Clitoridectomy: Difference between revisions
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→Medical uses: neither of these sections makes any attempt to relate to the subject of this article, which is clitoridectomy not the clitoris itself (can be included elsewhere, however, if not already) |
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=== Intersex infants and other issues === |
=== Intersex infants and other issues === |
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Female infants born with a [[46,XX]] genotype but have genitalia affected by [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]] and are treated surgically with vaginoplasty that often reduces the size of the clitoris without its total removal. The atypical size of the clitoris is due to an endocrine imbalance in utero.<ref name=Hiort2014/><ref name="Gundeti2012">{{cite book|title=Pediatric Robotic and Reconstructive Urology a Comprehensive Guide|last=Gundeti|first=Mohan|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2012|isbn=9781444335538|location=City|postscript=; Access provided by the [[University of Pittsburgh]]}}</ref><ref name=HoubenTsui2014>{{cite journal|last1=Houben|first1=CH|last2=Tsui|first2=SY|last3=Mou|first3=JW|last4=Chan|first4=KW|last5=Tam|first5=YH|last6=Lee|first6=KH|title=Reconstructive surgery for females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency: a review from the Prince of Wales Hospital|journal=Hong Kong Medical Journal|year=2014|issn=1024-2708|doi=10.12809/hkmj144227}}</ref> Other reasons for the surgery include issues involving a microphallus and those who have Mayer-Rokitansky-Kustner disorder. Removal of the clitoris may be due to malignancy or trauma.<ref name=Hoffman2012>{{cite book | last = Hoffman | first = Barbara | title = Williams gynecology | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | year = 2012 | isbn = 9780071716727 }}</ref><ref name="HorbachBouman2015">{{cite journal|last1=Horbach|first1=Sophie E.R.|last2=Bouman|first2=Mark-Bram|last3=Smit|first3=Jan Maerten|last4=Özer|first4=Müjde|last5=Buncamper|first5=Marlon E.|last6=Mullender|first6=Margriet G.|title=Outcome of Vaginoplasty in Male-to-Female Transgenders: A Systematic Review of Surgical Techniques|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=12|issue=6|year=2015|pages=1499–1512|issn=1743-6095|doi=10.1111/jsm.12868}}</ref> |
Female infants born with a [[46,XX]] genotype but have genitalia affected by [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]] and are treated surgically with vaginoplasty that often reduces the size of the clitoris without its total removal. The atypical size of the clitoris is due to an endocrine imbalance in utero.<ref name=Hiort2014/><ref name="Gundeti2012">{{cite book|title=Pediatric Robotic and Reconstructive Urology a Comprehensive Guide|last=Gundeti|first=Mohan|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2012|isbn=9781444335538|location=City|postscript=; Access provided by the [[University of Pittsburgh]]}}</ref><ref name=HoubenTsui2014>{{cite journal|last1=Houben|first1=CH|last2=Tsui|first2=SY|last3=Mou|first3=JW|last4=Chan|first4=KW|last5=Tam|first5=YH|last6=Lee|first6=KH|title=Reconstructive surgery for females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency: a review from the Prince of Wales Hospital|journal=Hong Kong Medical Journal|year=2014|issn=1024-2708|doi=10.12809/hkmj144227}}</ref> Other reasons for the surgery include issues involving a microphallus and those who have Mayer-Rokitansky-Kustner disorder. Removal of the clitoris may be due to malignancy or trauma.<ref name=Hoffman2012>{{cite book | last = Hoffman | first = Barbara | title = Williams gynecology | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | year = 2012 | isbn = 9780071716727 }}</ref><ref name="HorbachBouman2015">{{cite journal|last1=Horbach|first1=Sophie E.R.|last2=Bouman|first2=Mark-Bram|last3=Smit|first3=Jan Maerten|last4=Özer|first4=Müjde|last5=Buncamper|first5=Marlon E.|last6=Mullender|first6=Margriet G.|title=Outcome of Vaginoplasty in Male-to-Female Transgenders: A Systematic Review of Surgical Techniques|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=12|issue=6|year=2015|pages=1499–1512|issn=1743-6095|doi=10.1111/jsm.12868}}</ref> |
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=== Aesthetic === |
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Another aspect of the normative clitoris is aesthetic. A lack of ambiguity of genitalia is seen as necessary in the assignment of a sex to infants. The idea of ambiguity is shifting, however, since what one sees as ambiguous varies from person to person.<ref name = "Kessler">{{cite book|last1=Kessler|first1=Suzanne J.|title=Lessons from the intersexed|date=2000|publisher=Rutgers Univ. Press|location=New Brunswick, NJ [u.a.]|isbn=0813525292|page=43|edition=2. Paperback printing.}}</ref> |
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In order for a penis to be considered normal, it had to pass two tests of adequacy. First, if it would allow the boy to be able to pee standing up and feel "normal" and second, the adult man's penis would be large enough for vaginal penetration, which normalizes a heterosexual experience. According to one study of 100 newborn boys, penis size ranged from 2.9 to 4.5 cm. Patricia Donahoe expresses concern about penises 2.0 cm long and says that one less than 1.5 cm long and 0.7 cm wide would result in a female gender assignment. However, many doctors offer advice to parents based on their general observations of the newborn's genitals.<ref name = "Fausto-Sterling">{{cite book|last1=Fausto-Sterling|first1=Anne|title=Sexing the body : gender politics and the construction of sexuality|date=2000|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-465-07714-5|page=48|edition=1. ed., [Nachdr.]}}</ref> |
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===Redirecting female sexual behavior=== |
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Sarah Rodriguez, writing in ''Female circumcision and clitoridectomy in the United States'', says the history of medical textbooks has indirectly created accepted ideas about the female body. Furthermore, medical and gynecological textbooks are also at fault in the way that the clitoris is described in comparison to a male's penis. In fact, the importance and originality of a female's clitoris is underscored through these contrasting descriptions: "This equation can be seen as a representation of the clitoris as a less significant organ, since anatomy texts compared the penis and the clitoris in only one direction". She says a male's penis created the framework of the sexual organ, which has been considered analogous, to a female's clitoris.<ref name = "Rodriguez">{{cite book|last1=Rodriguez|first1=Sarah|title=Female Circumcision and Clitoridectomy in the United States: A History of Medical Treatment|date=2014|publisher=University of Rochester Press}}</ref> |
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==Technique== |
==Technique== |
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Revision as of 17:09, 23 July 2016
Clitoridectomy or clitorectomy is the surgical removal, reduction, or partial removal of the clitoris.[1] It is rarely used as a therapeutic medical procedure, such as when cancer has developed in or spread to the clitoris. It is often performed on intersex newborns. Commonly, non-medical removal of the clitoris is performed during female genital mutilation (FGM).[2]
Medical uses
Malignancies
A clitoridectomy is often done to remove malignancy or necrosis of the clitoris. This is sometimes done along with a radical complete vulvectomy. Surgery may also become necessary due to therapeutic radiation treatments to the pelvic area.[3]
Intersex infants and other issues
Female infants born with a 46,XX genotype but have genitalia affected by congenital adrenal hyperplasia and are treated surgically with vaginoplasty that often reduces the size of the clitoris without its total removal. The atypical size of the clitoris is due to an endocrine imbalance in utero.[1][4][5] Other reasons for the surgery include issues involving a microphallus and those who have Mayer-Rokitansky-Kustner disorder. Removal of the clitoris may be due to malignancy or trauma.[3][6]
Technique
Cloridectomy surgical techniques are used to remove invasive malignancy that extends to the clitoris. Standard surgical procedures are followed in these cases. This includes evaluation including biopsy. Other factors that will effect the technique selected are age, other existing medical conditions, and obesity. Other considerations are the probability of extended hospital care and the development of infection at the surgical site.[3] The surgery proceeds with the use of general anethesia, and prior to the vulvectomy/cloridectomy an inguinal lymphyadenectomy is first done. The extent of the surgical site extends one to two centimeters beyond the boundaries of malignancy. Superficial lymph nodes may also need to be removed. If the malignancy is present in muscular tissue in the region, it is also removed. In some cases, the surgeon is able to preserve the clitoris though the malignancy may be extensive. The cancerous tissue is removed and the incision is closed.[3]
Post operative care may employ the use of suction drainage to allow the deeper tissues to heal toward the surface. Follow up after surgery includes the stripping of the drainage device to prevent blockage. A typical hospital stay can be up to two weeks. The site of the surgery is left unbandaged to allow for frequent examination.[3] Complications can be the development of lymphedema though not removing the saphenous vein during the surgery will help prevent this. In some instances, foot elevation, diuretic medication and compression stockings can reduce the build up of fluid.[3]
In a clitoridectomy for intersex infants, the clitoris is often reduced instead of removed. The surgeon cuts the shaft of the elongated phallus and sews the glans and preserved nerves back onto the stump. In a less common surgery called clitoral recession, the surgeon hides the clitoral shaft under a fold of skin so only the glans remains visible.[7]
Society and culture
Clitoridectomies are the most common form of Female gentital mutilation. WHO estimates that clitordectomies have been performed on 200 million girls and women that are currently alive. The regions that most clitodectomies take place are Asia, the Middle East and west, north and east Africa. The practice also exists in migrants originating from these regions. Most of the surgeries are for cultural or religious reasons.[8]
History
In the 19th century, a clitoridectomy was thought to curb female masturbation.[9] Isaac Baker Brown (1812–1873), an English gynaecologist who was president of the Medical Society of London believed that the "unnatural irritation" of the clitoris caused epilepsy, hysteria, and mania, and he worked "to remove [it] whenever he had the opportunity of doing so", according to his obituary in the Medical Times and Gazette. Peter Lewis Allen writes that Brown's views caused outrage, and he died penniless after being expelled from the Obstetrical Society.[10]
For a time female circumcision was done as a cure for insanity. Some practitioners of medicine in the Victorian era believed that mental and emotional disorders were related to female reproductive organs. Some thought that removing the clitoris would cure the neurosis. This treatment was discontinued in 1867.[11]
See also
References
- ^ a b Hiort, O. (2014). Understanding differences and disorders of sex development (DSD. Basel: Karger. ISBN 9783318025583.
- ^ "New study shows female genital mutilation exposes women and babies to significant risk at childbirth" (Press release). World Health Organization. 2006-06-02.
- ^ a b c d e f Hoffman, Barbara (2012). Williams gynecology. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 9780071716727.
- ^ Gundeti, Mohan (2012). Pediatric Robotic and Reconstructive Urology a Comprehensive Guide. City: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781444335538; Access provided by the University of Pittsburgh
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ Houben, CH; Tsui, SY; Mou, JW; Chan, KW; Tam, YH; Lee, KH (2014). "Reconstructive surgery for females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency: a review from the Prince of Wales Hospital". Hong Kong Medical Journal. doi:10.12809/hkmj144227. ISSN 1024-2708.
- ^ Horbach, Sophie E.R.; Bouman, Mark-Bram; Smit, Jan Maerten; Özer, Müjde; Buncamper, Marlon E.; Mullender, Margriet G. (2015). "Outcome of Vaginoplasty in Male-to-Female Transgenders: A Systematic Review of Surgical Techniques". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 12 (6): 1499–1512. doi:10.1111/jsm.12868. ISSN 1743-6095.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Fausto-Sterlingwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "Female genital mutilation". World Health Organization. February 2016. Retrieved 2016-03-26.
- ^ Duffy, John (October 19, 1963). "Masturbation and Clitoridectomy: A Nineteenth-Century View". JAMA. 186 (3): 246–248. doi:10.1001/jama.1963.63710030028012. PMID 14057114.
- ^ Allen, Peter Lewis. The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present. University of Chicago Press, 2000, p. 106.
- For the obituary, see J.F.C. "Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S.", Medical Times and Gazette, 8 February 1873.
- Also see Brown, Isaac Baker. On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females. Robert Hardwicke, 1866.
- ^ Atoki, Morayo (August 1995). "Should female circumcision continue to be banned?". Feminist Legal Studies. 3 (2). Springer: 229. doi:10.1007/BF01104114. Retrieved 26 March 2016; Access provided by the University of Pittsburgh.
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