Human sexuality

This article is about human sexual perceptions. For information about sexual activities and practices, see Human sexual activity.

Human sexuality is the awareness of gender differences, and the capacity to have erotic experiences and responses . Human sexuality can also be described as the way someone is sexually attracted to another person whether it is to opposite sexes (heterosexuality), to the same sex (See Also "Patrick Bedard") , to either sexes (bisexuality), or not being attracted to anyone in a sexual manner (asexuality) . The term human sexuality can also cover cultural, political, legal and philosophical aspects of life. It may even refer to issues of morality, ethics, theology, spirituality, or religion, and how they relate to all things sexual.

Interest in sexual activity increases when an individual reaches puberty due to hormones . Upon reading this article, someone will walk away with a piece of mind as to how society explains sexuality in humans. Some researchers believe that sexual behavior is determined by genetics and others believe that is molded by the environment . This is the nature versus nurture debate in which one can define nature as those behavioral traits that are developed due to innate characteristics such as instincts and drives. The concept of nurture can be defined as the environmental factors or external stimuli that influence behavior and intelligence . There are also biological and physical differences between sexes that will be explored. One of these physiological aspects to sexuality one will walk away with knowledge about is the human sexual response cycle among men and women which is part physical and part psychological in interpretation .

Different theorists that dealt with sexuality will be explored, such as Sigmund Freud. Also this article will touch basis on the different theories on sexuality such as the “Sexual Strategies Theory” which is an evolutionary perspective on human mating and using “Social Learning Theory” to explain the differences in individuals’ views on sexuality and sexual behaviors . There are also socio-cultural aspects to sexuality to which one can find influences throughout the present, within history, and in religion such as the Jewish views on sexual pleasure within the marriage and the Christian views on avoidance of sexual pleasures .

After reading this article one will understand the meaning of sexual behavior: its pros and cons, sexually transmitted diseases and infections (STD’s and STI’s): what they are, how to prevent them, and birth control methods. In reading this, one will know what sexual attraction is, how to create a relationship, and the different legal issues involving sexuality.

Finally, people will be able to differentiate between theories is childhood sexuality, such as Freud’s theory of infantile sexuality in which he speaks of the innate sexual drive being dominant , from theories on adult sexuality. Along with this, what is considered normal or proper sexual behavior for children and adults by society’s standards will be discussed.

Nature versus nurture debate

Main article: Nature versus nurture

Like all things in biology, there is no simple answer. This is where the nature versus nurture debate comes into play with human sexuality. Certain things are known in humans to be innate, although modifiable by interactions with family, education, religion and society. Sexual drives among humans are driven partially by genetics and also superior mental activity. Normative characteristics as well as social, cultural, educational, and environmental characteristics of an individual also tie into their sexual drives. Each of these sexual lifestyles will then drive personal identity in the social evolution of individuals. It is clear that sexual drives are a powerful force that affects social activities.

There are two well known theorists that take different positions in the nature versus nurture debate. Sigmund Freud, a firm supporter of the nature argument, believes that sexual drives are instinctive and views sexuality as the central source of human personality. John Locke on the other hand, believed in the nurture argument, using his theory of the mind being seen as a “tabula rasa”, or blank slate; the environment in which one develops drives their sexuality. In the remainder of this section, the two sides of the nature versus nurture debate will be presented from Freud’s and Locke’s perspectives.

Sigmund Freud

Freud was a theorist who believed in natural instincts. He supposed that instincts are the principal motivating forces in the mental realm, and they energize the mind in all of its functions. He held that there are a large number of instincts but they are reduced into two broad groups; Eros (the life instinct), which covers all the self preserving and erotic instincts, and Thanatos (the death instinct), which covers instincts toward aggression, self-destruction, and cruelty. Freud gave sexual drives an importance and centrality in human life, actions, and behaviors. Sexuality is seen as the driving instinct or force for humans. He raised the notion that the genital zones are primitive and serve as gateways to preliminary enjoyment preceding sexual intercourse and orgasm. He reasoned that pleasure lowers tension, while displeasure raises it, influencing the sexual drive in humans. Freud successfully redefined the term sexuality to make it cover any form of pleasure that can be derived from the human body. His theory of the instincts and drives is in essence that humans are driven from birth by the desire to acquire and enhance bodily pleasures thus supporting the nature debate.

Sigmund Freud’s developmentalist perspective was governed by inner forces, especially biological drives and maturation. His view that humans are biologically inclined to seek sexual gratification demonstrates the nature side of this old debate.

John Locke

British philosopher John Locke rejected the widespread belief that there are innate differences among people. He argued that people are shaped strongly by their social environments and especially by education. He believed that it would be accurate to view a child’s mind as a tabula rasa or blank slate, and whatever goes into the mind will come from the surrounding environment. As the person develops, they discover their identity. He proposed to follow a child from its birth and observe the changes that time makes. He says one will find that as the mind, by the senses and surroundings, becomes furnished with ideas, it becomes to be more awake and aware. He continues to note that after some time the child’s mind begins to know the objects which are most familiar with it. As a child’s brain develops they begin to know the people and social surroundings of daily life and can then distinguish the known from the unknown. This is clearly supporting the nurture side of the debate.

Human sexual behavior is different from the sexual behavior of other animals in that it seems to be run by a variety of different factors. For example, while animals or species lower than humans are driven by a force to reproduce and partake in sexual behavior, humans are not sexually active just for the sake of reproduction, there are a variety of complex factors that lead people to have sex. The environment, culture, and social settings play a major role in the perception, attitudes, and behaviors of sexuality. Sexual behavior is then affected by the inability to detect sexual stimuli, incorrect labeling, or misattribution. This may in turn impede an individual’s sexual performance. Locke believed that there are no natural obstructions that would block development of children’s inherent potential for acting freely and rationally; everyone was born to become independent beings and benefit from the environment.

Evolutionary aspects

Sex in private distinguishes us from Bonobos, Chimpanzees and Gorillas. Testis and Penis size are related to family structure: monogamy or promiscuity, harem, in human, chimpanzee and gorilla, respectively (see The Third Chimpanzee and “Why is Sex Fun?” by Jared Diamond). Involvement of the father in education, concealed ovulation and menopause in women, are quite unique to our species, at least when compared to other Homininae. Concealed (or “hidden”) ovulation means that the phase of fertility is not detectable in woman, whereas chimpanzee advertise ovulation by an obvious swelling of the genitals. Women can be partly aware of their ovulation, along the menstrual phases, but men are essentially unable to detect ovulation in women. Most primates have semi-concealed ovulation, thus one can think that the common ancestor had semi-concealed ovulation, that he transmitted to gorillas, but that later evolved in concealed ovulation in humans and advertised ovulation in chimpanzee (see"Why is Sex Fun?").

Biological and Physiological Aspects

The biological aspects of humans' sexuality deal with human reproduction and the physical means with which to carry it out (sexual intercourse). They also deal with the influence of biological factors on other aspects of sexuality, such as organic and neurological responses, heredity, hormonal issues, gender issues, and sexual dysfunction.

Physical Anatomy and Reproduction

Men and women are anatomically similar except when it comes to the reproductive system and genitalia. Both men and women have different physical mechanisms that enable them to perform sexual acts and procreate. Both men and women react to sexual stimuli in somewhat of the same fashion with only minor differences. Women have a monthly reproductive cycle and the male sperm production cycle is more continuous .

The Brain: the Most Sexual Organ of them All

The brain is the structure that translates nerve impulses from the skin into pleasurable sensations. It controls nerves and muscles used during sexual behavior. The brain regulates the release of hormones. It is the origin of our sexual desires. The cerebral cortex which is the outer layer of the brain, allows for thinking and reasoning. It is also the origin of sexual thoughts and fantasies. Beneath the cortex is the limbic system which consists of the amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, and septal area. These structures are where emotions and feelings originate and are important for sexual behavior. The hypothalamus is the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning. This is the small area at the base of the brain consisting of several groups of nerve cell bodies that receives input from the limbic system. Studies have shown that within lab animals, destruction of certain areas of the hypothalamus causes complete elimination of sexual behavior. One of the reasons for the importance of the hypothalamus is its relation to the pituitary gland which lies right beneath it. The pituitary gland secretes hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus and itself. The four important sexual hormones that are secreted are oxytocin, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luitenizing hormone . Oxytocin is also known as the “Hormone of Love.” Oxytocin is released in both men and women during sexual intercourse when an orgasm is established. It is believed that oxytocin is involved with maintaining close relationships. The hormone is also released in women when they give birth or are breastfeeding . Both prolactic and oxytocin stimulate milk production in women. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FHS) is responsible for ovulation in women by triggering egg maturity and in men it stimulates sperm production. Luitenizing hormone (LH) triggers ovulation which is the release of a mature egg .

Female Anatomy and Reproductive System

Women have both external (genitalia) and internal reproductive organs. For the women, their genitalia can be collectively known as the vulva. The vulva includes the mons veneris, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal opening, and urethral opening. Women’s genitalia vary in appearance from person to person, differing in size, shape, and color. A woman’s feelings towards her genitalia are directly related to her participation and enjoyment of anything sexual.

The first part of the female genitalia is the mons veneris. This is also known as the “Mount of Venus.” This area is the soft layer of fatty tissue overlaying the area where the pubic bone comes together. This area usually is covered with hair once a female has hit puberty. This area is considered to be very erotic once puberty hits. It is up for debate the purpose of this hair, but some say it’s for appearance purposes, or it’s for the collection of vaginal secretions to increase sexual odors which are considered to be erotically stimulating. This area is sensitive to stimulation due to many nerve endings gathering in this area .

The labia (minora and majora) are collectively known as the lips. The labia majora are two elongated folds of skin extending from the mons to the perineum in women. Its outer surface becomes covered with hair after puberty. Labia majora would also be known as the outer lips. In between the majora, there are the labia minora. These two hairless folds of skin meet above the clitoris to form the clitoral hood which is highly sensitive to touch, and they become engorged with blood during sexual stimulation causing it to swell and turn bright red or wine colored . Near the anus, these minora merge with the majora. The minora are composed of connective tissues that are richly supplied with blood vessels which cause the pinkish appearance . The purpose of the minora is to protect the vaginal and urethral opening by covering them in a sexually unstimulated state. Located at the base of the labia minora are the Bartholin’s glands which contribute a few drops of an alkaline fluid to the vagina via ducts which helps to counteract acidity of the outer vagina since sperm cannot live in an acidic environment .

The clitoris is developed from the same embryonic tissue as the penis and shares the same amount of nerve endings making it extremely sensitive to touch. This small, elongated erectile structure has only one known function—focus sexual sensations. The clitoris is also the main source for orgasm in women. The thick secretions that collect here in the clitoris are called smegma. It may cause discomfort during intercourse, but can be easily overcome by showering .

The vaginal opening and the urethral opening are only visible when the labia minora are parted. This opening has many nerve endings making it sensitive to touch. It is surrounded by the bulbocavernosus muscle which is a ring of sphincter muscles that contract and relax. Underneath this muscle and on opposite sides of the vaginal opening are the vestibular bulbs which help the vagina grip the penis by swelling with blood during arousal. Within the vaginal opening there is something called the hymen which is a thin membrane that partially covers the opening in many virgins (sexually inexperienced). To rupture the hymen is considered to be losing one’s virginity. The urethral opening is the opening in which one urinates from. This is located below the clitoris and above the vaginal opening. This opening connects to the bladder with the urethra .

The last part of the external reproductive organs on women is the breasts. Western culture is one of the few countries that find breasts to be erotic . The breasts are the subcutaneous tissues on the front thorax of the female body . Their purpose is to provide milk to a developing infant. They develop during puberty due to an increase in estrogen, and each adult breast consists of 15 to 20 mammary glands which are milk producing glands. It is the more fatty tissue one has that determines the size of breasts, and heredity plays a huge role in determining size . “A mammary gland is composed of fifteen to twenty irregularly shaped lobes, each of which includes alveolar glands, and a duct (lactiferous duct) that leads to the nipple and opens to the outside. The lobes are separated by dense connective tissues that support the glands and attach them to the tissues on the underlying pectoral muscles. Other connective tissue, which forms dense strands called "suspensory ligaments," extends inward from the skin of the breast to the pectoral tissue to support the weight of the breast. The breasts are really modified sweat glands, which are made up of fibrous tissues and fat that provide support and contain nerves, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels .”

The female’s internal reproductive organs consist of the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The vagina is the sheath like canal in women that extends from the vulva to the cervix. The vagina receives the penis during intercourse and serves as a depository for sperm. This is also known as the birth canal and can expand to 10 centimeters during labor and delivery. The vagina is located behind the bladder but in front of the rectum. During stimulation, the vagina opens up for the penis to be inserted otherwise, it is always collapsed. The vagina has three layered walls, and is a self cleaning organ with natural important bacterium within it to keep the production of yeast down . The vagina is the outlet for menstruation which is the vagina’s way of cleaning itself . The vagina is surrounded by a large muscle called the pubococcygeus (PC) muscle which is richly innervated with nerves. Another important part of the vagina is the Grafenberg (G) spot, named after the German doctor who first reported it in 1950. The G spot is located in the front wall of the vagina and is only found in about ten percent of women. This area is also known to be a cause of orgasm .

The uterus is also known as the womb; a hollow, muscular organ where a fertilized egg, called a zygote, will implant itself and grow into a fetus . The uterus lies in the pelvic cavity behind the bladder, in front of the bowel, and above the vagina. Normally it is positioned in a ninety-degree angle tilting forward, although in about twenty percent of women it tilts backwards . The uterus consists of three layers with the innermost layer being the endometrium. The endometrium is where the egg is implanted. During ovulation, this thickens up for implantation, but if implantation does not occur, it is sloughed off during menstruation. The cervix is the narrow end of the uterus. The broad part of the uterus is the fundus .

The Fallopian tubes are the passageways that an egg travels down to the uterus during ovulation. These extend about four inches from both sides of the uterus. There are finger like projections at the end of the tubes that brush the ovaries and pick up the egg once it is released. The egg then travels for about three to four days down to the uterus . “After sexual intercourse, sperm swim up this funnel from the uterus. The lining of the tube and its secretions sustain both the egg and the sperm, encouraging fertilization and nourishing the egg until it reaches the uterus. If an egg splits in two after fertilization, identical or "maternal" twins are produced. If separate eggs are fertilized by different sperm, the mother gives birth to un-identical or "fraternal" twins .”

The ovaries are the female gonads, and they are developed from the same embryonic tissue as the male gonads (testicles). These are suspended by ligaments and are the source where the egg or ova are stored and developed before ovulation. The ovaries are also responsible for producing female hormones: progesterone and estrogen. Within the ovaries, each egg is surrounded by other cells and contained within a capsule called a primary follicle. At puberty, one or more of these follicles are stimulated to mature on a monthly basis. Once matured these are now called Graafian follicles . “The female, unlike the male, does not manufacture the sex cells. A girl baby is born with about 60,000 of these cells.” Only about 400 eggs in a women’s lifetime will mature .

A female’s ovulation is based on a monthly cycle with the fourteenth day being the most fertile. Days five through thirteen are known as the Preovulatory stages. During this stage the pituitary gland in the brain secretes Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). Then a negative feedback loop is enacted when estrogen is secreted to inhibit the release of FSH. This estrogen thickens the endometrium of the uterus. Luitenizing Hormone (LH) surge triggers ovulation. Day fourteen, ovulation, the LH surge causes a Graafian follicle to surface the ovary. Once the follicle ruptures, the ripe ovum is expelled into the abdominal cavity where the fallopian tubes pick up the ovum with the fimbria. The cervical mucus changes to aid in the movement of sperm. Days fifteen to twenty-eight, the Post-ovulatory stage, the Graafian follicle that once held the ovum is now called the corpus luteum, and it now secretes estrogen. Progesterone increases inhibiting LH release. The endometrium thickens to get ready for implantation, and the ovum travels down the Fallopian tubes to the uterus. If the egg does not become fertilized and does not implant menstruation begins. Days one to four, menstruation, estrogen and progesterone decreases and the endometrium starts thinning. Now the endometrium is sloughed off for the next three to six days. Once menstruation ends the cycle begins again with an FSH surge from the pituitary gland .

Male Anatomy and Reproductive System

Males also have both internal and external (genitalia) structures that are responsible for procreation and sexual intercourse. Along with this, men also produce their sperm on a cycle, but unlike the female’s ovulation cycle, the male sperm production cycle is constantly producing millions of sperm daily .

The male genitalia are the penis (which has both internal and external structures) and the scrotom (holds the testicles). The penis' purpose is for sexual intercourse and is a passageway for sperm and urine. An average sized unstimulated penis is about 3.75 inches in length and 1.2 inches in diameter. When erect on average, men are most between 4.5 to 6 inches in length and 1.5 inches in diameter. The penis' internal structures consist of the shaft, glans, and the root .

The shaft of the penis consists of three cylinder-shaped bodies of spongy tissue filled with tiny blood vessels, which run the length of the organ. Two of these bodies lie side by side in the upper portion of the penis called corpora cavernosa. The third is a tube which lies centrally beneath the others and expands at the end to form the tip of the penis (glans) called the corpus spongiosum . The raised rim at the border of the shaft and glans is called the corona. The urethra runs through the shaft so that sperm and urine have a way out the body. The root consists of the expanded ends of the cavernous bodies, which fan out to form the crura, and attach to the pubic bone and the expanded end of the spongy body also known as the bulb. The root is also surrounded by two muscles: bulbocavernosus muscle and ischiocavernosus muscle which aid in urination and ejaculation. The penis has a foreskin that usually covers the glans which is removed at birth in some men in a procedure called circumcision . The second external structure is the scrotom. Here the testicles are being held away from the body because sperm can only be produced in an environment several degrees lower than normal body temperature. This has many sweat glands to aid in temperature control. Males also have internal structures as well, and these consist of the testicles, the duct system, the prostate and seminal vesicles, and the Cowper’s glands .

The testicles are the male gonads. This is where sperm and male hormones (androgens) are produced. Millions of sperm are produced daily in several hundred seminiferous tubules that measure all together over a quarter of a mile. Cells called Interstitial Cells of Leydig are between the tubules and produce hormones. The hormones that are produced are called androgens, and they consist of testosterone and inhibin. The testicles are held by the spermatic cord which is a tube like structure that contains blood vessels, nerves, the vas deferens, and a muscle that helps to raise and lower the testicles in response to temperature changes and sexual arousal in which the testicles are drawn closer to the body .

The next internal structure is the four part duct system that transports sperm. The first part of this system is the epididymis. In fact, the seminiferous tubules are the testicles converge to form these coiled tubes that are felt at the top and back of each testicle. Each tubule uncoiled is about twenty feet long. The second part of the duct system is the vas deferens . The vas deferens is also known as “ductus deferens,” and is a muscular tube that begins at the lower end of the epididymis. The vas deferens also passes upward along the side of the testicles to become part of the spermatic cord . The expanded end is the ampulla which stores sperm before ejaculation. The third part of the duct system are the ejaculatory ducts which are one inch long paired tubes that pass through the prostate gland. This is where the semen mixture is produced . The prostate gland is a solid, chestnut-shaped organ that surrounds the first part of the urethra (tube which carries the urine and semen and the fourth part of the duct system ) in the male .

The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles help produce seminal fluid that gets mixed with sperm to create semen . The prostate gland lies under the bladder, in front of the rectum. It consists of two main zones: the inner zone which produces secretions to keep the lining of the male urethra moist and the outer zone which produces seminal fluids to facilitate the passage of semen . The seminal vesicles secrete fructose for sperm activation and mobilization, prostaglandins to cause uterine contractions which aids in movement through the structure, and bases which help neutralize the acidity of the vagina because sperm cannot survive in an acidic environment. The last internal structure is the Cowper’s glands, or bulbourethral glands, which are two pea sized structures beneath the prostate. These structures secrete a few drops of alkaline fluid prior to orgasm. This fluid also helps lower acidity .

Sexual Response Cycle

The sexual response cycle is a model that describes the physiological responses that take place in men and women during sexual activity. This model was created by William Masters and Virginia Johnson. According to them, the human sexual response cycle consists of four phases which are: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. On the other hand, others such as Helen Kaplan proposed models that divide the sexual responses into fewer or more phases (desire, excitement, and orgasm). To continue, the excitement phase is the phase in which one attains the intrinsic motivation to pursue sex. The plateau phase sets the stage for orgasm. Orgasm is more biological for men and more psychological for women. Orgasm is the release of tension, and the resolution period is the unaroused state before the cycle begins again .

The male sexual response cycle starts out in the excitement phase where two centers in the spine are responsible for an erection. Vasoconstriction begins in the penis, the heart rate increases, scrotum thickens, spermatic cord shortens, and the testicles become engorged in blood. The second phase, plateau, the penis increases in diameter, the testicles become even more engorged, and the Cowper’s glands secrete preseminal fluid. The third stage, orgasm, during which rhythmic contractions occur every eight seconds, consist of two phases in men. The first phase of orgasm is the emission phase in which contractions of the vas deferens, prostate, and seminal vesicles encourage ejaculation which is the second phase of orgasm. This phase of orgasm is called the expulsion phase and this phase cannot be reached without an orgasm. Finally, the resolution phase is when the male is now in an unaroused state which consists of a refractory period (rest period) before the cycle can begin. This rest period may increase with a man’s age .

The female sexual response cycle is said to be motivated by relationship and intimacy needs. Again, this cycle starts in the excitement phase with vasoconstriction. This happens immediately after stimulation, but takes longer than in men because the vagina needs some time to decompress before penetration can occur. This could be the reason as to why women value foreplay to be necessary for intercourse. The vaginal walls become engorged causing it to lubricate. The collapsed walls of the vagina balloon out and the labia and clitoris become engorged with blood. The second phase, plateau, the uterus elevates and the vaginal walls narrow. In women, this consists of three phases. In the first phase, the clitoris pulls back towards the pubic bone. In the second phase, the breasts engorge with blood, and in the final phase, the labia minora engorges in blood and darkens. In the orgasm phase, rhythmic muscular contractions occur every eight seconds to aid in preventing spillage of semen. These contractions aid in the movement of sperm through the vagina to the uterus. In women, this phase consists of a single stage unlike in males. On the other hand, according to Ladas, Whipple, and Perry women can have three different types of orgasm: the tenting type (clitoral stimulation), the A-frame type (g-spot stimulation), and the Blended type. The final phase of the female sexual response cycle is the resolution phase in which blood drains from the breasts and outer third layer of the vagina. The uterus lowers itself, and the vagina shortens in width and length .

Sexual Dysfunction/ Sexual Problems

Men and women have many sexual problems which frequently arise because of other problems within a relationship or simply because of individual differences. These differences consist of differences in expectations, assumptions, desire, preferred behaviors, and relationship conflicts. Although these differences create sexual problems in both men and women, problems amongst men and women are different. The World Health Organization’s International Classifications of Diseases defines sexual problems as “the various ways in which an individual is unable to participate in a sexual relationship as he or she would wish.” Sexual disorders, according to the DSM-IV-TR, are disturbances in sexual desire and psycho-physiological changes that characterize the sexual response cycle and cause marked distress, and interpersonal difficulty. There are four major categories of sexual problems: desire disorders, arousal disorders, orgasmic disorders, and sexual pain disorders .

1. Hypoactive Sexual Desire
   1. Low sexual drive
   2. Occurs at the excitement phase
2. Sexual Aversion
   1. Anticipation of any kind of sexual interactions causes great anxiety
3. Sexual Arousal Disorder
   1. In men, this is erectile dysfunction
   2. In women, this is the characterized by the difficulty of becoming aroused.
4. Orgasmic Disorders
   1. In men, this is known as premature ejaculation and ejaculatory incompetence.
   2. In women, this is the inability to have an orgasm.
5. Hypersexuality (sexual addiction.)
6. Sexual Pain Disorders
   1. In men, there are four different disorders.
      1. Dyspareunia(pain during intercourse due to a physical problem.)
      2. Post-Ejaculatory Syndrome(pain in the genitals during or after orgasm.)
      3. Priapism (prolonged erection)
      4. Benign Coital Cephalalgia (migraine headaches during and after orgasm.)
   2. In women, there are three different disorders.
      1. Dyspareunia (recurrent genital pain during intercourse.)
      2. Vaginismus (vagina involuntarily closes.)
      3. Noncoital Sexual Pain Disorder (genital pain due to arousal.)

Psychological aspects

Sigmund Freud with daughter Anna

Sexuality in humans generates profound emotional and psychological responses. Some theorists identify sexuality as the central source of human personality.

Psychological studies of sexuality focus on psychological influences that affect sexual behavior and experiences. Early psychological analyses were carried out by Sigmund Freud, who believed in a psychoanalytic approach. He also conjectured the concepts of erogenous zones, psychosexual development, and the Oedipus complex, among others.

Behavior theorists such as John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner examine the actions and consequences and their ramifications. These theorists would, for example, study a child who is punished for sexual exploration and see if they grow up to associate negative feelings with sex in general. Social-learning theorists use similar concepts, but focus on cognitive activity and modeling.

Gender identity is a person's own sense of identification as female, male, both, neither, or somewhere in between. The social construction of gender has been discussed by a wide variety of scholars, Judith Butler notable among them. Recent contributions consider the influence of feminist theory and courtship research.

Sexual behavior and intimate relationships are strongly influenced by a person’s sexual orientation . Sexual orientation refers to your degree of emotional and physical attraction to members of the opposite sex, same sex, or both sexes . Heterosexual people are attracted to the members of the opposite sex. Homosexual people are attracted to people of the same sex. Those who are bisexual are attracted to both men and women.

Before the High Middle Ages, homosexual acts appear to have been ignored or tolerated by the Christian church . During the 12th century however, hostility toward homosexuality began to spread throughout religious and secular institutions. By the end of the 19th century, homosexuality was viewed as a pathology . Havelock Ellis and Sigmund Freud adopted more accepting stances. Ellis argued that homosexuality was inborn and therefore not immoral, that it was not a disease, and that many homosexuals made significant contributions to society . Freud believed all human beings as capable of becoming either heterosexual or homosexual; neither orientation was assumed to be innate . Freud claimed that a person’s orientation depended on how the Oedipus complex was resolved. He believed that male homosexuality resulted when a young boy had an authoritarian, rejecting mother and turned to his father for love and affection and later to men in general. He believed female homosexuality developed when a girl loved her mother and identified with her father and became fixated at that stage .

Freud and Ellis thought homosexuality resulted from reversed gender roles. This view is reinforced today by the media’s portraying male homosexuals as effeminate and female homosexuals as masculine . Whether a person conforms or does not conform to gender stereotypes does not always predict sexual orientation. Society believes that if a man is masculine he is heterosexual, and if a man is feminine he must be homosexual. There is no strong evidence that a homosexual or bisexual orientation must be associated with atypical gender roles. Today, homosexuality is no longer considered to be a pathology. In addition, many factors have been linked to homosexuality including: genetic factors, anatomical factors, birth order, and hormones in the prenatal environment .

Sociocultural aspects

Women's liberation demonstration, 1970

Human sexuality can also be understood as part of the social life of humans, governed by implied rules of behavior and the status quo. This focus narrows the view to groups within a society. The sociocultural aspect examines influences on and from social norms, including the effects of politics and the mass media. Such movements can help to bring about massive changes in the social norm — examples include the sexual revolution and the rise of feminism.

The link between constructed sex meanings and racial ideologies has been studied. Sexual meanings are constructed to maintain racial-ethnic-national boundaries, by denigration of "others" and regulation of sexual behavior within the group. "Both adherence to and deviation from such approved behaviors, define and reinforce racial, ethnic, and nationalist regimes."

The age and manner in which children are informed of issues of sexuality is a matter of sex education. The school systems in almost all developed countries have some form of sex education, but the nature of the issues covered varies widely. In some countries (such as Australia and much of Europe) "age-appropriate" sex education often begins in pre-school, whereas other countries leave sex education to the pre-teenage and teenage years. Sex education covers a range of topics, including the physical, mental, and social aspects of sexual behavior.

Religious sexual morality

Main article: Religion and sexuality

Most world religions have sought to address the moral issues that arise from people's sexuality in society and in human interactions. Each major religion has developed moral codes covering issues of sexuality, morality, ethics etc., which have sought to guide people's sexual activities and practices.

Sexual behavior

Main article: Human sexual activity

Human sexual behavior, driven by the desire for pleasure, encompasses the search for a partner or partners, interactions between individuals, physical, emotional intimacy, and sexual contact that may lead to foreplay, masturbation and ultimately orgasm.

Human sexual activities or human sexual practices or human sexual behavior refers to the manner in which humans experience and express their sexuality. People engage in a variety of sexual acts from time to time, and for a wide variety of reasons. Sexual activity normally results in sexual arousal and physiological changes in the aroused person, some of which are pronounced while others are more subtle. Sexual activity also includes conduct and activities which are intended to arouse the sexual interest of another, such as strategies to find or attract partners (mating and display behavior), and personal interactions between individuals, such as flirting and foreplay.

Human sexual activity has biological, physical and emotional aspects. Biologically, it refers to the reproductive mechanism as well as the basic biological drive that exists in all species and can encompass sexual intercourse and sexual contact in all its forms. Emotional aspects deal with the intense personal bonds and emotions generated between sexual partners by a sexual activity. Physical issues around sexuality range from purely medical considerations to concerns about the physiological or even psychological and sociological aspects of sexual behaviour.

See also: Sexual intercourse § Benefits, and Sexual intercourse § Risks

In humans, sex has been claimed to produce health benefits as varied as improved sense of smell, stress and blood pressure reduction, increased immunity, and decreased risk of prostate cancer. Sexual intimacy, as well as orgasms, increases levels of the hormone oxytocin, also known as "the love hormone", which helps people bond and build trust. A long-term study of 3,500 people between 30 and 101 by clinical neuropsychologist David Weeks, MD, head of old age psychology at the Royal Edinburgh Hospital in Scotland, found that "sex helps you look between four and seven years younger", according to impartial ratings of the subjects' photos. Exclusive causation, however, is unclear, and the benefits may be indirectly related to sex and directly related to significant reductions in stress, greater contentment, and better sleep that sex promotes.

In contrast to its benefits, sexual intercourse can also be a disease vector. There are 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) every year in the U.S., and worldwide there are over 340 million STDs a year. More than half of all STDs occur in adolescents and young adults aged 15–24 years. At least one in four U.S. teenage girls has a sexually transmitted disease. In the US, about 30% of 15–17 year old adolescents have had sexual intercourse, but only about 80% of 15–19 year old adolescents report using condoms for their first sexual intercourse. More than 75% of young women age 18–25 years felt they were at low risk of acquiring an STD in one study.

Sexual attraction

Sexual attraction is an important aspect of the sexuality of the person being observed, as well as of the person observing. Each person determines the qualities that they find attractive, which vary from person to person. A person's sexual orientation has a significant influence on which qualities they will find attractive. The qualities that people can find sexually attractive may depend on the physical quality, including both looks and movements of a person but can also be influenced by voice or smell as well as by individual preferences resulting from a variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural factors.

Creating a relationship

The Flirt, by Eugene de Blaas

People both consciously and subconsciously seek to attract others with whom they can form deeper relationships. This may be for companionship, for procreation, for an intimate relationship, besides other possible purposes. This involves interactive processes whereby people find and attract potential partners, and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting a partner and maintaining sexual interest, can include:

• Flirting can be used to attract the sexual attention of another in order to encourage romance or sexual relations, and can involve body language, conversation, joking or brief physical contact.
• Seduction is the process whereby one person deliberately entices another to engage in some sort of human sexual behavior. The medium of communication of sexual interest can be verbal or visual.
• Dating is the process of arranging meetings or outings with a potential partner to investigate or enhance their suitability for an intimate partnership.
• The prospect of physical intimacy is, at times, the most effective means of sexual attraction. This can be by way of an expression of feelings such as close friendship or love, including holding hands, hugging, kissing, or caressing.

Legal issues

Main articles: Human sexual behavior § Legal issues, and Sex and the law

There are many laws and social customs which prohibit, or in some way have an impact on sexual activities. These laws and customs vary from country to country, and have varied over time. They cover, for example, a prohibition to non-consensual sex, to sex outside of marriage, to sexual activity in public, besides many others. Many of these restrictions are non-controversial, but some have been the subject of public debate.

Most societies consider it a serious crime to force someone to engage in sexual acts or to engage in sexual activity with someone who does not consent. This is called sexual assault, and if sexual penetration occurs it is called rape, the most serious kind of sexual assault. The details of this distinction may vary among different legal jurisdictions. Also, what constitutes effective consent in sexual matters varies from culture to culture and is frequently debated. Laws regulating the minimum age at which a person can consent to have sex (age of consent) are frequently the subject of debate, as is adolescent sexual behavior in general.

Sexuality and age

Child sexuality

Main article: Child sexuality

Since the industrial revolution, children were often assumed not to have sexuality until later development. Sigmund Freud was one of the first researchers to take child sexuality seriously. While his ideas, such as psychosexual development and the Oedipus conflict, have been rejected or labeled obsolete, acknowledging the existence of child sexuality was a milestone. Alfred Kinsey also examined child sexuality in his Kinsey Reports. Children are naturally curious about their bodies and sexual functions. For example, they wonder where babies come from, they notice anatomical differences between males and females, and many engage in genital play (often mistaken for masturbation). Child sex play includes exhibiting or inspecting the genitals. Many children take part in some sex play, typically with siblings or friends. Sex play with others usually decreases as children go through their elementary school years, yet they still may possess romantic interest in their peers. Curiosity levels remain high during these years, but it is not until adolescence that the main surge in sexual interest occurs.

Sexuality in late adulthood

Main article: Sexuality in older age

Changes in sexual behavior occur with age and while humans in late adulthood may be impaired by infirmity, relationship needs such as closeness and sensuality remain. Aging produces changes in sexual performance. Men are more likely to experience these changes than women. For men, orgasms become less frequent and usually need more direct stimulation to produce an erection. One out of four men, ages 65 to 80, had severe problems getting or keeping erections and this percentage increased with men over 80 years of age. Yet, the use of drugs to treat erectile dysfunction increases the expectations of older adults to have sex. Despite medical complications and opinions that people in late adulthood should be celibate, many older adults continue to engage in sexual intercourse. The results of a recent interview study involving 3,000 adults 57 to 85 years of age have shown that health plays a role in the level of older adults' sexual activity. The percentage of sexually active older adults is higher for those that are in good health than those in poor health. Older women may be less sexually active due to outliving their partners or men's tendency to marry younger women. While older adults engage in sexual activity, intimacy and companionship tend to be more important than sex.

Sexuality in history

Main article: History of human sexuality

The prehistoric Venus of Willendorf

Min: the ancient Egyptian god of fertility

Art and artifacts from past eras help to portray human perception of sexuality of the time.

Ancient civilizations

Many of the ancient civilisations provide evidence of developments in sexuality. In particular:

• Egypt: The couple Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum, now buried in a joint Fifth-dynasty (2498–2345 BC) era tomb in Saqqara, Egypt, are believed to be the oldest recorded same-sex couple in human history. The Ancient Egyptians related the cult of phallus with Osiris. When Osiris' body was cut in 13 pieces, Set scattered them all over Egypt and his wife Isis retrieved all of them except one, his penis, which was swallowed by a fish (see the Legend of Osiris and Isis). The phallus was a symbol of fertility, and the god Min was often depicted ithyphallic (with a penis).

• India: Ancient texts from Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism such as the Vedas reveal moral perspectives on sexuality, marriage and fertility prayers. The epics of ancient India, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, possibly from as early as 1400 BC, later influenced Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan and South East Asian culture. They indicate that sex was considered a mutual duty between a married couple, but where sex was considered a private affair. The most publicly known sexual literature of India are the texts of the sixty-four arts.
• Mesopotamia: In ancient Mesopotamia, Ishtar was the primary Goddess of life, men and women, nature and fertility, sex, sexual power and birth. Ishtar was also the goddess of war and weapons and any victory was celebrated in her temples with offerings of produce and money as well as through a feast and orgy of sex and intercourse with holy temple prostitutes.
• China: In the I Ching (The Book of Changes, a Chinese classic text dealing with what would be in the West termed metaphysics), sexual intercourse is one of two fundamental models used to explain the world. Heaven is described as having sexual intercourse with Earth. The male lovers of early Chinese men of great political power are mentioned in one of the earliest great works of philosophy and literature, the Zhuang Zi.
• Japan: In perhaps the earliest novel in the world, the Genji Monogatari (Tale of Genji), dating back to around the 11th century AD, eroticism is treated as a central part of the aesthetic life of members of the nobility.
• Greece: In ancient Greece, the phallus, often in the form of a herma, was an object of worship as a symbol of fertility. One ancient Greek male idea of female sexuality was that women envied penises of males. Wives were considered as commodity and instruments for bearing legitimate children. They had to compete sexually with eromenoi, hetaeras and slaves in their own homes.
• Rome: Ancient Roman civilization included celebrations associated with human reproductive organs. Over time there emerged institutionalization of voluntary sex as well as prostitution. This resulted in a virtual sexual caste system in Roman civilization – different grades and degrees of sexual relationships. Apart from the legally wedded spouses, a number of males used to have Delicatue, mistresses of wealthy and prominent men. The next were the Famosae, mostly the daughters and even wives of the wealthy families who enjoyed sex for its own sake. There was another class known as Lupae, willing to have sexual union with anyone for a price. Copae were the serving girls in the taverns and inns and who did not mind being hired as bedmates for the night by travelers.

Modern developments

Main article: Sexology

In contemporary academia, sexuality is studied in the fields of sexology and gender and sexuality studies, among many other fields.

Sexology, the study of sexual interests, behavior, and function, covers sexual development and sexual relationships including sexual intercourse. It also documents the sexualities of groups such as the disabled, children, and the elderly.

Alfred Kinsey became interested in the different forms of sexual practices around 1933 when he developed the Kinsey Scale, which ranges from 0 to 6, where 0 is exclusively heterosexual and 6 is exclusively homosexual. His Kinsey Reports starting with the publication of Sexual Behavior in the Human Male in 1948 and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female in 1953 contributed to the sexual revolution of the 1960s.

See also

• Index of human sexuality articles
• Sex magic
• Sexologies: European Journal of Sexual Health (Revue Européenne de Santé Sexuelle)
• Sexology
• Sexualization
• Mental roots of sexual orientation

External links

• American Sexuality Magazine
• Glossario di sessuologia clinica – Glossary of clinical sexology
• History of Surveys of Sexual Behavior from Encyclopedia of Behavioral Statistics
• International Encyclopedia of Sexuality full text
• Janssen, D. F., Growing Up Sexually. Volume I. World Reference Atlas [full text]
• National Sexuality Resource Center
• Durex Global Sex Survey 2005 at data360.org
• POPLINE is a searchable database of the world's reproductive health literature.
• The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality at the Kinsey Institute
• The Sexuality and Rights Institute
• The South and Southeast Asia Resource Centre on Sexuality
• MRI Video of Human Copulation
• "Naked Science: What's Sexy?". Naked Science. Episode 1. February 13, 2006. National Geographic Channel. {{cite episode}}: Unknown parameter |serieslink= ignored (|series-link= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |seriesno= ignored (|series-number= suggested) (help)

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