, variants more successful at transmission will be selected.[40]

Replication cycle

The HIV replication cycle

Entry to the cell

Mechanism of Viral Entry/Membrane Fusion
1. Initial interaction between gp120 and CD4. 2. Conformational change in gp120 allows for secondary interaction with CCR5. 3. The distal tips of gp41 are inserted in to the cellular membrane. 4. gp41 undergoes significant conformational change; folding in half and forming coiled-coils. This process pulls the viral and cellular membranes together, fusing them.

HIV enters macrophages and CD4+ T cells by the adsorption of glycoproteins on its surface to receptors on the target cell followed by fusion of the viral envelope with the cell membrane and the release of the HIV capsid into the cell.[41][42]

Entry to the cell begins through interaction of the trimeric envelope complex (gp160 spike) and both CD4 and a chemokine receptor (generally either CCR5 or CXCR4, but others are known to interact) on the cell surface.[41][42] gp120 binds to integrin α4β7 activating LFA-1 the central integrin involved in the establishment of virological synapses, which facilitate efficient cell-to-cell spreading of HIV-1.[43] The gp160 spike contains binding domains for both CD4 and chemokine receptors.[41][42]

The first step in fusion involves the high-affinity attachment of the CD4 binding domains of gp120 to CD4. Once gp120 is bound with the CD4 protein, the envelope complex undergoes a structural change, exposing the chemokine binding domains of gp120 and allowing them to interact with the target chemokine receptor.[41][42] This allows for a more stable two-pronged attachment, which allows the N-terminal fusion peptide gp41 to penetrate the cell membrane.[41][42] Repeat sequences in gp41, HR1, and HR2 then interact, causing the collapse of the extracellular portion of gp41 into a hairpin. This loop structure brings the virus and cell membranes close together, allowing fusion of the membranes and subsequent entry of the viral capsid.[41][42]

After HIV has bound to the target cell, the HIV RNA and various enzymes, including reverse transcriptase, integrase, ribonuclease, and protease, are injected into the cell.[41][failed verification] During the microtubule-based transport to the nucleus, the viral single-strand RNA genome is transcribed into double-strand DNA, which is then integrated into a host chromosome.

HIV can infect dendritic cells (DCs) by this CD4-CCR5 route, but another route using mannose-specific C-type lectin receptors such as DC-SIGN can also be used.[44] DCs are one of the first cells encountered by the virus during sexual transmission. They are currently thought to play an important role by transmitting HIV to T-cells when the virus is captured in the mucosa by DCs.[44] The presence of FEZ-1, which occurs naturally in neurons, is believed to prevent the infection of cells by HIV.[45]

Replication and transcription

Shortly after the viral capsid enters the cell, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase liberates the single-stranded (+)RNA genome from the attached viral proteins and copies it into a complementary DNA (cDNA) molecule.[46] The process of reverse transcription is extremely error-prone, and the resulting mutations may cause drug resistance or allow the virus to evade the body's immune system. The reverse transcriptase also has ribonuclease activity that degrades the viral RNA during the synthesis of cDNA, as well as DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activity that creates a sense DNA from the antisense cDNA.[47] Together, the cDNA and its complement form a double-stranded viral DNA that is then transported into the cell nucleus. The integration of the viral DNA into the host cell's genome is carried out by another viral enzyme called integrase.[46]

Reverse transcription of the HIV genome into double strand DNA

This integrated viral DNA may then lie dormant, in the latent stage of HIV infection.[46] To actively produce the virus, certain cellular transcription factors need to be present, the most important of which is NF-κB (NF kappa B), which is upregulated when T-cells become activated.[48] This means that those cells most likely to be killed by HIV are those currently fighting infection.

During viral replication, the integrated DNA provirus is transcribed into mRNA, which is then spliced into smaller pieces. These small pieces are exported from the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where they are translated into the regulatory proteins Tat (which encourages new virus production) and Rev. As the newly produced Rev protein accumulates in the nucleus, it binds to viral mRNAs and allows unspliced RNAs to leave the nucleus, where they are otherwise retained until spliced.[49] At this stage, the structural proteins Gag and Env are produced from the full-length mRNA. The full-length RNA is actually the virus genome; it binds to the Gag protein and is packaged into new virus particles.

HIV-1 and HIV-2 appear to package their RNA differently; HIV-1 will bind to any appropriate RNA, whereas HIV-2 will preferentially bind to the mRNA that was used to create the Gag protein itself. This may mean that HIV-1 is better able to mutate (HIV-1 infection progresses to AIDS faster than HIV-2 infection and is responsible for the majority of global infections).

Recombination

Two RNA genomes are encapsidated in each HIV-1 particle (see Structure and genome of HIV). Upon infection and replication catalyzed by reverse transcriptase, recombination between the two genomes can occur.[50][51] Recombination occurs as the single-strand (+)RNA genomes are reverse transcribed to form DNA. During reverse transcription the nascent DNA can switch multiple times between the two copies of the viral RNA. This form of recombination is known as copy-choice. Recombination events may occur throughout the genome. From 2 to 20 events per genome may occur at each replication cycle, and these events can rapidly shuffle the genetic information that is transmitted from parental to progeny genomes.[51]

Viral recombination produces genetic variation that likely contributes to the evolution of resistance to anti-retroviral therapy.[52] Recombination may also contribute, in principle, to overcoming the immune defenses of the host. Yet, for the adaptive advantages of genetic variation to be realized, the two viral genomes packaged in individual infecting virus particles need to have arisen from separate progenitor parental viruses of differing genetic constitution. It is unknown how often such mixed packaging occurs under natural conditions.[53]

Bonhoeffer et al.[54] suggested that template switching by the reverse transcriptase acts as a repair process to deal with breaks in the ssRNA genome. In addition, Hu and Temin[50] suggested that recombination is an adaptation for repair of damage in the RNA genomes. Strand switching (copy-choice recombination) by reverse transcriptase could generate an undamaged copy of genomic DNA from two damaged ssRNA genome copies. This view of the adaptive benefit of recombination in HIV could explain why each HIV particle contains two complete genomes, rather than one. Furthermore, the view that recombination is a repair process implies that the benefit of repair can occur at each replication cycle, and that this benefit can be realized whether or not the two genomes differ genetically. On the view that that recombination in HIV is a repair process, the generation of recombinational variation would be a consequence, but not the cause of, the evolution of template switching.[54]

HIV-1 infection causes chronic ongoing inflammation and production of reactive oxygen species.[55] Thus, the HIV genome may be vulnerable to oxidative damages, including breaks in the single-stranded RNA. For HIV, as well as for viruses generally, successful infection depends on overcoming host defensive strategies that often include production of genome-damaging reactive oxygen. Thus, Michod et al.[56] suggested that recombination by viruses is an adaptation for repair of genome damages, and that recombinational variation is a byproduct that may provide a separate benefit.

Assembly and release

HIV assembling on the surface of an infected macrophage.

The final step of the viral cycle, assembly of new HIV-1 virions, begins at the plasma membrane of the host cell. The Env polyprotein (gp160) goes through the endoplasmic reticulum and is transported to the Golgi complex where it is cleaved by furin resulting in the two HIV envelope glycoproteins, gp41 and gp120.[57] These are transported to the plasma membrane of the host cell where gp41 anchors gp120 to the membrane of the infected cell. The Gag (p55) and Gag-Pol (p160) polyproteins also associate with the inner surface of the plasma membrane along with the HIV genomic RNA as the forming virion begins to bud from the host cell. The budded virion is still immature as the gag polyproteins still need to be cleaved into the actual matrix, capsid and nucleocapsid proteins. This cleavage is mediated by the also packaged viral protease and can be inhibited by antiretroviral drugs of the protease inhibitor class. The various structural components then assemble to produce a mature HIV virion.[58] Only mature virions are then able to infect another cell.

Genetic variability

Further information: Subtypes of HIV
The phylogenetic tree of the SIV and HIV

HIV differs from many viruses in that it has very high genetic variability. This diversity is a result of its fast replication cycle, with the generation of about 1010 virions every day, coupled with a high mutation rate of approximately 3 x 10−5 per nucleotide base per cycle of replication and recombinogenic properties of reverse transcriptase.[59][60][61]

This complex scenario leads to the generation of many variants of HIV in a single infected patient in the course of one day.[59] This variability is compounded when a single cell is simultaneously infected by two or more different strains of HIV. When simultaneous infection occurs, the genome of progeny virions may be composed of RNA strands from two different strains. This hybrid virion then infects a new cell where it undergoes replication. As this happens, the reverse transcriptase, by jumping back and forth between the two different RNA templates, will generate a newly synthesized retroviral DNA sequence that is a recombinant between the two parental genomes.[59] This recombination is most obvious when it occurs between subtypes.[59]

The closely related simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) has evolved into many strains, classified by the natural host species. SIV strains of the African green monkey (SIVagm) and sooty mangabey (SIVsmm) are thought to have a long evolutionary history with their hosts. These hosts have adapted to the presence of the virus,[62] which is present at high levels in the host's blood but evokes only a mild immune response,[63] does not cause the development of simian AIDS,[64] and does not undergo the extensive mutation and recombination typical of HIV infection in humans.[65]

In contrast, when these strains infect species that have not adapted to SIV ("heterologous" hosts such as rhesus or cynomologus macaques), the animals develop AIDS and the virus generates genetic diversity similar to what is seen in human HIV infection.[66] Chimpanzee SIV (SIVcpz), the closest genetic relative of HIV-1, is associated with increased mortality and AIDS-like symptoms in its natural host.[67] SIVcpz appears to have been transmitted relatively recently to chimpanzee and human populations, so their hosts have not yet adapted to the virus.[62] This virus has also lost a function of the Nef gene that is present in most SIVs; without this function, T cell depletion is more likely, leading to immunodeficiency.[67]

Three groups of HIV-1 have been identified on the basis of differences in the envelope (env) region: M, N, and O.[68] Group M is the most prevalent and is subdivided into eight subtypes (or clades), based on the whole genome, which are geographically distinct.[69] The most prevalent are subtypes B (found mainly in North America and Europe), A and D (found mainly in Africa), and C (found mainly in Africa and Asia); these subtypes form branches in the phylogenetic tree representing the lineage of the M group of HIV-1. Coinfection with distinct subtypes gives rise to circulating recombinant forms (CRFs). In 2000, the last year in which an analysis of global subtype prevalence was made, 47.2% of infections worldwide were of subtype C, 26.7% were of subtype A/CRF02_AG, 12.3% were of subtype B, 5.3% were of subtype D, 3.2% were of CRF_AE, and the remaining 5.3% were composed of other subtypes and CRFs.[70] Most HIV-1 research is focused on subtype B; few laboratories focus on the other subtypes.[71] The existence of a fourth group, "P", has been hypothesised based on a virus isolated in 2009.[72] The strain is apparently derived from gorilla SIV (SIVgor), first isolated from western lowland gorillas in 2006.[72]

The genetic sequence of HIV-2 is only partially homologous to HIV-1 and more closely resembles that of SIVsmm.

Diagnosis

Main article: HIV test
A generalized graph of the relationship between HIV copies (viral load) and CD4 counts over the average course of untreated HIV infection; any particular individual's disease course may vary considerably.
  CD4+ T cell count (cells per µL)
  HIV RNA copies per mL of plasma

Many HIV-positive people are unaware that they are infected with the virus.[73] For example, in 2001 less than 1% of the sexually active urban population in Africa had been tested, and this proportion is even lower in rural populations.[73] Furthermore, in 2001 only 0.5% of pregnant women attending urban health facilities were counselled, tested or receive their test results.[73] Again, this proportion is even lower in rural health facilities.[73] Since donors may therefore be unaware of their infection, donor blood and blood products used in medicine and medical research are routinely screened for HIV.[74]

HIV-1 testing is initially by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect antibodies to HIV-1. Specimens with a nonreactive result from the initial ELISA are considered HIV-negative unless new exposure to an infected partner or partner of unknown HIV status has occurred. Specimens with a reactive ELISA result are retested in duplicate.[75] If the result of either duplicate test is reactive, the specimen is reported as repeatedly reactive and undergoes confirmatory testing with a more specific supplemental test (e.g., Western blot or, less commonly, an immunofluorescence assay (IFA)). Only specimens that are repeatedly reactive by ELISA and positive by IFA or reactive by Western blot are considered HIV-positive and indicative of HIV infection. Specimens that are repeatedly ELISA-reactive occasionally provide an indeterminate Western blot result, which may be either an incomplete antibody response to HIV in an infected person or nonspecific reactions in an uninfected person.[76]

Although IFA can be used to confirm infection in these ambiguous cases, this assay is not widely used. In general, a second specimen should be collected more than a month later and retested for persons with indeterminate Western blot results. Although much less commonly available, nucleic acid testing (e.g., viral RNA or proviral DNA amplification method) can also help diagnosis in certain situations.[75] In addition, a few tested specimens might provide inconclusive results because of a low quantity specimen. In these situations, a second specimen is collected and tested for HIV infection.

Modern HIV testing is extremely accurate. A single screening test is correct more than 99% of the time.[77][needs update] The chance of a false-positive result in standard two-step testing protocol is estimated to be about 1 in 250,000 in a low risk population.[77] Testing post exposure is recommended initially and at six weeks, three months, and six months.[78]

Research

Main article: HIV/AIDS research

HIV/AIDS research includes all medical research that attempts to prevent, treat, or cure HIV/AIDS, as well as fundamental research about the nature of HIV as an infectious agent and AIDS as the disease caused by HIV.

Currently, no cure for HIV/AIDS exists. The most universally recommended method for the prevention of HIV/AIDS is to avoid blood-to-blood contact between people and to practice safe sex. The most recommended method for treating HIV is to receive attention from a doctor in charge of coordinating the patient's management of HIV/AIDS.

Many governments and research institutions participate in HIV/AIDS research. This research includes behavioral health interventions, such as research into sex education, and drug development, such as research into microbicides for sexually transmitted diseases, HIV vaccines, and antiretroviral drugs. Other medical research areas include the topics of pre-exposure prophylaxis, post-exposure prophylaxis, and circumcision and HIV.

History

Main article: History of HIV/AIDS

Discovery

AIDS was first clinically observed in 1981 in the United States.[79] The initial cases were a cluster of injection drug users and gay men with no known cause of impaired immunity who showed symptoms of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), a rare opportunistic infection that was known to occur in people with very compromised immune systems.[80] Soon thereafter, additional gay men developed a previously rare skin cancer called Kaposi's sarcoma (KS).[81][82] Many more cases of PCP and KS emerged, alerting U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and a CDC task force was formed to monitor the outbreak.[83]

In the beginning, the CDC did not have an official name for the disease, often referring to it by way of the diseases that were associated with it, for example, lymphadenopathy, the disease after which the discoverers of HIV originally named the virus.[84][85] They also used Kaposi's Sarcoma and Opportunistic Infections, the name by which a task force had been set up in 1981.[86] In the general press, the term GRID, which stood for gay-related immune deficiency, had been coined.[87] The CDC, in search of a name, and looking at the infected communities coined "the 4H disease," as it seemed to single out Haitians, homosexuals, hemophiliacs, and heroin users.[88] However, after determining that AIDS was not isolated to the gay community,[86] it was realized that the term GRID was misleading and AIDS was introduced at a meeting in July 1982.[89] By September 1982 the CDC started using the name AIDS.[90]

Robert Gallo, co-discoverer of HIV

In 1983, two separate research groups led by Robert Gallo and Luc Montagnier independently declared that a novel retrovirus may have been infecting AIDS patients, and published their findings in the same issue of the journal Science.[91][92] Gallo claimed that a virus his group had isolated from an AIDS patient was strikingly similar in shape to other human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs) his group had been the first to isolate. Gallo's group called their newly isolated virus HTLV-III. At the same time, Montagnier's group isolated a virus from a patient presenting with swelling of the lymph nodes of the neck and physical weakness, two classic symptoms of AIDS. Contradicting the report from Gallo's group, Montagnier and his colleagues showed that core proteins of this virus were immunologically different from those of HTLV-I. Montagnier's group named their isolated virus lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV).[83] As these two viruses turned out to be the same, in 1986, LAV and HTLV-III were renamed HIV.[93]

Origins

Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 are believed to have originated in non-human primates in West-central Africa and to have transferred to humans (a process known as zoonosis) in the early 20th century.[94] HIV-1 appears to have originated in southern Cameroon through the evolution of SIV(cpz), a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that infects wild chimpanzees (HIV-1 descends from the SIVcpz endemic in the chimpanzee subspecies Pan troglodytes troglodytes).[95][96] The closest relative of HIV-2 is SIV (smm), a virus of the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys atys), an old world monkey living in litoral West Africa (from southern Senegal to western Côte d'Ivoire).[12] New World monkeys such as the owl monkey are resistant to HIV-1 infection, possibly because of a genomic fusion of two viral resistance genes.[97] HIV-1 is thought to have jumped the species barrier on at least three separate occasions, giving rise to the three groups of the virus, M, N, and O.[98]

Left to right: the African green monkey source of SIV, the sooty mangabey source of HIV-2 and the chimpanzee source of HIV-1

There is evidence that humans who participate in bushmeat activities, either as hunters or as bushmeat vendors, commonly acquire SIV.[99] However, SIV is a weak virus, and it is typically suppressed by the human immune system within weeks of infection. It is thought that several transmissions of the virus from individual to individual in quick succession are necessary to allow it enough time to mutate into HIV.[100] Furthermore, due to its relatively low person-to-person transmission rate, it can only spread throughout the population in the presence of one or more of high-risk transmission channels, which are thought to have been absent in Africa prior to the 20th century.

Specific proposed high-risk transmission channels, allowing the virus to adapt to humans and spread throughout the society, depend on the proposed timing of the animal-to-human crossing. Genetic studies of the virus suggest that the most recent common ancestor of the HIV-1 M group dates back to circa 1910.[101] Proponents of this dating link the HIV epidemic with the emergence of colonialism and growth of large colonial African cities, leading to social changes, including a higher degree of sexual promiscuity, the spread of prostitution, and the concomitant high frequency of genital ulcer diseases (such as syphilis) in nascent colonial cities.[102] While transmission rates of HIV during vaginal intercourse are low under regular circumstances they are increased many fold if one of the partners suffers from a sexually transmitted infection resulting in genital ulcers. Early 1900s colonial cities were notable due to their high prevalence of prostitution and genital ulcers to the degree that as of 1928 as many as 45% of female residents of eastern Kinshasa were thought to have been prostitutes and as of 1933 around 15% of all residents of the same city were infected by one of the forms of syphilis.[102]

An alternative view holds that unsafe medical practices in Africa during years following World War II, such as unsterile reuse of single use syringes during mass vaccination, antibiotic, and anti-malaria treatment campaigns, were the initial vector that allowed the virus to adapt to humans and spread.[100][103][104]

The earliest well documented case of HIV in a human dates back to 1959 in the Congo.[105] The virus may have been present in the United States as early as 1966.[106]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Weiss RA (May 1993). "How does HIV cause AIDS?". Science. 260 (5112): 1273–9. Bibcode:1993Sci...260.1273W. doi:10.1126/science.8493571. PMID 8493571.
  2. ^ Douek DC, Roederer M, Koup RA (2009). "Emerging Concepts in the Immunopathogenesis of AIDS". Annu. Rev. Med. 60: 471–84. doi:10.1146/annurev.med.60.041807.123549. PMC 2716400. PMID 18947296.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ UNAIDS, WHO (December 2007). "2007 AIDS epidemic update" (PDF). p. 10. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
  4. ^ Cunningham AL, Donaghy H, Harman AN, Kim M, Turville SG (2010). "Manipulation of dendritic cell function by viruses". Current opinion in microbiology. 13 (4): 524–529. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2010.06.002. PMID 20598938.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Garg H, Mohl J, Joshi A (November 9, 2012). "HIV-1 induced bystander apoptosis". Viruses. 4 (11): 3020–43. doi:10.3390/v4113020. PMID 23202514.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ Kumar, Vinay (2012). Robbins Basic Pathology (9th ed.). p. 147. ISBN 9781455737871.
  7. ^ International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2002). "61.0.6. Lentivirus". National Institutes of Health. Retrieved February 28, 2006.
  8. ^ International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2002). "61. Retroviridae". National Institutes of Health. Retrieved February 28, 2006.
  9. ^ Levy JA (1993). "HIV pathogenesis and long-term survival". AIDS. 7 (11): 1401–10. doi:10.1097/00002030-199311000-00001. PMID 8280406.
  10. ^ Smith JA, Daniel R (2006). "Following the path of the virus: the exploitation of host DNA repair mechanisms by retroviruses". ACS Chem Biol. 1 (4): 217–26. doi:10.1021/cb600131q. PMID 17163676.
  11. ^ Gilbert PB, McKeague IW, Eisen G, Mullins C, Guéye-NDiaye A, Mboup S, Kanki PJ (February 28, 2003). "Comparison of HIV-1 and HIV-2 infectivity from a prospective cohort study in Senegal". Statistics in Medicine. 22 (4): 573–593. doi:10.1002/sim.1342. PMID 12590415.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ a b Reeves JD, Doms RW (2002). "Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2". Journal of General Virology. 83 (Pt 6): 1253–65. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18253-0. PMID 12029140. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |doi_brokendate= ignored (|doi-broken-date= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Reeves" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  13. ^ McGovern SL, Caselli E, Grigorieff N, Shoichet BK (2002). "A common mechanism underlying promiscuous inhibitors from virtual and high-throughput screening". Journal of Medical Chemistry. 45 (8): 1712–22. doi:10.1021/jm010533y. PMID 11931626.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Compared with overview in: Fisher, Bruce; Harvey, Richard P.; Champe, Pamela C. (2007). Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology (Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews Series). Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-8215-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Page 3
  15. ^ a b c d e f g Various (2008). HIV Sequence Compendium 2008 Introduction (PDF). Retrieved March 31, 2009.
  16. ^ a b c Chan DC, Fass D, Berger JM, Kim PS (1997). "Core structure of gp41 from the HIV envelope glycoprotein" (PDF). Cell. 89 (2): 263–73. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80205-6. PMID 9108481. Retrieved March 31, 2009.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ National Institute of Health (June 17, 1998). "Crystal structure of key HIV protein reveals new prevention, treatment targets" (Press release). Archived from the original on February 19, 2006. Retrieved September 14, 2006.
  18. ^ Ouellet DL, Plante I, Landry P, Barat C, Janelle ME, Flamand L, Tremblay MJ, Provost P (April 2008). "Identification of functional microRNAs released through asymmetrical processing of HIV-1 TAR element". Nucleic Acids Res. 36 (7): 2353–65. doi:10.1093/nar/gkn076. PMC 2367715. PMID 18299284.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Klase Z, Winograd R, Davis J, Carpio L, Hildreth R, Heydarian M, Fu S, McCaffrey T, Meiri E, Ayash-Rashkovsky M, Gilad S, Bentwich Z, Kashanchi F (2009). "HIV-1 TAR miRNA protects against apoptosis by altering cellular gene expression". Retrovirology. 6 (1): 18. doi:10.1186/1742-4690-6-18. PMC 2654423. PMID 19220914.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  20. ^ Vasudevan AA, Smits SH, Höppner A, Häussinger D, Koenig BW, Münk C (November 2013). "Structural features of antiviral DNA cytidine deaminases". Biological chemistry. 394 (11): 1357–70. doi:10.1515/hsz-2013-0165. PMID 23787464.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Garcia JV, Miller AD; Miller (April 1991). "Serine phosphorylation-independent downregulation of cell-surface CD4 by nef". Nature. 350 (6318): 508–11. Bibcode:1991Natur.350..508G. doi:10.1038/350508a0. PMID 2014052.
  22. ^ Schwartz O, Maréchal V, Le Gall S, Lemonnier F, Heard JM (March 1996). "Endocytosis of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules is induced by the HIV-1 Nef protein". Nat. Med. 2 (3): 338–42. doi:10.1038/nm0396-338. PMID 8612235.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Stumptner-Cuvelette P, Morchoisne S, Dugast M, Le Gall S, Raposo G, Schwartz O, Benaroch P (October 2001). "HIV-1 Nef impairs MHC class II antigen presentation and surface expression". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (21): 12144–9. Bibcode:2001PNAS...9812144S. doi:10.1073/pnas.221256498. PMC 59782. PMID 11593029.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ http://bitesized.immunology.org/pathogens-and-disease/human-immunodeficiency-virus-hiv
  25. ^ a b Berger EA, Doms RW, Fenyö EM, Korber BT, Littman DR, Moore JP, Sattentau QJ, Schuitemaker H, Sodroski J, Weiss RA (1998). "A new classification for HIV-1". Nature. 391 (6664): 240. doi:10.1038/34571. PMID 9440686.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ a b c Coakley E, Petropoulos CJ, Whitcomb JM (2005). "Assessing ch vbgemokine co-receptor usage in HIV". Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases. 18 (1): 9–15. doi:10.1097/00001432-200502000-00003. PMID 15647694.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ Deng H, Liu R, Ellmeier W, Choe S, Unutmaz D, Burkhart M, Di Marzio P, Marmon S, Sutton RE, Hill CM, Davis CB, Peiper SC, Schall TJ, Littman DR, Landau NR; Liu; Ellmeier; Choe; Unutmaz; Burkhart; Marzio; Marmon; Sutton; Hill; Davis; Peiper; Schall; Littman; Landau (1996). "Identification of a major co-receptor for primary isolates of HIV-1". Nature. 381 (6584): 661–6. Bibcode:1996Natur.381..661D. doi:10.1038/381661a0. PMID 8649511.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Feng Y, Broder CC, Kennedy PE, Berger EA; Broder; Kennedy; Berger (1996). "HIV-1 entry cofactor: functional cDNA cloning of a seven-transmembrane, G protein-coupled receptor". Science. 272 (5263): 872–7. Bibcode:1996Sci...272..872F. doi:10.1126/science.272.5263.872. PMID 8629022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Knight SC, Macatonia SE, Patterson S (1990). "HIV I infection of dendritic cells". International Review of Immunology. 6 (2–3): 163–75. doi:10.3109/08830189009056627. PMID 2152500.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Tang J, Kaslow RA (2003). "The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy". AIDS. 17 (Suppl 4): S51–S60. doi:10.1097/00002030-200317004-00006. PMID 15080180.
  31. ^ Zhu T, Mo H, Wang N, Nam DS, Cao Y, Koup RA, Ho DD; Mo; Wang; Nam; Cao; Koup; Ho (1993). "Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of HIV-1 patients with primary infection". Science. 261 (5125): 1179–81. Bibcode:1993Sci...261.1179Z. doi:10.1126/science.8356453. PMID 8356453.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ van't Wout AB, Kootstra NA, Mulder-Kampinga GA, Albrecht-van Lent N, Scherpbier HJ, Veenstra J, Boer K, Coutinho RA, Miedema F, Schuitemaker H (1994). "Macrophage-tropic variants initiate human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection after sexual, parenteral, and vertical transmission". J Clin Invest. 94 (5): 2060–7. doi:10.1172/JCI117560. PMC 294642. PMID 7962552.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ Zhu T, Wang N, Carr A, Nam DS, Moor-Jankowski R, Cooper DA, Ho DD (1996). "Genetic characterization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in blood and genital secretions: evidence for viral compartmentalization and selection during sexual transmission". J Virol. 70 (5): 3098–107. PMC 190172. PMID 8627789.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Muciaccia B, Padula F, Vicini E, Gandini L, Lenzi A, Stefanini M (2005). "Beta-chemokine receptors 5 and 3 are expressed on the head region of human spermatozoon". FASEB J. 19 (14): 2048–50. doi:10.1096/fj.05-3962fje. PMID 16174786.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  35. ^ Berlier W, Bourlet T, Lawrence P, Hamzeh H, Lambert C, Genin C, Verrier B, Dieu-Nosjean MC, Pozzetto B, Delézay O (2005). "Selective sequestration of X4 isolates by human genital epithelial cells: Implication for virus tropism selection process during sexual transmission of HIV". J Med Virol. 77 (4): 465–74. doi:10.1002/jmv.20478. PMID 16254974.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Clevestig P, Maljkovic I, Casper C, Carlenor E, Lindgren S, Navér L, Bohlin AB, Fenyö EM, Leitner T, Ehrnst A (2005). "The X4 phenotype of HIV type 1 evolves from R5 in two children of mothers, carrying X4, and is not linked to transmission". AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 5 (21): 371–8. doi:10.1089/aid.2005.21.371. PMID 15929699.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ Moore JP (1997). "Coreceptors: implications for HIV pathogenesis and therapy". Science. 276 (5309): 51–2. doi:10.1126/science.276.5309.51. PMID 9122710.
  38. ^ Karlsson A, Parsmyr K, Aperia K, Sandström E, Fenyö EM, Albert J (1994). "MT-2 cell tropism of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates as a marker for response to treatment and development of drug resistance". J Infect Dis. 170 (6): 1367–75. doi:10.1093/infdis/170.6.1367. PMID 7995974.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Koot M, van 't Wout AB, Kootstra NA, de Goede RE, Tersmette M, Schuitemaker H (1996). "Relation between changes in cellular load, evolution of viral phenotype, and the clonal composition of virus populations in the course of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection". J Infect Dis. 173 (2): 349–54. doi:10.1093/infdis/173.2.349. PMID 8568295.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ Cheney K, McKnight A (2010). "HIV-2 Tropism and Disease". Lentiviruses and Macrophages: Molecular and Cellular Interactions. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-60-8.
  41. ^ a b c d e f g Chan DC, Kim PS (1998). "HIV entry and its inhibition". Cell. 93 (5): 681–4. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81430-0. PMID 9630213.
  42. ^ a b c d e f Wyatt R, Sodroski J; Sodroski (1998). "The HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins: fusogens, antigens, and immunogens". Science. 280 (5371): 1884–8. Bibcode:1998Sci...280.1884W. doi:10.1126/science.280.5371.1884. PMID 9632381.
  43. ^ Arthos J, Cicala C, Martinelli E, Macleod K, Van Ryk D, Wei D, Xiao Z, Veenstra TD, Conrad TP, Lempicki RA, McLaughlin S, Pascuccio M, Gopaul R, McNally J, Cruz CC, Censoplano N, Chung E, Reitano KN, Kottilil S, Goode DJ, Fauci AS (2008). "HIV-1 envelope protein binds to and signals through integrin alpha(4)beta(7), the gut mucosal homing receptor for peripheral T cells". Nature Immunology. In Press (3): 301–9. doi:10.1038/ni1566. PMID 18264102.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ a b Pope M, Haase AT (2003). "Transmission, acute HIV-1 infection and the quest for strategies to prevent infection". Nat Med. 9 (7): 847–52. doi:10.1038/nm0703-847. PMID 12835704.
  45. ^ Haedicke J, Brown C, Naghavi MH (August 2009). "The brain-specific factor FEZ1 is a determinant of neuronal susceptibility to HIV-1 infection". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (33): 14040–14045. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10614040H. doi:10.1073/pnas.0900502106. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2729016. PMID 19667186.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ a b c Zheng YH, Lovsin N, Peterlin BM (2005). "Newly identified host factors modulate HIV replication". Immunol. Lett. 97 (2): 225–34. doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2004.11.026. PMID 15752562.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ "IV. VIRUSES > F. ANIMAL VIRUS LIFE CYCLES > 3. The Life Cycle of HIV". Doc Kaiser's Microbiology Home Page. Community College of Baltimore County. January 2008.
  48. ^ Hiscott J, Kwon H, Génin P (2001). "Hostile takeovers: viral appropriation of the NF-kB pathway". J Clin Invest. 107 (2): 143–151. doi:10.1172/JCI11918. PMC 199181. PMID 11160127.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. ^ Pollard VW, Malim MH (1998). "The HIV-1 Rev protein". Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 52: 491–532. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.52.1.491. PMID 9891806.
  50. ^ a b Hu WS, Temin HM (1990). "Retroviral recombination and reverse transcription". Science. 250 (4985): 1227–33. doi:10.1126/science.1700865. PMID 1700865.
  51. ^ a b Charpentier C, Nora T, Tenaillon O, Clavel F, Hance AJ (2006). "Extensive recombination among human immunodeficiency virus type 1 quasispecies makes an important contribution to viral diversity in individual patients". J. Virol. 80 (5): 2472–82. doi:10.1128/JVI.80.5.2472-2482.2006. PMC 1395372. PMID 16474154.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  52. ^ Nora T, Charpentier C, Tenaillon O, Hoede C, Clavel F, Hance AJ (2007). "Contribution of recombination to the evolution of human immunodeficiency viruses expressing resistance to antiretroviral treatment". J. Virol. 81 (14): 7620–8. doi:10.1128/JVI.00083-07. PMC 1933369. PMID 17494080.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. ^ Chen J, Powell D, Hu WS (2006). "High frequency of genetic recombination is a common feature of primate lentivirus replication". J. Virol. 80 (19): 9651–8. doi:10.1128/JVI.00936-06. PMC 1617242. PMID 16973569.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  54. ^ a b Bonhoeffer S, Chappey C, Parkin NT, Whitcomb JM, Petropoulos CJ (2004). "Evidence for positive epistasis in HIV-1". Science. 306 (5701): 1547–50. doi:10.1126/science.1101786. PMID 15567861.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ Israël N, Gougerot-Pocidalo MA (1997). "Oxidative stress in human immunodeficiency virus infection". Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 53 (11–12): 864–70. doi:10.1007/s000180050106. PMID 9447238.
  56. ^ Michod RE, Bernstein H, Nedelcu AM (May 2008). "Adaptive value of sex in microbial pathogens" (PDF). Infect. Genet. Evol. 8 (3): 267–85. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2008.01.002. PMID 18295550.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  57. ^ Hallenberger S, Bosch V, Angliker H, Shaw E, Klenk HD, Garten W; Bosch; Angliker; Shaw; Klenk; Garten (November 26, 1992). "Inhibition of furin-mediated cleavage activation of HIV-1 glycoprotein gp160". Nature. 360 (6402): 358–61. Bibcode:1992Natur.360..358H. doi:10.1038/360358a0. PMID 1360148.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ^ Gelderblom HR (1997). "Fine structure of HIV and SIV". In Los Alamos National Laboratory (ed.). HIV sequence compendium. Los Alamos National Laboratory. pp. 31–44. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  59. ^ a b c d Robertson DL, Hahn BH, Sharp PM (1995). "Recombination in AIDS viruses". J Mol Evol. 40 (3): 249–59. doi:10.1007/BF00163230. PMID 7723052.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ^ Rambaut A, Posada D, Crandall KA, Holmes EC (January 2004). "The causes and consequences of HIV evolution". Nature Reviews Genetics. 5 (52–61): 52–61. doi:10.1038/nrg1246. PMID 14708016.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ^ Perelson AS, Ribeiro RM (October 2008). "Estimating drug efficacy and viral dynamic parameters: HIV and HCV". Stat Med. 27 (23): 4647–57. doi:10.1002/sim.3116. PMID 17960579.
  62. ^ a b Sodora DL, Allan JS, Apetrei C, Brenchley JM, Douek DC, Else JG, Estes JD, Hahn BH, Hirsch VM, Kaur A, Kirchhoff F, Muller-Trutwin M, Pandrea I, Schmitz JE, Silvestri G (2009). "Toward an AIDS vaccine: lessons from natural simian immunodeficiency virus infections of African nonhuman primate hosts". Nature Medicine. 15 (8): 861–865. doi:10.1038/nm.2013. PMC 2782707. PMID 19661993.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  63. ^ Holzammer S, Holznagel E, Kaul A, Kurth R, Norley S (2001). "High virus loads in naturally and experimentally SIVagm-infected African green monkeys". Virology. 283 (2): 324–31. doi:10.1006/viro.2001.0870. PMID 11336557.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  64. ^ Kurth, R. and Norley, S. (1996). "Why don't the natural hosts of SIV develop simian AIDS?". J. NIH Res. 8: 33–37.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  65. ^ Baier M, Dittmar MT, Cichutek K, Kurth R; Dittmar; Cichutek; Kurth (1991). "Development of vivo of genetic variability of simian immunodeficiency virus". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88 (18): 8126–30. Bibcode:1991PNAS...88.8126B. doi:10.1073/pnas.88.18.8126. PMC 52459. PMID 1896460.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  66. ^ Daniel MD, King NW, Letvin NL, Hunt RD, Sehgal PK, Desrosiers RC; King; Letvin; Hunt; Sehgal; Desrosiers (1984). "A new type D retrovirus isolated from macaques with an immunodeficiency syndrome". Science. 223 (4636): 602–5. Bibcode:1984Sci...223..602D. doi:10.1126/science.6695172. PMID 6695172.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. ^ a b Keele BF, Jones JH, Terio KA, Estes JD, Rudicell RS, Wilson ML, Li Y, Learn GH, Beasley TM, Schumacher-Stankey J, Wroblewski E, Mosser A, Raphael J, Kamenya S, Lonsdorf EV, Travis DA, Mlengeya T, Kinsel MJ, Else JG, Silvestri G, Goodall J, Sharp PM, Shaw GM, Pusey AE, Hahn BH (2009). "Increased mortality and AIDS-like immunopathology in wild chimpanzees infected with SIVcpz". Nature. 460 (7254): 515–519. Bibcode:2009Natur.460..515K. doi:10.1038/nature08200. PMC 2872475. PMID 19626114.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  68. ^ Thomson MM, Pérez-Alvarez L, Nájera R (2002). "Molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 genetic forms and its significance for vaccine development and therapy". Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2 (8): 461–471. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(02)00343-2. PMID 12150845.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  69. ^ Carr JK, Foley BT, Leitner T, Salminen M, Korber B, McCutchan F (1998). "Reference sequences representing the principal genetic diversity of HIV-1 in the pandemic". In Los Alamos National Laboratory (ed.) (ed.). HIV sequence compendium. Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos National Laboratory. pp. 10–19. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); |format= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  70. ^ Osmanov S, Pattou C, Walker N, Schwardländer B, Esparza J (2002). "Estimated global distribution and regional spread of HIV-1 genetic subtypes in the year 2000". Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. 29 (2): 184–190. doi:10.1097/00042560-200202010-00013. PMID 11832690.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  71. ^ Perrin L, Kaiser L, Yerly S (2003). "Travel and the spread of HIV-1 genetic variants". Lancet Infect Dis. 3 (1): 22–27. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00484-5. PMID 12505029.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  72. ^ a b Plantier JC, Leoz M, Dickerson JE, De Oliveira F, Cordonnier F, Lemée V, Damond F, Robertson DL, Simon F (August 2009). "A new human immunodeficiency virus derived from gorillas". Nature Medicine. 15 (8): 871–2. doi:10.1038/nm.2016. PMID 19648927. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  73. ^ a b c d Kumaranayake L, Watts C (2001). "Resource allocation and priority setting of HIV/AIDS interventions: addressing the generalized epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa". Journal of International Development. 13 (4): 451–466. doi:10.1002/jid.797.
  74. ^ Kleinman S (September 2004). "Patient information: Blood donation and transfusion". Uptodate. Archived from the original on April 12, 2008.
  75. ^ a b Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001). "Revised guidelines for HIV counseling, testing, and referral". MMWR Recomm Rep. 50 (RR–19): 1–57. PMID 11718472.
  76. ^ Celum CL, Coombs RW, Lafferty W, Inui TS, Louie PH, Gates CA, McCreedy BJ, Egan R, Grove T, Alexander S (1991). "Indeterminate human immunodeficiency virus type 1 western blots: seroconversion risk, specificity of supplemental tests, and an algorithm for evaluation". J Infect Dis. 164 (4): 656–664. doi:10.1093/infdis/164.4.656. PMID 1894929.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  77. ^ a b Chou R, Huffman LH, Fu R, Smits AK, Korthuis PT (July 2005). "Screening for HIV: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force". Annals of Internal Medicine. 143 (1): 55–73. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-143-1-200507050-00010. PMID 15998755.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  78. ^ Tolle MA, Schwarzwald HL (July 15, 2010). "Postexposure prophylaxis against human immunodeficiency virus". American Family Physician. 82 (2): 161–6. PMID 20642270.
  79. ^ Dolin, [edited by] Gerald L. Mandell, John E. Bennett, Raphael (2010). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases (7th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. pp. Chapter 169. ISBN 978-0-443-06839-3. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  80. ^ Gottlieb MS (2006). "Pneumocystis pneumonia—Los Angeles. 1981". Am J Public Health. 96 (6): 980–1, discussion 982–3. doi:10.2105/AJPH.96.6.980. PMC 1470612. PMID 16714472. Archived from the original on April 22, 2009. Retrieved March 31, 2009. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  81. ^ Friedman-Kien AE (October 1981). "Disseminated Kaposi's sarcoma syndrome in young homosexual men". J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 5 (4): 468–71. doi:10.1016/S0190-9622(81)80010-2. PMID 7287964.
  82. ^ Hymes KB, Cheung T, Greene JB, Prose NS, Marcus A, Ballard H, William DC, Laubenstein LJ (September 1981). "Kaposi's sarcoma in homosexual men-a report of eight cases". Lancet. 2 (8247): 598–600. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(81)92740-9. PMID 6116083.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  83. ^ a b Basavapathruni A, Anderson KS (December 2007). "Reverse transcription of the HIV-1 pandemic". The FASEB Journal. 21 (14): 3795–3808. doi:10.1096/fj.07-8697rev. PMID 17639073.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  84. ^ Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (1982). "Persistent, generalized lymphadenopathy among homosexual males". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 31 (19): 249–251. PMID 6808340. Retrieved August 31, 2011.
  85. ^ Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, Dauguet C, Axler-Blin C, Vézinet-Brun F, Rouzioux C, Rozenbaum W, Montagnier L (1983). "Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)". Science. 220 (4599): 868–871. Bibcode:1983Sci...220..868B. doi:10.1126/science.6189183. PMID 6189183.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  86. ^ a b Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (1982). "Opportunistic infections and Kaposi's sarcoma among Haitians in the United States". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 31 (26): 353–354, 360–361. PMID 6811853. Retrieved August 31, 2011.
  87. ^ Altman LK (May 11, 1982). "New homosexual disorder worries health officials". The New York Times. Retrieved August 31, 2011.
  88. ^ "Making Headway Under Hellacious Circumstances" (PDF). American Association for the Advancement of Science. July 28, 2006. Retrieved June 23, 2008.
  89. ^ Kher U (July 27, 1982). "A Name for the Plague". Time. Archived from the original on March 7, 2008. Retrieved March 10, 2008. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  90. ^ Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (1982). "Update on acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)—United States". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 31 (37): 507–508, 513–514. PMID 6815471.
  91. ^ Gallo RC, Sarin PS, Gelmann EP, Robert-Guroff M, Richardson E, Kalyanaraman VS, Mann D, Sidhu GD, Stahl RE, Zolla-Pazner S, Leibowitch J, Popovic M (1983). "Isolation of human T-cell leukemia virus in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)". Science. 220 (4599): 865–867. Bibcode:1983Sci...220..865G. doi:10.1126/science.6601823. PMID 6601823.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  92. ^ Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, Dauguet C, Axler-Blin C, Vézinet-Brun F, Rouzioux C, Rozenbaum W, Montagnier L (1983). "Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)". Science. 220 (4599): 868–871. Bibcode:1983Sci...220..868B. doi:10.1126/science.6189183. PMID 6189183.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  93. ^ Aldrich, ed. by Robert; Wotherspoon, Garry (2001). Who's who in gay and lesbian history. London: Routledge. p. 154. ISBN 9780415229746. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  94. ^ Sharp PM, Hahn BH (September 2011). "Origins of HIV and the AIDS Pandemic". Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine. 1 (1): a006841. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a006841. PMC 3234451. PMID 22229120.
  95. ^ Gao F, Bailes E, Robertson DL, Chen Y, Rodenburg CM, Michael SF, Cummins LB, Arthur LO, Peeters M, Shaw GM, Sharp PM, Hahn BH (February 1999). "Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes". Nature. 397 (6718): 436–41. Bibcode:1999Natur.397..436G. doi:10.1038/17130. PMID 9989410.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  96. ^ Keele BF, Van Heuverswyn F, Li Y, Bailes E, Takehisa J, Santiago ML, Bibollet-Ruche F, Chen Y, Wain LV, Liegeois F, Loul S, Ngole EM, Bienvenue Y, Delaporte E, Brookfield JF, Sharp PM, Shaw GM, Peeters M, Hahn BH (July 28, 2006). "Chimpanzee reservoirs of pandemic and nonpandemic HIV-1". Science. 313 (5786): 523–6. Bibcode:2006Sci...313..523K. doi:10.1126/science.1126531. PMC 2442710. PMID 16728595.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  97. ^ Goodier JL, Kazazian HH (2008). "Retrotransposons revisited: the restraint and rehabilitation of parasites". Cell. 135 (1): 23–35. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.022. PMID 18854152.
  98. ^ Sharp PM, Bailes E, Chaudhuri RR, Rodenburg CM, Santiago MO, Hahn BH (2001). "The origins of acquired immune deficiency syndrome viruses: where and when?" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 356 (1410): 867–76. doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0863. PMC 1088480. PMID 11405934.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  99. ^ Kalish ML, Wolfe ND, Ndongmo CB, McNicholl J, Robbins KE, Aidoo M, Fonjungo PN, Alemnji G, Zeh C, Djoko CF, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Burke DS, Folks TM (2005). "Central African hunters exposed to simian immunodeficiency virus". Emerg Infect Dis. 11 (12): 1928–30. doi:10.3201/eid1112.050394. PMC 3367631. PMID 16485481.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  100. ^ a b Marx PA, Alcabes PG, Drucker E (2001). "Serial human passage of simian immunodeficiency virus by unsterile injections and the emergence of epidemic human immunodeficiency virus in Africa" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 356 (1410): 911–20. doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0867. PMC 1088484. PMID 11405938.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  101. ^ Worobey M, Gemmel M, Teuwen DE, Haselkorn T, Kunstman K, Bunce M, Muyembe JJ, Kabongo JM, Kalengayi RM, Van Marck E, Gilbert MT, Wolinsky SM (2008). "Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960". Nature. 455 (7213): 661–4. Bibcode:2008Natur.455..661W. doi:10.1038/nature07390. PMC 3682493. PMID 18833279.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  102. ^ a b de Sousa JD, Müller V, Lemey P, Vandamme AM (2010). Martin, Darren P (ed.). "High GUD incidence in the early 20th century created a particularly permissive time window for the origin and initial spread of epidemic HIV strains". PLoS ONE. 5 (4): e9936. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009936. PMC 2848574. PMID 20376191.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  103. ^ Chitnis A, Rawls D, Moore J (2000). "Origin of HIV type 1 in colonial French equatorial Africa?". AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses. 16 (1): 5–8. doi:10.1089/088922200309548. PMID 10628811.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  104. ^ Donald G McNeil, Jr (September 16, 2010). "Precursor to H.I.V. was in monkeys for millennia". New York Times. Retrieved September 17, 2010. Dr. Marx believes that the crucial event was the introduction into Africa of millions of inexpensive, mass-produced syringes in the 1950s. ... suspect that the growth of colonial cities is to blame. Before 1910, no Central African town had more than 10,000 people. But urban migration rose, increasing sexual contacts and leading to red-light districts.
  105. ^ Zhu T, Korber BT, Nahmias AJ, Hooper E, Sharp PM, Ho DD (1998). "An African HIV-1 Sequence from 1959 and Implications for the Origin of the epidemic". Nature. 391 (6667): 594–7. Bibcode:1998Natur.391..594Z. doi:10.1038/35400. PMID 9468138.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  106. ^ Kolata, Gina (October 28, 1987). "Boy's 1969 death suggests AIDS invaded U.S. several times". The New York Times. Retrieved February 11, 2009.
References

Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) (2011). Global HIV/AIDS Response, Epidemic update and health sector progress towards universal access (PDF). Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS.

External links

Template:Link GA Template:Link FA

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HIV&oldid=622187404"