Five Barbarians: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Revision as of 19:05, 15 June 2024

The Five Barbarians, or Wu Hu (Chinese: 五胡; pinyin: Wǔ Hú), is a Chinese historical exonym for five ancient non-Han "Hu" peoples who immigrated to northern China in the Eastern Han dynasty, and then overthrew the Western Jin dynasty and established their own kingdoms in the 4th–5th centuries.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4] The peoples categorized as the Five Barbarians were:^[1]^[3]^[5]

Of these five tribal ethnic groups, the Xiongnu and Xianbei were nomadic peoples from the northern steppes. The ethnic identity of the Xiongnu is uncertain, but the Xianbei appear to have been Mongolic. The Jie, another pastoral people, may have been a branch of the Xiongnu, who may have been Yeniseian or Iranian.^[6]^[7]^[8] The Di and Qiang were from the highlands of western China.^[1] The Qiang were predominantly herdsmen and spoke Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) languages, while the Di were farmers who may have spoken a Sino-Tibetan^[9] or Turkic language.^[10]

The term "Five Barbarians" is generally used to refer to the non-Han ethnic groups during the Sixteen Kingdoms of the 4th and early 5th centuries, despite the fact that other groups like the Dingling and Wuhuan also existed alongside the five during the period. Even among the ruling families of the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Li clan of Cheng-Han were Ba-Di, with Ba referring to their Bandun Man or Cong (賨) background, while the Juqu clan of Northern Liang, though often classed as Xiongnu, were of Lushuihu ethnicity. Gao Yun, who was either the last ruler of Later Yan or first ruler of Northern Yan, was also an ethnic Goguryeo.

Definition

The origin of the term "Five Barbarians" is a matter of debate among scholars. The earliest use of it comes from the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms (501–522) from a quote by the Former Qin ruler, Fu Jian, although it was not specified who the five exactly were.^[11] Modern historians like Chen Yinke and Zhou Yiliang believe that the "Five Barbarians" in this case was simply in reference to the "Five Virtues of Beginning and End", a theoretical concept often invoked by Chinese dynasties to legitimize their reigns.^[12]

The Five Barbarians as a concept only emerged during the Southern Song dynasty, when the official, Hong Mai wrote an essay titled "Wuhu Luanhua" (五胡亂華; "Upheaval of the Five Barbarians") in his book, Rongzhai Suibi (容齋隨筆). Even so, he did not properly define the term, as the seven rulers he mentioned only accounted for four non-Han groups, namely the Xiongnu, Jie, Xianbei and Di. A later Southern Song official, Wang Yinglin defined the Five Barbarians as "Liu Yuan's Xiongnu, Shi Le's Jie, Murong-Xianbei, Fu Hong's Di and Yao Chang's Qiang." Hu Sanxing's annotation of the Zizhi Tongjian affirms Wang Yinglin's view by listing the five as the Xiongnu, Jie, Xianbei, Di and Qiang, after which it became widely accepted.

They were a mix of tribes from various stocks, such as proto-Mongolic, Turkic, Tibetan and Yeniseian.^[13]^[14] Others divide them into two Turkic tribes, one Tungusic tribe, and two Tibetan tribes,^[15] and yet others into Tibetan and Altaic (proto-Mongolian and early Turkic).^[16] While later historians determined that there were more than five, the Five Barbarians has become a collective term for all northern and western non-Han groups that lived during the Jin dynasty (266–420) and Sixteen Kingdoms period.

The Five Barbarians

Xiongnu

The Xiongnu were a people who had migrated in and out of China proper, especially during times of turmoil, apparently at least since the days of the Qin dynasty.^[17] the Chanyu Huhanye (呼韓邪; 58–31 BCE) signed a heqin agreement^[18] with Han China in 53 BCE.

In 48 CE, after a dynastic conflict within the Xiongnu confederacy, an unnamed Shanyu (Shanyu or Chanyu meaning 'Son of Eternal Sky' and equating with the title of King) (48–56 CE) brought eight tribes of the Western Wing to China under a renewed heqin treaty, creating a polity of Southern Xiongnu in vassalage to China and a polity of Northern Xiongnu who maintained their independence.

As the Northern Xiongnu declined under internal and external conflicts, the Southern Xiongnu received waves of new migrants, and by the end of the first century CE a majority of the Xiongnu resided in China proper and along its northern borders.

In the 190s CE the Southern Xiongnu revolted against attempts of the Chinese Court to appoint a puppet Southern Shanyu against their will:

"Dong Xian, who was boastful of his victories, forsook the rules which could keep peace, and was unfair and greedy, seized the right to frighten and pardon, again installed Shanyu for Northern Hu, returned him to the old court, began favoring both Shanyus, and thus, for his own prosperity, violated the principles of justice and have sown seeds of great evil".^[19]^[20]

The Southern Xiongnu then elected a Shanyu from the Xubu in 188 CE and Chizhishizhuhou Chanyu (188–195 CE) fled back to the Chinese court. After the death of the new Shanyu in 196 CE, most of the Southern Xiongnu left to join the Northern Xiongnu and only five tribes remained in China.^[21]^[22]^[23]

Jie

The Jie were a people whose exact origins are still debated by modern scholars. Various theories have been proposed, including that they were a tribe of the Southern Xiongnu or that they were Tocharian or Eastern Iranian people from Sogdia, but with no general consensus. The first recorded Jie was the minor chieftain, Shi Le who lived in Wuxiang County in Bing province. When a famine broke out in the province in 303, he and many other tribal people were displaced before being captured and sold into slavery by the provincial inspector. Shi Le soon attained his freedom, becoming a bandit, then a rebel, then a powerful warlord under the Han-Zhao and finally the founder of the Later Zhao dynasty in 319.

Despite their seemingly small population, the Jie were thrusted into prominence by Shi Le and the Later Zhao, which dominated northern China for a majority of its existence before its demise in 351. Following Ran Min's culling order and the wars that followed the Later Zhao collapse, the Jie ceased to appear in records, though some key figures in later history may have descended from them.

Xianbei

Following their defeat to the Xiongnu empire in the 3rd century BC, the Donghu people splintered into the Xianbei and Wuhuan. The Xianbei occupied the Mongolian plateau aroud 93 AD after the Northern Xiongnu were forced to the northwest by the Han dynasty. In the mid-2nd century, the chieftain, Tanshihuai unified the Xianbei and launched incessant raids on the Han's northern borders. After his death, however, his confederation fell apart, and many of the Xianbei tribes living near the border became vassals of the Chinese dynasties and allowed to live within the Great Wall such as the Murong and Tuoba tribes.

At the height of the Jin princely civil wars, the Inspector of You province, Wang Jun allied himself with the local Xianbei and Wuhuan tribes, most notably the Duan-Xianbei who was granted a dukedom in Liaoxi Commandery for their services. The Xianbei were a deciding factor in the civil wars, and when the Han-Zhao broke away from Jin, the Tuoba joined forces with Jin and were also given a dukedom in Dai Commandery. Meanwhile, the Murong in Liaodong, isolated from the conflicts of the Central Plains, expanded their influence in the region by providing refuge to fleeing Chinese officials and peasants. As the Jin were pushed out of northern China, however, the Xianbei distanced themselves from Jin and established full autonomy over their fiefdoms.

The Xianbei founded several states during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Murong were a prominent player during this period, as they founded the Former Yan, Later Yan, Western Yan and Southern Yan that ruled over the Central Plains. After the Battle of Fei River, the Qifu and Tufa tribes founded the Western Qin and Southern Liang, respectively, competing for control over the Gansu region in the northwest among themselves and other rival claimants. Most importantly, the Tuoba of Dai later founded the Northern Wei dynasty, which reunified the north in 439 and ushered China into the Northern and Southern dynasties period.

Di

The Di were a semi-nomadic people that resided in the western provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi and Sichuan. In 111 BC, the Han dynasty expanded westwards and established Wudu Commandery where the Di mainly resided, causing them to spread out in northern and western China. The Di people became Han subjects, and relations between the two were mostly stable until the fall of Han, when the Di tribes began to rebel. In 219, the warlord Cao Cao had 50,000 Di people relocated from Wudu commandery to Tianshui and Fufeng commanderies to deter them from allying with his rival to the south, Liu Bei.

The Di in the northwest continued to rebel during the Western Jin dynasty. Between 296 and 299, Qi Wannian, a Di chieftain, led the various non-Han groups in rebellion, devastating the Guanzhong region and displacing many of the population. The Di that fled south into the Hanzhong and Sichuan basins founded the Chouchi and Cheng-Han regimes, although the Li clan that ruled the latter were more specifically referred to as Ba-Di. The Fu clan that remained behind later founded the Former Qin dynasty, most notable for briefly unifying northern China under Fu Jiān. During the Qin collapse that followed the Battle of Fei River, the Di general, Lü Guang founded the Later Liang in Gansu.

Qiang

The Qiang were another western semi-nomadic people that resided in Qinghai and Gansu. Initially vassals of the Xiongnu, the Qiang gradually turned to the Han dynasty as the Xiongnu empire collapsed. They were allowed to settle in the Guanzhong region along with the watersheds of the Wei and Jing rivers, where they practiced agriculture and lived with Han Chinese settlers. However, the Qiang also faced oppression by the local administrators, leading to constant large-scale rebellions in the northwest that proved very costly for the Han. The Qiang also fought as soldiers for the Han and later for the Cao Wei and Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period.

The Qiang continued to participate in rebellions in the northwest against the Western Jin dynasty, but it would not be until after the Battle of Fei River that they establish their first and only state of the Sixteen Kingdoms under the Later Qin dynasty. The second ruler of Later Qin, Yao Xing, was a key proponent in the spread of Buddhism by making it his state religion and sponsoring the influential Buddhist translator, Kumārajīva. The Qiang also founded the minor polities of Dangchang and Dengzhi.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c A History of Chinese Civilization, Jacques Gernet, Cambridge University Press 1996 P.186-87
^ Michio Tanigawa & Joshua Fogel, Medieval Chinese Society and the Local "community" University of California Press 1985 p. 120-21
^ ^a ^b Peter Van Der Veer, "III. Contexts of Cosmopolitanism" in Steven Vertovec, Robin Cohen eds., Conceiving Cosmopolitanism: Theory, Context and Practice Oxford University Press 2002 p. 200-01
^ John W. Dardess, Governing China: 150-1850 Hackett Publishing 2010 p. 9
^ "The Sixteen States of the Five Barbarian Peoples 五胡十六國 (www.chinaknowledge.de)".
^ Vovin, Alexander. "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal 44/1 (2000), pp. 87-104.
^ Lewis, Mark Edward (2009). China between Empires: The Northern and Southern Dynasties. Harvard University Press. p. 82-83.
^ Lee, Joo-Yup; Kuang, Shuntu (2017-10-18). "A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and y-dna Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples". Inner Asia. 19 (2): 197–239. doi:10.1163/22105018-12340089. ISSN 2210-5018.
^ (Chinese) 段渝, 先秦巴蜀地区百濮和氐羌的来源 Archived 2018-09-08 at the Wayback Machine 2006-11-30
^ Guo Ji Zhongguo Yu Yan Xue Ping Lun, Volume 1, Issue 1, J. Benjamins 1996. page 7.
^ (堅嗔目叱之曰：「小羌乃敢於逼天子，豈以傳國璽授汝羌乎！五胡次序，無汝羌名，違天不祥，其能久乎！璽已送晉，不可得也。」) Shiliuguo Chunqiu, vol.4
^ “五胡”新释 Archived 2011-07-23 at the Wayback Machine
^ Tang China: vision and splendour of golden age, by Edmund Capon. 1989, page 14.
^ Renditions, Issues 15-18. Centre for Translation Projects, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1981, page 82.
^ China, by Pin-chia Kuo. Oxford University Press, 1970, page 36.
^ China: A Macro History, by Ray Huang. Routledge 2015. page.?
^ di Cosmo 2004: 186
^ Di Cosmo (2002), 192–193; Yü (1967), 9–10; Morton & Lewis (2005), 52
^ Fan Ye, "Book of Later Han" (Hou Han Shu), Ch. 79, concluding comments
^ in Taskin B.S., "Materials on Sünnu history", Science, Moscow, 1973, p. 98 (In Russian)
^ Fan Ye, "Book of Later Han" (Hou Han Shu), Ch. 79, f. 7b
^ in Taskin B.S., "Materials on Sünnu history", Science, Moscow, 1973, pp. 95-96, 154 (In Russian)
^ and in Bichurin N.A., Collection of information on peoples in Central Asia in ancient times", vol. 1, Sankt Petersburg, 1851, pp. 146–147 (In Russian)

[Gernet-1] A History of Chinese Civilization, Jacques Gernet, Cambridge University Press 1996 P.186-87

[Tanigawa-2] Michio Tanigawa & Joshua Fogel, Medieval Chinese Society and the Local "community" University of California Press 1985 p. 120-21

[Van_Der_Veer-3] Peter Van Der Veer, "III. Contexts of Cosmopolitanism" in Steven Vertovec, Robin Cohen eds., Conceiving Cosmopolitanism: Theory, Context and Practice Oxford University Press 2002 p. 200-01

[4] John W. Dardess, Governing China: 150-1850 Hackett Publishing 2010 p. 9

[urlThe_Sixteen_States_of_the_Five_Barbarian_Peoples_五胡十六國_(www.chinaknowledge.de)-5] "The Sixteen States of the Five Barbarian Peoples 五胡十六國 (www.chinaknowledge.de)".

[6] Vovin, Alexander. "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal 44/1 (2000), pp. 87-104.

[7] Lewis, Mark Edward (2009). China between Empires: The Northern and Southern Dynasties. Harvard University Press. p. 82-83.

[8] Lee, Joo-Yup; Kuang, Shuntu (2017-10-18). "A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and y-dna Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples". Inner Asia. 19 (2): 197–239. doi:10.1163/22105018-12340089. ISSN 2210-5018.

[Di_People-9] (Chinese) 段渝, 先秦巴蜀地区百濮和氐羌的来源 Archived 2018-09-08 at the Wayback Machine 2006-11-30

[10] Guo Ji Zhongguo Yu Yan Xue Ping Lun, Volume 1, Issue 1, J. Benjamins 1996. page 7.

[11] (堅嗔目叱之曰：「小羌乃敢於逼天子，豈以傳國璽授汝羌乎！五胡次序，無汝羌名，違天不祥，其能久乎！璽已送晉，不可得也。」) Shiliuguo Chunqiu, vol.4

[12] “五胡”新释 Archived 2011-07-23 at the Wayback Machine

[13] Tang China: vision and splendour of golden age, by Edmund Capon. 1989, page 14.

[14] Renditions, Issues 15-18. Centre for Translation Projects, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1981, page 82.

[15] China, by Pin-chia Kuo. Oxford University Press, 1970, page 36.

[16] China: A Macro History, by Ray Huang. Routledge 2015. page.?

[17] Cosmo 2004: 186

[18] Di Cosmo (2002), 192–193; Yü (1967), 9–10; Morton & Lewis (2005), 52

[19] Fan Ye, "Book of Later Han" (Hou Han Shu), Ch. 79, concluding comments

[20] Taskin B.S., "Materials on Sünnu history", Science, Moscow, 1973, p. 98 (In Russian)

[21] Fan Ye, "Book of Later Han" (Hou Han Shu), Ch. 79, f. 7b

[22] Taskin B.S., "Materials on Sünnu history", Science, Moscow, 1973, pp. 95-96, 154 (In Russian)

[23] Bichurin N.A., Collection of information on peoples in Central Asia in ancient times", vol. 1, Sankt Petersburg, 1851, pp. 146–147 (In Russian)

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 Of these five tribal ethnic groups, the Xiongnu and Xianbei were [[nomadic people]]s from the northern [[steppe]]s. The ethnic identity of the Xiongnu is uncertain, but the Xianbei appear to have been [[Mongolic peoples|Mongolic]]. The Jie, another [[Pastoralism|pastoral]] people, may have been a branch of the Xiongnu, who may have been [[Yeniseian people|Yeniseian]] or [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]].<ref>Vovin, Alexander. "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal 44/1 (2000), pp. 87-104.</ref><ref>Lewis, Mark Edward (2009). ''China between Empires: The Northern and Southern Dynasties''. Harvard University Press. p. 82-83.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Joo-Yup |last2=Kuang |first2=Shuntu |date=2017-10-18 |title=A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and y-dna Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/inas/19/2/article-p197_197.xml |journal=Inner Asia |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=197–239 |doi=10.1163/22105018-12340089 |issn=2210-5018|doi-access=free }}</ref> The Di and Qiang were from the highlands of western China.<ref name="Gernet" /> The Qiang were predominantly herdsmen and spoke [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) languages]], while the Di were farmers who may have spoken a Sino-Tibetan<ref name="Di People">(Chinese) [http://www.bswh.net/ReadNews.asp?NewsID=421&BigClassName=%B3%C9%B9%FB%D5%B9%CC%A8&SmallClassName=%D7%A8%D6%B0%C8%CB%D4%B1%C2%DB%CE%C4&SpecialID=45 段渝, 先秦巴蜀地区百濮和氐羌的来源] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908054257/http://www.bswh.net/ReadNews.asp?NewsID=421&BigClassName=%B3%C9%B9%FB%D5%B9%CC%A8&SmallClassName=%D7%A8%D6%B0%C8%CB%D4%B1%C2%DB%CE%C4&SpecialID=45 |date=2018-09-08 }} 2006-11-30</ref> or [[Turkic language]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=UAAaAQAAIAAJ Guo Ji Zhongguo Yu Yan Xue Ping Lun], Volume 1, Issue 1, J. Benjamins 1996. page 7.</ref>
-The term "Five Barbarians" is generally used to refer to the non-Han ethnic groups during the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] of the 4th and early 5th centuries, despite the fact that other groups like the [[Dingling]] and [[Wuhuan]] also existed alongside the five during the period. Even among the ruling families of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]], the Li clan of [[Cheng-Han]] were [[Ba-Di]], with Ba referring to their [[Bandun Man]] or Cong (賨) background, while the Juqu clan of [[Northern Liang]], though often classed as Xiongnu, were of [[Lushuihu]] ethnicity.
+The term "Five Barbarians" is generally used to refer to the non-Han ethnic groups during the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] of the 4th and early 5th centuries, despite the fact that other groups like the [[Dingling]] and [[Wuhuan]] also existed alongside the five during the period. Even among the ruling families of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]], the Li clan of [[Cheng-Han]] were [[Ba-Di]], with Ba referring to their [[Bandun Man]] or Cong (賨) background, while the Juqu clan of [[Northern Liang]], though often classed as Xiongnu, were of [[Lushuihu]] ethnicity. [[Gao Yun (emperor)|Gao Yun]], who was either the last ruler of [[Later Yan]] or first ruler of [[Northern Yan]], was also an ethnic [[Goguryeo]].
 ==Definition==
 [[File:Wu Hu Uprising.png|thumb|400px|Migration patterns of the Five Barbarians]]
-The origin of the term "Five Barbarians" is a matter of debate among scholars. The earliest use of it comes from the ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms]]'' (501–522) from a quote by the [[Former Qin]] ruler, [[Fu Jian (337–385)|Fu Jian]], although it was not specified who the five exactly were.<ref>(堅嗔目叱之曰：「小羌乃敢於逼天子，豈以傳國璽授汝羌乎！五胡次序，無汝羌名，違天不祥，其能久乎！璽已送晉，不可得也。」) ''Shiliuguo Chunqiu'', vol.4</ref> Modern historians like [[Chen Yinke]] and [[Zhou Yiliang]] believe that the "Five Barbarians" in this case was in reference to the "[[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)#Dynastic transitions|Five Virtues of Beginning and End]]", a theoretical concept often invoked by Chinese dynasties to legitimize their reigns.<ref>[http://www.xjass.com/ls/content/2009-12/01/content_120382.htm “五胡”新释] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723133818/http://www.xjass.com/ls/content/2009-12/01/content_120382.htm |date=2011-07-23 }}</ref>
+The origin of the term "Five Barbarians" is a matter of debate among scholars. The earliest use of it comes from the ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms]]'' (501–522) from a quote by the [[Former Qin]] ruler, [[Fu Jian (337–385)|Fu Jian]], although it was not specified who the five exactly were.<ref>(堅嗔目叱之曰：「小羌乃敢於逼天子，豈以傳國璽授汝羌乎！五胡次序，無汝羌名，違天不祥，其能久乎！璽已送晉，不可得也。」) ''Shiliuguo Chunqiu'', vol.4</ref> Modern historians like [[Chen Yinke]] and [[Zhou Yiliang]] believe that the "Five Barbarians" in this case was simply in reference to the "[[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)#Dynastic transitions|Five Virtues of Beginning and End]]", a theoretical concept often invoked by Chinese dynasties to legitimize their reigns.<ref>[http://www.xjass.com/ls/content/2009-12/01/content_120382.htm “五胡”新释] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723133818/http://www.xjass.com/ls/content/2009-12/01/content_120382.htm |date=2011-07-23 }}</ref>
 The Five Barbarians as a concept only emerged during the [[Song dynasty|Southern Song]] dynasty, when the official, [[Hong Mai]] wrote an essay titled "''Wuhu Luanhua''" (五胡亂華; "[[Upheaval of the Five Barbarians]]") in his book, ''[[Rongzhai Suibi]]'' (容齋隨筆). Even so, he did not properly define the term, as the seven rulers he mentioned only accounted for four non-Han groups, namely the [[Xiongnu]], [[Jie people|Jie]], [[Xianbei]] and [[Di (Five Barbarians)|Di]]. A later Southern Song official, [[Wang Yinglin]] defined the Five Barbarians as "[[Liu Yuan (Han-Zhao)|Liu Yuan's]] Xiongnu, Shi Le's Jie, [[Murong]]-Xianbei, [[Fu Hong|Fu Hong's]] Di and [[Yao Chang|Yao Chang's]] [[Qiang (historical people)|Qiang]]." [[Hu Sanxing|Hu Sanxing's]] annotation of the [[Zizhi Tongjian]] affirms Wang Yinglin's view by listing the five as the Xiongnu, Jie, Xianbei, Di and Qiang, after which it became widely accepted.
@@ Line 20: / Line 20: @@
 They were a mix of tribes from various stocks, such as [[proto-Mongols|proto-Mongolic]], [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], Tibetan and [[Yeniseian people|Yeniseian]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ILpGAQAAIAAJ Tang China: vision and splendour of golden age], by Edmund Capon. 1989, page 14.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVkAAAAMAAJ Renditions, Issues 15-18]. Centre for Translation Projects, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1981, page 82.</ref> Others divide them into two Turkic tribes, one [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] tribe, and two Tibetan tribes,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=n3kdAAAAMAAJ China], by Pin-chia Kuo. Oxford University Press, 1970, page 36.</ref> and yet others into Tibetan and [[Altaic]] (proto-Mongolian and early Turkic).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=UWvxBwAAQBAJ China: A Macro History], by Ray Huang. Routledge 2015. page.?</ref> While later historians determined that there were more than five, the Five Barbarians has become a collective term for all northern and western non-Han groups that lived during the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)]] and [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] period.
-==The Southern Xiongnu==
+==The Five Barbarians==
+=== Xiongnu ===
 {{main|Xiongnu}}
 The Xiongnu were a people who had migrated in and out of [[China proper]], especially during times of turmoil, apparently at least since the days of the [[Qin dynasty]].<ref>di Cosmo 2004: 186</ref> the [[Chanyu]] Huhanye (呼韓邪; 58–31 BCE) signed a [[heqin]] agreement<ref>Di Cosmo (2002), 192–193; Yü (1967), 9–10; Morton & Lewis (2005), 52</ref> with [[Han dynasty|Han China]] in 53 BCE.
@@ Line 33: / Line 35: @@
 The Southern Xiongnu then elected a Shanyu from the [[Xubu]] in 188 CE and [[Chizhishizhuhou Chanyu]] (188–195 CE) fled back to the Chinese court. After the death of the new Shanyu in 196 CE, most of the Southern Xiongnu left to join the Northern Xiongnu and only five tribes remained in China.<ref>[[Fan Ye (historian)|Fan Ye]], "[[Book of Later Han]]" (Hou Han Shu), Ch. 79, f. 7b</ref><ref>in Taskin B.S., ''"Materials on Sünnu history"'', Science, Moscow, 1973, pp. 95-96, 154 (''In Russian'')</ref><ref>and in Bichurin N.A., Collection of information on peoples in Central Asia in ancient times", vol. 1, Sankt Petersburg, 1851, pp. 146–147 (''In Russian'')</ref>
+=== Jie ===
-==The Five Barbarians after the fall of Northern Xiongnu==
+The [[Jie people|Jie]] were a people whose exact origins are still debated by modern scholars. Various theories have been proposed, including that they were a tribe of the Southern Xiongnu or that they were [[Tocharians|Tocharian]] or [[Eastern Iranian people|Eastern Iranian]] people from [[Sogdia]], but with no general consensus. The first recorded Jie was the minor chieftain, [[Shi Le]] who lived in [[Wuxiang County]] in [[Bingzhou|Bing province]]. When a famine broke out in the province in 303, he and many other tribal people were displaced before being captured and sold into slavery by the provincial inspector. Shi Le soon attained his freedom, becoming a bandit, then a rebel, then a powerful warlord under the [[Han-Zhao]] and finally the founder of the [[Later Zhao|Later Zhao dynasty]] in 319.
-In the first century the Eastern [[Han dynasty]] brought the [[Han–Xiongnu War|Northern Xiongnu into submission by military measures]]. Hordes of herdsmen and the Southern Xiongnu, originally subdued by the Northern Xiongnu, began trading without having heavy tribute imposed on them. Horses and animal products were traded mainly for agricultural tools, such as the [[harrow (tool)|harrow]] and the [[plough]], and clothing of which [[silk]] was most popular. In return those herdsmen helped defend the Han dynasty against any remaining Xiongnu. The more they engaged in commerce with the Chinese, the more they preferred to stay near China's border, to facilitate trade, instead of residing on the steppes of [[Manchuria]] and [[Mongolia]].
-Some groups of non-Xiongnu herdsmen even settled permanently within the Chinese borders, first of which was the [[Wuhuan]] (烏桓), who migrated to the area of today's Province of [[Liaoning]] during the era of Jiangwu (25–56). Note that the Southern Xiongnu migrated before the Wuhuan but not for commercial reasons.
-Liaison among the dynasty and groups of herdsmen relied on mutual economic and military benefits. As the Northern Xiongnu, the masters of the Mongolian steppes and mortal enemy of the [[Han dynasty]], were still potent enough during the reigns of [[Emperor Ming of Han|Emperor Ming]], [[Emperor Zhang of Han|Emperor Zhang]] and [[Emperor He of Han|Emperor He]] (58–105) to keep the volatile alliance intact, the Eastern Han dynasty enjoyed the most prosperous years of its almost 200 years of existence. Even fragments of the Northern Xiongnu migrated well within the border to the Xihe plain, west of the [[Yellow River]] and south of the [[Ordos Desert]]).
-The picture drastically changed in the later years of Emperor He's reign, son of Emperor Zhang. [[Dou Xian]] (50s–92), brother-in-law of Emperor Zhang through his sister Empress Duo, utterly defeated the Northern Xiongnu in a series of campaigns during the ''Yongyuan'' era (89–105). The remnants just escaped annihilation, conceded defeat, began migrating out of the Mongolian steppes and disappeared as a distinct group of herdsmen once and for all. Others were assimilated into other tribes by intermarriage: the [[Yuwen]] tribe being a good example.
-In their wake a power vacuum was left on the Mongolian steppes.  The main contenders were the Southern Xiongnu, who inhabited a region to the south of the steppe and had now grown into a  group of more than a hundred thousand herdsmen on the Xihe plain; the Xianbei, who lived in the east of the steppe residing on the plains of Manchuria; the [[Dingling]], who originally dwelt on the banks of [[Lake Baikal]] and had already commenced trekking south into the steppes before Duo Xian destroyed the Northern Xiongnu; and the Wuhuan, who lived south of the Xianbei and were the weakest of the four.
-Instead of constantly trading for provisions, tools and luxuries, these four powerful groups of herdsmen, though still allies of the Han dynasty, often cooperated to plunder areas of the northern border.  The dynasty could not muster an all-out campaign to wipe them out, but often attempted, through diplomatic and monetary measures to split one or more groups from the alliance of herdsmen.
-On the other hand, the dynasty was constantly declining as clans of consorts and eunuchs engaged in a continuous struggle for power. Wealthy merchants and aristocrats were acquiring lands from peasants who had been cultivating their own land for years. "Landless" peasants had to come under the protection of the rich and so pay rent to these new landowners rather than pay taxes to the government. Coupled with bureaucratic corruption, tax revenues dropped dramatically.  Large landholding families also took advantages of the weakness of central government and established their own armies.  Increasingly governors of regions (the highest level) administered their territories as independent rulers. The recruitment of troops and tax collection could be carried out at the discretion of the regional governors, contributing to the disunity that led to the inevitable crumbling of China into the [[Three Kingdoms]].
-The dynasty also had to deal with the [[Qiang (historical people)|Qiang]] and [[Di (Five Barbarians)|Di]] on the western border, who had constantly been involved in skirmishes against the dynasty since the middle of Western Han dynasty (around mid-first century BCE). As the Eastern Han dynasty declined, the Qiang, nominal ancestors of modern [[Tibetans]], began planning major invasions. Through spies and collaborators, the Han court knew about the situation and had to deploy soldiers near the border to fend off Qiang skirmishes and small-scale invasions.
-Although few major Qiang invasions were carried out, never successfully, such a military deployment constantly drained the treasury and was a cradle for ambitious militarists, the most famous of whom was [[Dong Zhuo]] (130s–192), the pretender to the Han court from 189 to 192. The more the Han court weakened through domestic problems, the more the herdsmen craved the dynasty's wealth. The Wuhuan were a frequent ally with the Han court against Xianbei and the Southern Xiongnu, although they also sometimes allied with the Xiongnu to fend off joint attacks by the Han and Xianbei.
-The Han court also deployed the Xianbei and Wuhuan for campaigns against the rebels and to quell peasant insurgents. These soldiers were often sympathetic to the peasant uprising and hence not trusted by the Han military authorities. However they were the best available option for suppressing the insurgents and consequently these soldiers were poorly treated by being deployed far away from their homeland, or in the most dangerous positions on the battlefield or by starving them of provisions and weapons. Thus military who could earn the trust of the Xianbei or Wuhuan would collaborate with the tribes for the sake of their own careers.
-For instance a unit of about 5,000 Wuhuan cavalry that usually resided in You Province (part of modern northeastern [[Hebei]] and western [[Liaoning]] Province) was deployed in Southern Jing Province (in [[Hunan]] Province) for three consecutive years. The rebellions (187–189) of Zhang Chun (張純; died 189) and Zhang Ju (張舉; died 189) in You Province in alliance with this Wuhuan cavalry unit marked the first of many such collaborations. [[Yuan Shao]] (140s–202) and [[Gongsun Zan]] (140s–199), two warlords of the [[end of the Han dynasty]], also exploited Wuhuan and Xianbei respectively in their own quests for predominance. Ironically [[Gongsun Zan]] was the commander tasked with suppressing the rebellion of Zhang Chun and Zhang Ju.
-==Xianbei confederacy of Tanshihuai==
-The difficult relationship between the Han court and various nomadic groups lasted from the start of the second century to the early 160s and the appearance of [[Tanshihuai]], an illegitimate son of a low ranking military officer of the Xianbei. Despite his low social status among Xianbei herdsmen, he managed to unify all the Xianbei tribes under his rule in a confederacy against the Han court.
-Each Xianbei tribe was led by a chieftain and were grouped under the confederacy into three smaller federations, the Western, the Central and the Eastern. Notable chieftains under Tanshihuai were [[Murong]] (see [[Sixteen Kingdoms]]), Huitou (see [[Sixteen Kingdoms]]) and Tuiyin (see [[Tuoba]]).
-The confederacy was a rudimentary centralized government. All tribes had to share all trade profits, military duties and a unified stance against the Han court. Slavery was also important as captives were forced to work to provide provisions and weapons.
-Supported by this confederacy, Tanshihuai brought the Southern Xiongnu into a close alliance. The Wuhuan, Dingling, Qiang and Di were at times aiding the confederacy which now included all the major tribes on the steppes stretching from today [[Jilin]] province to central [[Xinjiang]].
-Uneasiness at the Han court about this development of a new power on the steppes finally ushered in a campaign on the northern border to annihilate the confederacy once and for all.  In 177 A.D., 30,000 Han cavalry attacked the confederacy, commanded by Xia Yu (夏育), Tian Yan (田晏) and Zang Min (臧旻), each of whom was the commander of units sent respectively against the Wuhuan, the Qiang, and the Southern Xiongnu before the campaign.
-Each military officer commanded 10,000 cavalrymen and advanced north on three different routes, aiming at each of the three federations. Cavalry units commanded by chieftains of each of the three federations almost annihilated the invading forces. Eighty percent of the troops were killed and the three officers, who only brought tens of men safely back, were relieved from their posts.
-Tanshihuai found a temporary solution when he sacked the area of modern [[Jilin]] province. To make the matters worse, the successors of Tanshihuai (his sons and nephews) after his death in 181 never earned the respect from the chieftains of the three federations. They were also less ambitious and constantly fought among themselves for the increasingly powerless lord of confederacy.
-On the other hand, tribes began to emigrate from the steppe, mainly to the southwest and southeast for better pasture. The weakness of the Han court also encouraged tribes to move further into China.  For example, the Tufa (禿髮) tribe, an offshoot of the Tuiyin ([[Northern Wei Dynasty]]), settled in the eastern mountainous area of today's [[Qinghai]] province.  Thus, the effective border of the Han dynasty was pushed further south and east. The confederacy was virtually dissolved in the early third century, allowing the warlords of the Han dynasty to play their own game of fighting for supremacy without much interference from tribes outside of China.
-==Barbarian immigration during the Three Kingdoms==
-As the Eastern Han dynasty slowly disintegrated into an era of warlords, battles for predominance eventually ushered in the [[Three Kingdoms]].  However years of war had generated a severe shortage of labor, a solution to which was the immigration of foreigners.  Thus the [[Cao Wei|Wei]] court, controlling Northern China at the time, allowed weaker tribes to settle in areas depopulated by war.  Several large-scale forced relocations of Di to southwestern [[Shaanxi]] and northern [[Sichuan]] took place in the 220s.
+Despite their seemingly small population, the Jie were thrusted into prominence by Shi Le and the Later Zhao, which dominated northern China for a majority of its existence before its demise in 351. Following [[Ran Min|Ran Min's]] culling order and the wars that followed the Later Zhao collapse, the Jie ceased to appear in records, though some key figures in later history may have descended from them.
-Surprising to some historians, the immigration went smoothly since no powerful confederacy of any tribes was established. The Wuhuan, partisans of [[Yuan Shao]] and his sons, had already been squashed when [[Cao Cao]] sent [[Battle of White Wolf Mountain|an expedition into You Province]].  Its herdsmen were dispersed all over Northern China and were no longer a major threat.
+=== Xianbei ===
-The later years saw only border skirmishes as the three governments concentrated on reclaiming the loss of productivity.  Thus after the unification under the Western [[Jin dynasty (265–420)|Jin dynasty]] an era of prosperity began as the relocated tribes adopted agriculture and contributed to the revival of the economy.  Other tribes, still residing in the areas that they had occupied since the Eastern [[Han dynasty]], frequently served as auxiliaries against minor rebellious chieftains such as [[Kebineng]] and [[Tufa Shujineng]].
+Following their defeat to the Xiongnu empire in the 3rd century BC, the [[Donghu people|Donghu]] people splintered into the [[Xianbei]] and [[Wuhuan]]. The Xianbei occupied the [[Mongolian Plateau|Mongolian plateau]] aroud 93 AD after the Northern Xiongnu were forced to the northwest by the Han dynasty. In the mid-2nd century, the chieftain, [[Tanshihuai]] unified the Xianbei and launched incessant raids on the Han's northern borders. After his death, however, his confederation fell apart, and many of the Xianbei tribes living near the border became vassals of the Chinese dynasties and allowed to live within the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] such as the [[Murong]] and [[Tuoba]] tribes.
+At the height of the [[War of the Eight Princes|Jin princely civil wars]], the Inspector of [[Youzhou (ancient China)|You province]], [[Wang Jun (Pengzu)|Wang Jun]] allied himself with the local Xianbei and Wuhuan tribes, most notably the [[Duan tribe|Duan]]-Xianbei who was granted a dukedom in Liaoxi Commandery for their services. The Xianbei were a deciding factor in the civil wars, and when the [[Han-Zhao]] broke away from Jin, the Tuoba joined forces with Jin and were also given a dukedom in [[Dai Commandery]]. Meanwhile, the [[Murong]] in [[Liaodong Peninsula|Liaodong]], isolated from the conflicts of the Central Plains, expanded their influence in the region by providing refuge to fleeing Chinese officials and peasants. As the Jin were pushed out of northern China, however, the Xianbei distanced themselves from Jin and established full autonomy over their fiefdoms.
-However the Jin bureaucracy forgot an underlying threat: Living in areas well south of the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] and closer than ever before to the capital of China at [[Luoyang]], any widespread uprising by the Wu Hu would be impossible to halt.
+The Xianbei founded several states during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Murong were a prominent player during this period, as they founded the [[Former Yan]], [[Later Yan]], [[Western Yan]] and [[Southern Yan]] that ruled over the [[Zhongyuan|Central Plains]]. After the [[Battle of Fei River]], the Qifu and Tufa tribes founded the [[Western Qin]] and [[Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)|Southern Liang]], respectively, competing for control over the [[Gansu]] region in the northwest among themselves and other rival claimants. Most importantly, the Tuoba of [[Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms)|Dai]] later founded the [[Northern Wei|Northern Wei dynasty]], which reunified the north in 439 and ushered China into the [[Northern and Southern dynasties|Northern and Southern dynasties period]].
-==Jin dynasty and the Uprising of the Five Barbarians==
-{{Main|Jin dynasty (265-420)|Uprising of the Five Barbarians }}
-An era of relative prosperity had existed since [[Jin Wudi]] unified China in 280. The so-called barbarians residing inside and near China regularly paid taxes to the Jin court. They traded horses and animal products for agricultural goods and silk.
+=== Di ===
-Some officials foresaw a crisis. ''Discussion of the God of Money'' (錢神論 ''Qián Shén Lùn'') and ''Discussion on Tribe Relocation'' (徒戎論 ''Tú Róng Lùn'') condemned the decadence of the aristocracy and warned of an uprising by ethnic minorities living in northern China.  The latter work provides accurate locations of the region where the ethnic minorities resided. Southern Xiongnu now dominated Bingzhou (in modern [[Shanxi]] province) and their horsemen could arrive at Jinyang ([[Taiyuan]]) in half-a-day's ride and [[Luoyang]], the capital, in a few days.
+The [[Di (Five Barbarians)|Di]] were a semi-nomadic people that resided in the western provinces of [[Gansu]], [[Shaanxi]] and [[Sichuan]]. In 111 BC, the [[Han dynasty]] expanded westwards and established [[Wudu, Longnan|Wudu Commandery]] where the Di mainly resided, causing them to spread out in northern and western China. The Di people became Han subjects, and relations between the two were mostly stable until the fall of Han, when the Di tribes began to rebel. In 219, the warlord [[Cao Cao]] had 50,000 Di people relocated from Wudu commandery to [[Tianshui]] and [[Fufeng (region)|Fufeng]] commanderies to deter them from allying with his rival to the south, [[Liu Bei]].
+The Di in the northwest continued to rebel during the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Western Jin dynasty]]. Between 296 and 299, [[Qi Wannian]], a Di chieftain, led the various non-Han groups in rebellion, devastating the [[Guanzhong]] region and displacing many of the population. The Di that fled south into the [[Hanzhong Basin|Hanzhong]] and [[Sichuan Basin|Sichuan]] basins founded the [[Chouchi]] and [[Cheng-Han]] regimes, although the Li clan that ruled the latter were more specifically referred to as [[Ba-Di]]. The Fu clan that remained behind later founded the [[Former Qin|Former Qin dynasty]], most notable for briefly unifying northern China under [[Fu Jian (337–385)|Fu Jiān]]. During the Qin collapse that followed the [[Battle of Fei River]], the Di general, [[Lü Guang]] founded the [[Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)|Later Liang]] in [[Gansu]].
-The accession of the Jin [[Jin Huidi|Emperor Hui]] in 290 marked the beginning of the crumbling of the Jin dynasty.  Possibly developmentally disabled, he was a puppet of powerful parties which sought to control the Jin court.  During the [[Rebellion of the Eight Kings]], all parties in power attempted to wipe out the former rulers by murder, mass executions or battles. Each struggle grew more violent and bloodier than the one before. Not surprisingly, Wu Hu soldiers were often called upon. Wu Hu chieftains and herdsmen clearly comprehended the selfishness of the nobility and the destruction of the country through their struggle for power and wealth. Coupled with famine, epidemic and floods, cannibalism was observed in some parts of the country only a few years after Emperor Hui's accession. Wu Hu herdsmen saw no reason to obey orders from the Jin court and widespread uprisings soon followed.
+=== Qiang ===
-The revolt by [[Qi Wannian]] (齊萬年), a Di chieftain residing in the border region of today's [[Shaanxi]] and [[Sichuan]] provinces, marked the first such uprising.  His group of insurgents, which was mainly made up of Di and Qiang tribesmen, numbered around fifty thousand.  Although his revolt was suppressed after six years of destructive battles, waves of refugees and remnants wreaked havoc in neighboring territories. The first of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] was founded by a group of Di refugees who fled into [[Sichuan]].
+The Qiang were another western semi-nomadic people that resided in [[Qinghai]] and [[Gansu]]. Initially vassals of the [[Xiongnu]], the Qiang gradually turned to the Han dynasty as the Xiongnu empire collapsed. They were allowed to settle in the [[Guanzhong]] region along with the watersheds of the [[Wei River|Wei]] and [[Jing River|Jing]] rivers, where they practiced agriculture and lived with [[Han Chinese]] settlers. However, the Qiang also faced oppression by the local administrators, leading to constant large-scale rebellions in the northwest that proved very costly for the Han. The Qiang also fought as soldiers for the Han and later for the [[Cao Wei]] and [[Shu Han]] during the [[Three Kingdoms]] period.
+The Qiang continued to participate in rebellions in the northwest against the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Western Jin dynasty]], but it would not be until after the Battle of Fei River that they establish their first and only state of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] under the [[Later Qin|Later Qin dynasty]]. The second ruler of Later Qin, [[Yao Xing]], was a key proponent in the spread of [[Buddhism]] by making it his state religion and sponsoring the influential Buddhist translator, [[Kumārajīva]]. The Qiang also founded the minor polities of [[Dangchang Kingdom|Dangchang]] and [[Dengzhi state|Dengzhi]].
-The [[War of the Eight Princes]] triggered a large-scale Southern Xiongnu uprising after 304, which resulted in the sacking of the Chinese capitals at [[Luoyang]] (311) and [[Chang'an]]. The Xiongnu Kingdom of [[Han Zhao|Han-Zhao]] captured and executed the last two Jin emperors as the Western Jin dynasty collapsed in 317. Many Chinese fled south of the [[Yangtze]] as numerous tribesmen of the Xiongnu and remnants of the Jin wreaked havoc in the north. [[Fu Jian (337–385)]] temporarily unified the north but his achievement was destroyed after the [[Battle of Fei River]]. The [[Northern Wei]] unified North China again in 439 and ushered in the period of the [[Southern and Northern Dynasties|Northern Dynasties]].
 ==See also==