Turks in Europe: Difference between revisions
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====Balkan Turks==== |
====Balkan Turks==== |
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The conquest of the [[Balkans]] by the [[Ottomans]] set in motion important population movements of [[Turks]] brought over from [[Anatolia]] and [[Asia Minor]], establishing a firm Turkish base for further conquests in Europe.<ref name="Eminov 1997 loc=27">{{Harvnb|Eminov|1997|loc=27}}.</ref> Thus, the Ottomans used [[colonization]] as a very effective method to consolidate their position and power in the Balkans. The colonizers that were brought to the Balkans consisted of soldiers, nomads, farmers, artisans and [[merchants]], [[dervishes]], [[preachers]] and other religious functionaries, and administrative personnel. Densely populated Turkish colonies were established in the frontier regions of [[Thrace]], the [[Maritsa]] and the [[Tundzha]] valleys.<ref name="Eminov 1997 loc=27"/> In addition to voluntary migrations, throughout the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, the Ottoman authorities also used mass [[deportations]] ("sürgün") as a method of control over potentially rebellious individuals.<ref name="Eminov 1997 loc=28">{{Harvnb|Eminov|1997|loc=28}}.</ref> One of the greatest impacts of the Ottoman colonization process of the Balkans was felt in the [[urban]] centres, many towns became major centres for Turkish control and administration, with most [[Christians]] gradually withdrawing to the mountains. The Ottomans embarked on creating new towns and repopulating older towns that had suffered significant population decline and economic dislocation during the wars preceding the Ottoman conquests.<ref name="Eminov 1997 loc=28"/> Major Balkan towns, especially those on or near transportation and communication routes, were the focal point of Ottoman colonization in the Balkans. Most urban centres in the Balkans, especially in [[Thrace]], [[Macedonia]], [[Thessaly]], and [[Bulgaria]], achieved Muslim/Turkish majorities or substantial minorities soon after the completion of the conquest and remained overwhelmingly Muslim in composition into the eighteenth century, and in some areas such as |
The conquest of the [[Balkans]] by the [[Ottomans]] set in motion important population movements of [[Turks]] brought over from [[Anatolia]] and [[Asia Minor]], establishing a firm Turkish base for further conquests in Europe.<ref name="Eminov 1997 loc=27">{{Harvnb|Eminov|1997|loc=27}}.</ref> Thus, the Ottomans used [[colonization]] as a very effective method to consolidate their position and power in the Balkans. The colonizers that were brought to the Balkans consisted of soldiers, nomads, farmers, artisans and [[merchants]], [[dervishes]], [[preachers]] and other religious functionaries, and administrative personnel. Densely populated Turkish colonies were established in the frontier regions of [[Thrace]], the [[Maritsa]] and the [[Tundzha]] valleys.<ref name="Eminov 1997 loc=27"/> In addition to voluntary migrations, throughout the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, the Ottoman authorities also used mass [[deportations]] ("sürgün") as a method of control over potentially rebellious individuals.<ref name="Eminov 1997 loc=28">{{Harvnb|Eminov|1997|loc=28}}.</ref> One of the greatest impacts of the Ottoman colonization process of the Balkans was felt in the [[urban]] centres, many towns became major centres for Turkish control and administration, with most [[Christians]] gradually withdrawing to the mountains. The Ottomans embarked on creating new towns and repopulating older towns that had suffered significant population decline and economic dislocation during the wars preceding the Ottoman conquests.<ref name="Eminov 1997 loc=28"/> Major Balkan towns, especially those on or near transportation and communication routes, were the focal point of Ottoman colonization in the Balkans. Most urban centres in the Balkans, especially in [[Thrace]], [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], [[Thessaly]], and [[Bulgaria]], achieved Muslim/Turkish majorities or substantial minorities soon after the completion of the conquest and remained overwhelmingly Muslim in composition into the eighteenth century, and in some areas such as Macedonia and [[Bulgaria]] well into the nineteenth century.<ref name="Eminov 1997 loc=31">{{Harvnb|Eminov|1997|loc=31}}.</ref> However, in the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many Turks were displaced, most of them fleeing to Anatolia. At present, there is still significant Turkish minorities living in [[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]], [[Kosovo]], the [[Republic of Macedonia]], and [[Romania]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Kaser|2010|loc=88}}.</ref> |
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[[File:Turkish refugees sumla1877 wiki.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Bulgarian Turks]] in 1877.]] |
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[[File:TurcoMacedoniosExiliados--bulgariaherpeopl00monr.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Macedonian Turks]] in 1914.]] |
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[[File:Cypriot (Turkish) Muslim woman 1878.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Turkish Cypriot]] woman in 1878.]] |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" |
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=====Bulgarian Turks===== |
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| colspan=8 align="center" | Turkish colonization in the Balkans |
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{{main|Turks in Bulgaria}} |
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The colonisation of [[Bulgaria]] by the Turks was originally a place of exile for the unruly Turkish tribes;<ref name="Karpat 2002 loc=525">{{Harvnb|Karpat |
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! Region colonized !! Ottoman conquest and <br/> year of Turkish settlement !! Name of Turkish community !! Current status |
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|2002|loc=525}}.</ref> however, Bulgaria became the major area of Turkish settlement as a result of inducements offered to would-be settlers by religious institutions; hence, the mystic [[Sufi]] leaders (colonizing dervishes) played a leading role in the settlement. The first mass settlement took place in 1357 and was followed by others up until the nineteenth century. By 1570, the Muslim population in the [[Shumen]]-[[Silistra]]-[[Razgrad]] region increased by 300%, much of which were Turkish migrants from Anatolia who practiced a variety of crafts and trades.<ref name="Karpat 2002 loc=525"/> Turkish settlement reached its height during the eighteenth century. The newcomers mostly moved into the plains of north-eastern Bulgaria around [[Danube]] and the [[Black Sea]].<ref name="Panayi 1999 loc=24">{{Harvnb|Eminov|1999|loc=24}}.</ref> |
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| [[Bosnia]] || 1463 || [[Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Turks]] || The 1991 Bosnian census showed that there was a minority of 267 Turks.<ref>{{cite web|author=Federal Office of Statistics|title=Population grouped according to ethnicity, by censuses 1961-1991|url=http://www.fzs.ba/Dem/Popis/NacPopE.htm|accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> However current estimates suggest that there is actually 50,000 Turks living in the country.<ref name="Cole 2011 loc=368">{{Harvnb|Cole|2011|loc=368}}.</ref> |
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=====Kosovan Turks===== |
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{{main|Turks in Kosovo}} |
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| [[Bulgaria]] || 1396 || [[Turks in Bulgaria|Bulgarian Turks]] || 588,318, or 8.8%, of Bulgaria's population stated that they were Turks in the 2011 census.<ref>{{cite web |author=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria|year=2011|title=2011 Census (Final data)|url=http://www.nsi.bg/EPDOCS/Census2011final.pdf|location=|publisher=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria|page=4}}</ref> Other estimates suggests that there is between 750,000<ref name="Cole 2011 loc=368">{{Harvnb|Cole|2011|loc=368}}.</ref> to over 1 million Turks living in Bulgaria.<ref name=Novinite>{{cite web |author=Novinite|title=Scientists Raise Alarm over Apocalyptic Scenario for Bulgarian Ethnicity|url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=122441|accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref><ref name=TodaysZaman>{{cite web |author=Todays Zaman|title=President Gül shares Bulgarian trip on Twitter|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-250474-president-gul-shares-bulgarian-trip-on-twitter.html|accessdate=2011-07-21}}</ref> |
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Turkish migration to [[Kosovo]] began in the early fourteenth century under [[King Milutin]]; however, the first substantial wave of Turkish immigrants dates from the period 1389-1455 when, during and after the Ottoman conquest, soldiers, officials, and merchants began to make their appearance in major towns.<ref name="Elsie 2010 loc=276">{{Harvnb|Elsie|2010|loc=276}}.</ref> |
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| [[Rhodes]] (in [[Greece]]) <br/> [[Kos]] (in Greece)|| 1523 || [[Turks of the Dodecanese|Dodecanese Turks]] || Some 5,000 Turks live in the Dodecanese islands of Rhodes and Kos.<ref>{{Harvnb|Clogg|2002|loc=84}}.</ref> |
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=====Macedonian Turks===== |
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{{main|Turks in the Republic of Macedonia}} |
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| [[Kosovo]] || 1389 || [[Turks in Kosovo|Kosovan Turks]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Elsie|2010|loc=276}}.</ref> || There is approximately 50,000 Kosovan Turks living in the country, mostly in [[Mamuša]], [[Prizren]], and [[Priština]].<ref name="Cole 2011 loc=368"/> |
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[[Skopje]] had been taken into Ottoman rule in 1392, and by 1394, the Ottomans had completed their victory over [[Macedonia]]. The Turks began to settle into various regions of Macedonia to build new villages and towns.<ref>{{Harvnb|Evans|2010|loc=11}}.</ref> After the Ottoman rule had ended in 1912, many Turks migrated to Turkey, especially after [[WWI]] as suppression of Turkish culture and the persecution of Turks became more common.<ref>{{Harvnb|Evans|2010|loc=228}}.</ref> |
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| [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] || 1392 || [[Turks in the Republic of Macedonia|Macedonian Turks]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Evans|2010|loc=11}}.</ref> || The 2002 Macedonian census states that there was 77,959 Macedonian Turks, forming about 4% of the total population and constituing a majority in [[Centar Župa]] and [[Plasnica]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Republic of Macedonia State Statistical Office|2005|loc=34}}.</ref> However, academic estimates suggest that they actually number between 170,000-200,000.<ref name="Cole 2011 loc=369">{{Harvnb|Cole|2011|loc=369}}.</ref><ref name="Abrahams 1996 loc=53">{{Harvnb|Abrahams|1996|loc=53}}.</ref> Furthermore, about 200,000 Macedonian Turks have migrated to Turkey during [[WWI]] and [[WWII]] due to persecutions and discrimination<ref>{{Harvnb|Evans|2010|loc=228}}.</ref> |
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=====Romanian Turks===== |
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{{main|Turks of Romania}} |
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| [[Montenegro]] || 1496 || [[Turks in Montenegro|Montenegrin Turks]] || There were 104 Montenegrin Turks according to the 2011 census.<ref name="Monstat">{{cite web |author=Statistical Office of Montenegro|title=Population of Montenegro by sex, type of settlement, etnicity, religion and mother tongue, per municipalities|url=http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf|page=7|accessdate=2011-09-21}}</ref> The majority left their homes and migrated to [[Turkey]] in th 1900s.<ref name="TodaysZaman">{{cite web |author=Todays Zaman|title=Turks in Montenegrin town not afraid to show identity anymore |url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-257530-turks-in-montenegrin-town-not-afraid-to-show-identity-anymore.html|accessdate=2011-09-21}}</ref> |
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The presence of the [[Turks in Romania]] goes back to the thirteenth century when 12,000 Turks settled in the [[Dobrogea]] region of [[Romania]].<ref name="Brozba 2010 loc=48">{{Harvnb|Brozba|2010|loc=48}}.</ref> Another wave of Turkish colonisers emerged in the same region during the fifteenth century and by the seventeenth century most of the settlements in Dobrogea had Turkish names.<ref name="Brozba 2010 loc=48"/> In the nineteenth century, [[Turks]] and [[Tatars]] were more numerous in Dobrogea than the [[Romanians]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Boia|2001|loc=20}}.</ref> |
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| [[Dobruja]] (in [[Romania]]) || 1388 || [[Turks of Romania|Romanian Turks]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Brozba|2010|loc=48}}.</ref> || There were 28,226 Romanian Turks living in the country according to the 2011 Romanian census.<ref>{{Harvnb|National Institute of Statistics|2011|loc=10}}.</ref> However, academic estimates suggest that the community numbers between 55,000<ref name="Cole 2011 loc=368"/><ref name="Phinnemore 2006 loc=157">{{Harvnb|Phinnemore|2006|loc=157}}.</ref> and 80,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Constantin|Goschin|Dragusin|2008|loc=59}}.</ref> |
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=====Western Thrace Turks===== |
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{{main|Turks of Western Thrace}} |
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| [[Western Thrace]] (in [[Greece]]) || 1354 || [[Turks of Western Thrace|Western Thrace Turks]] || About 120,000-130,000 Western Thrace Turks are currently living in Western Thrace.<ref>{{Harvnb|Whitman|1990|loc=i}}.</ref> Between 300,000 to 400,000 have immigrated to [[Turkey]] since 1923.<ref>{{Harvnb|Whitman|1990|loc=2}}.</ref> |
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The [[Turks of Western Thrace]] are [[Turkish people|ethnic Turks]] who live in [[Western Thrace]], in the north-eastern part of [[Greece]]. Western Thrace became part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1354 and remained in Turkish hands until 1913. At this time, the Turks outnumbered the Greek community four to one and owned close to 84% of the land. By August 31, 1913 the Turks of Western Thrace had formed the first 'Turkish republic', the [[Provisional Government of Western Thrace]];<ref>{{Harvnb|Ataöv|1992|loc=90}}.</ref> however, it was taken over by the [[Kingdom of Bulgaria]] on October 25, 1913, which had been victorious in the [[First Balkan War]]. The region was then occupied by [[France]] at the end of the [[First World War]], following the defeat of Bulgaria, and it passed into Greek hands under the [[Treaty of Sèvres]] in August 1920.<ref>{{Harvnb|Panayi|1999|loc=51}}.</ref> By 1923, the population of [[Western Thrace]] was 191,699, of whom 129,120 were [[Turkish people|Turks]] (67%) and 33,910 were [[Greeks]](18%), the remaining 28,669 were mostly [[Bulgarians]], along with small numbers of [[Jews]] and [[Armenians]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Whitman|1990|loc=1}}.</ref> Under a protocol of the same year, the Turks of Western Thrace were exempted from the 1922-1923 [[exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey]] and were granted rights within the framework of the [[Lausanne Treaty]]. However, since 1923, between 300,000 to 400,000 Turks have left Western Thrace most of which have immigrated to [[Turkey]].<ref name="Hirschon 2003 loc=107">{{Harvnb|Hirschon|2003|loc=107}}.</ref><ref name="Whitman 1990 loc=2">{{Harvnb|Whitman|1990|loc=2}}.</ref> Today, the Turkish community of Western Thrace is believed to number at least 120,000.<ref>{{Harvnb|Whitman|1990|loc=i}}.</ref> |
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====Meskhetian Turks==== |
====Meskhetian Turks==== |
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====Turkish Cypriots==== |
====Turkish Cypriots==== |
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{{main|Turkish Cypriots}} |
{{main|Turkish Cypriots}} |
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The Ottoman Turks conquered [[Cyprus]] in 1571 when they began a campaign which led to the fall of [[Nicosia]] in September 1570 and of [[Famagusta]] in August 1571.<ref name="Fisher 2003 loc=250">{{Harvnb|Fisher|2003|loc=250}}.</ref> By 1571, about 30,000 Turkish settlers, which included soldiers who were involved in the conquest and their families, or agricultural colonizers, particularly from the [[Konya]] region, were given land on the island.<ref name="Drury 2003 loc=1981">{{Harvnb|Drury|1981|loc=290}}.</ref><ref name="Fisher 2003 loc=250"/> Thus, a strong Turkish element was formed in Cyprus’s population, which was later reinforced by immigration from Asia Minor.<ref name="Fisher 2003 loc=250"/> |
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=== Modern migration === |
=== Modern migration === |
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{{see also|Turkish Cypriots|Turks in the United Kingdom}} |
{{see also|Turkish Cypriots|Turks in the United Kingdom}} |
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[[Turkish Cypriots]] started to immigrate from [[Cyprus]] to the [[United Kingdom]] in the early 1920s when the [[British Empire]] annexed Cyprus in 1914 and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown.<ref name="Yilmaz 2005 loc=153">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Yilmaz|2005|loc=153}}</ref> Many Turkish Cypriots went to the United Kingdom as students and tourists whilst others left the island due to the harsh economic and political life during the [[British Colony]] of Cyprus.<ref name="Sonyel 2000 loc=147">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sonyel|2000|loc=147}}</ref> Emigration to the United Kingdom continued to increase when the [[Great Depression]] of 1929 brought [[economic depression]] to Cyprus, with unemployment and low wages being a significant issue.<ref name="Hüssein 2007 loc=16">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Hüssein|2007|loc=16}}</ref><ref name="Yilmaz 2005 loc=154">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Yilmaz|2005|loc=154}}</ref><ref name="Hüssein 2007 loc=16"/> During the [[Second World War]], the number of Turkish run businesses increased which created a demand for more Turkish Cypriot workers.<ref name="Ansari 2004 loc=151">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Ansari|2004|loc=151}}</ref> Thus, throughout the 1950s, Turkish Cypriots emigrated to the United Kingdom for economic reasons and by 1958 the number of Turkish Cypriots was estimated to be 8,500.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Ansari|2004|loc=154}}</ref> Their numbers increased each year as rumours about immigration restrictions appeared in much of the Cypriot media.<ref name="Yilmaz 2005 loc=154"/> |
[[Turkish Cypriots]] started to immigrate from [[Cyprus]] to the [[United Kingdom]] in the early 1920s when the [[British Empire]] annexed Cyprus in 1914 and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown.<ref name="Yilmaz 2005 loc=153">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Yilmaz|2005|loc=153}}</ref> Many Turkish Cypriots went to the United Kingdom as students and tourists whilst others left the island due to the harsh economic and political life during the [[British Colony]] of Cyprus.<ref name="Sonyel 2000 loc=147">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sonyel|2000|loc=147}}</ref> Emigration to the United Kingdom continued to increase when the [[Great Depression]] of 1929 brought [[economic depression]] to Cyprus, with unemployment and low wages being a significant issue.<ref name="Hüssein 2007 loc=16">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Hüssein|2007|loc=16}}</ref><ref name="Yilmaz 2005 loc=154">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Yilmaz|2005|loc=154}}</ref><ref name="Hüssein 2007 loc=16"/> During the [[Second World War]], the number of Turkish run businesses increased which created a demand for more Turkish Cypriot workers.<ref name="Ansari 2004 loc=151">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Ansari|2004|loc=151}}</ref> Thus, throughout the 1950s, Turkish Cypriots emigrated to the United Kingdom for economic reasons and by 1958 the number of Turkish Cypriots was estimated to be 8,500.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Ansari|2004|loc=154}}</ref> Their numbers increased each year as rumours about immigration restrictions appeared in much of the Cypriot media.<ref name="Yilmaz 2005 loc=154"/> |
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[[File:Kibrisyur.jpg|thumb|right|250px|There is about 300,000 [[Turkish Cypriots]], out of a total of 500,000 [[British Turks]], living in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="Home Affairs Committee 2011 loc=Ev 34"/> |
[[File:Kibrisyur.jpg|thumb|right|250px|There is about 300,000 to 350,000 [[Turkish Cypriots]], out of a total of 500,000 [[British Turks]], living in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="Home Affairs Committee 2011 loc=Ev 34"/><ref name=Hurriyet>{{cite web|author=Hurriyet|title=İngiltere'deki Türkler |
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Furthermore, the 1950s saw the arrival of many more Turkish Cypriots to the United Kingdom who felt vulnerable as they had cause for concern about the political future of the island.<ref name="Ansari 2004 loc=151"/> This was first evident when the [[Greek Cypriots]] held a referendum in 1950 in which 95.7% of eligible Greek Cypriot voters cast their ballots in supporting a fight aimed at uniting Cyprus with [[Greece]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Panteli|1990|loc=151}}</ref> Hence, Turkish Cypriots fled to the United Kingdom due to the [[EOKA]] terrorists and its aim of [[Enosis]].<ref name="Sonyel 2000 loc=147"/> By the 1960s, inter-ethnic fighting broke out and by 1964 some 25,000 Turkish Cypriots became internally displaced, accounting to about a fifth of their population;<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Cassia|2007|loc=236}}</ref><ref name="Kliot 2007 loc=59">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Kliot|2007|loc=59}}</ref> furthermore, approximately 60,000 Turkish Cypriots were forcefully moved into [[Turkish Cypriot enclaves]] within Cyprus.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Tocci|2004|loc=53}}</ref> This period in Cypriot history resulted in an [[Emigration|exodus]] of more Turkish Cypriots to the United Kingdom.<ref name="Sonyel 2000 loc=147"/> Other reasons for the continued migration to the United Kingdom was because of the economic gap which was widening in Cyprus. The Greek Cypriots were increasingly taking control of the country’s major institutions causing the Turkish Cypriots to become economically disadvantaged.<ref name="Ansari 2004 loc=151"/> Thus, the political and economic unrest in Cyprus after 1964 sharply increased the number of Turkish Cypriot immigrants to the United Kingdom.<ref name="Yilmaz 2005 loc=154"/> Many of these early migrants worked in the clothing industry in London, where both men and women could work together- [[sewing]] was a skill which the community had already acquired in Cyprus.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bridgwood|1995|loc=34}}</ref> Turkish Cypriots were concentrated mainly in the north-east of London and specialised in the heavy-wear sector, such as coats and tailored garments.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Panayiotopoulos |Dreef|2002|loc=52}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=London Evening Standard|title=Turkish and proud to be here |url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-931666-turkish-and-proud-to-be-here.do|accessdate=2010-10-02|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5vvnHkkSt |archivedate = 2011-01-22|deadurl=no}}</ref> This sector offered work opportunities where poor knowledge of the English language was not a problem and where self-employment was a possibility.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Strüder|2003|loc=12}}</ref> |
Furthermore, the 1950s saw the arrival of many more Turkish Cypriots to the United Kingdom who felt vulnerable as they had cause for concern about the political future of the island.<ref name="Ansari 2004 loc=151"/> This was first evident when the [[Greek Cypriots]] held a referendum in 1950 in which 95.7% of eligible Greek Cypriot voters cast their ballots in supporting a fight aimed at uniting Cyprus with [[Greece]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Panteli|1990|loc=151}}</ref> Hence, Turkish Cypriots fled to the United Kingdom due to the [[EOKA]] terrorists and its aim of [[Enosis]].<ref name="Sonyel 2000 loc=147"/> By the 1960s, inter-ethnic fighting broke out and by 1964 some 25,000 Turkish Cypriots became internally displaced, accounting to about a fifth of their population;<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Cassia|2007|loc=236}}</ref><ref name="Kliot 2007 loc=59">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Kliot|2007|loc=59}}</ref> furthermore, approximately 60,000 Turkish Cypriots were forcefully moved into [[Turkish Cypriot enclaves]] within Cyprus.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Tocci|2004|loc=53}}</ref> This period in Cypriot history resulted in an [[Emigration|exodus]] of more Turkish Cypriots to the United Kingdom.<ref name="Sonyel 2000 loc=147"/> Other reasons for the continued migration to the United Kingdom was because of the economic gap which was widening in Cyprus. The Greek Cypriots were increasingly taking control of the country’s major institutions causing the Turkish Cypriots to become economically disadvantaged.<ref name="Ansari 2004 loc=151"/> Thus, the political and economic unrest in Cyprus after 1964 sharply increased the number of Turkish Cypriot immigrants to the United Kingdom.<ref name="Yilmaz 2005 loc=154"/> Many of these early migrants worked in the clothing industry in London, where both men and women could work together- [[sewing]] was a skill which the community had already acquired in Cyprus.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bridgwood|1995|loc=34}}</ref> Turkish Cypriots were concentrated mainly in the north-east of London and specialised in the heavy-wear sector, such as coats and tailored garments.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Panayiotopoulos |Dreef|2002|loc=52}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=London Evening Standard|title=Turkish and proud to be here |url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-931666-turkish-and-proud-to-be-here.do|accessdate=2010-10-02|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5vvnHkkSt |archivedate = 2011-01-22|deadurl=no}}</ref> This sector offered work opportunities where poor knowledge of the English language was not a problem and where self-employment was a possibility.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Strüder|2003|loc=12}}</ref> |
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====Mainland Turkish migration to Western and Northern Europe (1960s-present)==== |
====Mainland Turkish migration to Western and Northern Europe (1960s-present)==== |
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Modern migration of mainland Turks to Europe began with the bilateral agreements signed between [[Germany]] and [[Turkey]] in 1961. This led to other industrial countries in Europe, namely [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[United Kingdom]], attracting Turkish workers. |
Modern migration of mainland Turks to Europe began with the bilateral agreements signed between [[Germany]] and [[Turkey]] in 1961. This led to other industrial countries in Europe, namely [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[United Kingdom]], attracting Turkish workers. |
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[[File:Turkisch-day-in-Berlin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Turks in Germany]] number about 4 million,<ref name=Germany.info>{{cite web |author=Germany.Info|year=2011|title=Immigration and Cultural Issues between Germany and its Turkish Population Remain Complex|url=http://www.germany.info/Vertretung/usa/en/10__Press__Media/03__Trips/Nachwuchs__2011/Domfeh__S.html|location=|publisher=German Missions in the United States}}</ref> which constitutes the largest Turkish community in Western Europe as well as the largest within the [[Turkish diaspora]].]] |
[[File:Turkisch-day-in-Berlin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Turks in Germany]] number about 4 million,<ref name=Germany.info>{{cite web |author=Germany.Info|year=2011|title=Immigration and Cultural Issues between Germany and its Turkish Population Remain Complex|url=http://www.germany.info/Vertretung/usa/en/10__Press__Media/03__Trips/Nachwuchs__2011/Domfeh__S.html|location=|publisher=German Missions in the United States}}</ref> which constitutes the largest Turkish community in Western Europe as well as the largest within the [[Turkish diaspora]].]] |
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=====The "gastarbeiters" (guest workers)===== |
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| {{flag|Austria}} || 350,000<ref>{{Cite news|author=BBC|title=Turkey's ambassador to Austria prompts immigration spat|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11725311|accessdate=2010-11-10|work=BBC News|date=2010-11-10}}</ref> 500,000<ref>{{cite web|author=Andreas Mölzer|title=In Österreich leben geschätzte 500.000 Türken, aber kaum mehr als 10–12.000 Slowenen|url=http://www.andreas-moelzer.at/index.php?id=24|accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=CBN|title=Turkey's Islamic Ambitions Grip Austria|url=http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/world/2010/April/Turkeys-Mulism-Influence-in-Austria/|accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> || [[Turks in Austria]] || [[List of Austrian Turks]] |
| {{flag|Austria}} || 350,000<ref>{{Cite news|author=BBC|title=Turkey's ambassador to Austria prompts immigration spat|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11725311|accessdate=2010-11-10|work=BBC News|date=2010-11-10}}</ref> 500,000<ref>{{cite web|author=Andreas Mölzer|title=In Österreich leben geschätzte 500.000 Türken, aber kaum mehr als 10–12.000 Slowenen|url=http://www.andreas-moelzer.at/index.php?id=24|accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=CBN|title=Turkey's Islamic Ambitions Grip Austria|url=http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/world/2010/April/Turkeys-Mulism-Influence-in-Austria/|accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> || [[Turks in Austria]] || [[List of Austrian Turks]] |
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| {{flag|Azerbaijan}}{{Cref|a}} || 90,000-110,000<ref name="Aydıngün 2006 loc=13"/> || [[Turks in Azerbaijan]] || |
| {{flag|Azerbaijan}}{{Cref|a}} || 90,000-110,000 (Meskhetian Turks)<ref name="Aydıngün 2006 loc=13"/> || [[Turks in Azerbaijan]] || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Belarus}} || 154 || || |
| {{flag|Belarus}} || 154 || || |
||
| Line 123: | Line 132: | ||
| {{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} || 50,000<ref name="Cole 2011 loc=368">{{Harvnb|Cole|2011|loc=368}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Ethnologue|title=Languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=BA|accessdate=2010-06-03}}</ref> || [[Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina]] || |
| {{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} || 50,000<ref name="Cole 2011 loc=368">{{Harvnb|Cole|2011|loc=368}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Ethnologue|title=Languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=BA|accessdate=2010-06-03}}</ref> || [[Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina]] || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Bulgaria}} || 588,318<ref>{{cite web |author=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria|year=2011|title=2011 Census (Final data)|url=http://www.nsi.bg/EPDOCS/Census2011final.pdf|publisher=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria|page=4}}</ref>-1,000,000<ref |
| {{flag|Bulgaria}} || 588,318<ref>{{cite web |author=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria|year=2011|title=2011 Census (Final data)|url=http://www.nsi.bg/EPDOCS/Census2011final.pdf|publisher=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria|page=4}}</ref>-1,000,000<ref name=Novinite/>-1,500,000<ref name=TodaysZaman/> || [[Turks in Bulgaria]] || [[List of Bulgarian Turks]] |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Croatia}} || 2,000<ref>{{cite web |author=Zaman|title=Altepe'den Hırvat Müslümanlara moral|url=http://www.zaman.com.tr/haber.do?haberno=1165160&title=altepeden-hirvat-muslumanlara-moral|accessdate=2011-09-09}}</ref> || || |
| {{flag|Croatia}} || 2,000<ref>{{cite web |author=Zaman|title=Altepe'den Hırvat Müslümanlara moral|url=http://www.zaman.com.tr/haber.do?haberno=1165160&title=altepeden-hirvat-muslumanlara-moral|accessdate=2011-09-09}}</ref> || || |
||
| Line 137: | Line 146: | ||
| {{flag|Finland}} || 7,000 || [[Turks in Finland]] || |
| {{flag|Finland}} || 7,000 || [[Turks in Finland]] || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|France}} || 500,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Hunter|2002|loc=6}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi|2009|loc=3}}.</ref>-600,000<ref>{{cite web |
| {{flag|France}} || 500,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Hunter|2002|loc=6}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi|2009|loc=3}}.</ref>-600,000<ref>{{cite web|author=Todays Zaman|title=France and its world famous capital 'Paris'|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action;jsessionid=30D675BD45926B2A5DBBF9F6C124F03E?newsId=210643|accessdate=2011-05-01}}</ref> 1,000,000<ref>http://www2.dha.com.tr/haberdetay.asp?Newsid=217705</ref><ref name=fransaditib>{{cite web |author=Fransa Diyanet İşleri Türk İslam Birliği|title=2011 YILI DİTİB KADIN KOLLARI GENEL TOPLANTISI PARİS DİTİB’DE YAPILDI|url=http://www.fransaditib.com/?Syf=18&Hbr=255110|accessdate=2012-02-15}}</ref> || [[Turks in France]] || [[List of French Turks]] |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Georgia}}{{Cref|c}} || |
| {{flag|Georgia}}{{Cref|c}} || 600-1,000 (Meskhetian Turks)<ref name="Aydıngün 2006 loc=13"/> || [[Meskhetian Turks|Turks in Georgia]] || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Germany}} || 3,500,000<ref name=GermanEmbassy>{{cite web |author=Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany London|title=Turkey: strategically important partner|url=http://www.london.diplo.de/Vertretung/london/en/03/__Political__News/Westerwelle/Tuerkei__Seite.html|accessdate=2010-09-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=The Local|title='Learn the language,' Turkish minister tells countrymen in Germany|url=http://www.thelocal.de/national/20101012-30425.html|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> - 4,000,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Kötter|Vonthein|Günaydin|Müller|2003|loc=55}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Haviland|Prins|Walrath|McBride|2010|loc=675}}.</ref> 6,000,000<ref>http://www.kulturrat.de/dokumente/interkultur/interkultur12.pdf</ref>|| [[Turks in Germany]] || [[List of German Turks]] |
| {{flag|Germany}} || 3,500,000<ref name=GermanEmbassy>{{cite web |author=Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany London|title=Turkey: strategically important partner|url=http://www.london.diplo.de/Vertretung/london/en/03/__Political__News/Westerwelle/Tuerkei__Seite.html|accessdate=2010-09-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=The Local|title='Learn the language,' Turkish minister tells countrymen in Germany|url=http://www.thelocal.de/national/20101012-30425.html|accessdate=2010-10-28}}</ref> - 4,000,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Kötter|Vonthein|Günaydin|Müller|2003|loc=55}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Haviland|Prins|Walrath|McBride|2010|loc=675}}.</ref> 6,000,000<ref>http://www.kulturrat.de/dokumente/interkultur/interkultur12.pdf</ref>|| [[Turks in Germany]] || [[List of German Turks]] |
||
| Line 153: | Line 162: | ||
| {{flag|Italy}} || 21,000<ref>{{cite web |author=Sabah|title=Eyvah Türkler geldi!|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/kultur_sanat/sinema/2011/09/22/eyvah-turkler-geldi|accessdate=2011-10-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=ntvmsnbc|title=Roma'da bir Türk Film Festivali|url=http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25255344/|accessdate=2011-10-24}}</ref> || [[Turks in Italy]] || |
| {{flag|Italy}} || 21,000<ref>{{cite web |author=Sabah|title=Eyvah Türkler geldi!|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/kultur_sanat/sinema/2011/09/22/eyvah-turkler-geldi|accessdate=2011-10-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=ntvmsnbc|title=Roma'da bir Türk Film Festivali|url=http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25255344/|accessdate=2011-10-24}}</ref> || [[Turks in Italy]] || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Kazakhstan}}{{Cref|d}} || 150,000<ref name="Aydıngün 2006 loc=13"/> || [[Turks in Kazakhstan]] || |
| {{flag|Kazakhstan}}{{Cref|d}} || 150,000 (Meskhetian Turks)<ref name="Aydıngün 2006 loc=13"/> || [[Turks in Kazakhstan]] || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Kosovo}}{{Cref|e}} || 50,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Warrander|Knaus|2008|loc=32}}.</ref><ref name="Cole 2011 loc=368"/>-100,000<ref>http://www.medya73.com/kosovada-ilk-turk-bayrami-haberi-22963.html</ref> || [[Turks in Kosovo]] || |
| {{flag|Kosovo}}{{Cref|e}} || 50,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Warrander|Knaus|2008|loc=32}}.</ref><ref name="Cole 2011 loc=368"/>-100,000<ref>http://www.medya73.com/kosovada-ilk-turk-bayrami-haberi-22963.html</ref> || [[Turks in Kosovo]] || |
||
| Line 165: | Line 174: | ||
| {{flag|Luxembourg}} || 450<ref>{{cite web |author=du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg|title= Etat civil et population du Luxembourg: Ventilation par nationalité du répertoire|url=http://www.ecp.public.lu/repertoire/stats/|accessdate= 2010-06-03}}</ref> || || |
| {{flag|Luxembourg}} || 450<ref>{{cite web |author=du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg|title= Etat civil et population du Luxembourg: Ventilation par nationalité du répertoire|url=http://www.ecp.public.lu/repertoire/stats/|accessdate= 2010-06-03}}</ref> || || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Republic of Macedonia}} || 200,000<ref |
| {{flag|Republic of Macedonia}} || 170,000-200,000<ref name="Abrahams 1996 loc=53"/><ref name="Cole 2011 loc=369"/><ref>{{cite web |author=Ethnologue languages|title=Turkish|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tur|accessdate=2009-03-25}}</ref> || [[Turks in the Republic of Macedonia]] || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Malta}} || 53<ref>{{Harvnb|Amore|2005|loc=15}}.</ref> || || |
| {{flag|Malta}} || 53<ref>{{Harvnb|Amore|2005|loc=15}}.</ref> || || |
||
| Line 185: | Line 194: | ||
| {{flag|Romania}} || 55,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Phinnemore|2006|loc=4}}.</ref>-80,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Constantin|Goschin|Dragusin|2008|loc=59}}.</ref> || [[Turks in Romania]] || |
| {{flag|Romania}} || 55,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Phinnemore|2006|loc=4}}.</ref>-80,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Constantin|Goschin|Dragusin|2008|loc=59}}.</ref> || [[Turks in Romania]] || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Russia}}{{Cref|f}} || 120,000-150,000<ref>{{ |
| {{flag|Russia}}{{Cref|f}} || 120,000-150,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Ryazantsev|2009|loc=159}}.</ref> || [[Turks in Russia]] || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|San Marino}} || || || |
| {{flag|San Marino}} || || || |
||
| Line 205: | Line 214: | ||
| {{flag|Turkey}} || 55,000,000-60,000,000<ref>{{cite web |author=CIA The World Factbook|title=Turkey|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html|accessdate=2011-06-13}}</ref> || [[Turkish people]] || [[List of Turks]] |
| {{flag|Turkey}} || 55,000,000-60,000,000<ref>{{cite web |author=CIA The World Factbook|title=Turkey|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html|accessdate=2011-06-13}}</ref> || [[Turkish people]] || [[List of Turks]] |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|Ukraine}} || 10,000<ref>{{Harvnb|Aydıngün|2006|loc=14}}.</ref> || [[Turks in Ukraine]] || |
| {{flag|Ukraine}} || 10,000 (Meskhetian Turks)<ref>{{Harvnb|Aydıngün|2006|loc=14}}.</ref> || [[Turks in Ukraine]] || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| {{flag|United Kingdom}} || 500,000 (including 300,000-350,000 [[Turkish Cypriots]])<ref name="Home Affairs Committee 2011 loc=Ev 34"/><ref name=Hurriyet/> || [[British Turks|Turks in the United Kingdom]] || [[List of British Turks]] |
|||
| {{flag|United Kingdom}} || 500,000<ref>{{cite web |author=Home Affairs Committee|year=2011|title=Implications for the Justice and Home Affairs area of the accession of Turkey to the European Union|url=http://www.statewatch.org/news/2011/aug/eu-hasc-turkey-jha-report.pdf|location=|publisher=The Stationery Office|page=Ev 34}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=The Guardian|title=UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/aug/01/turkish-immigration-possibilities-assessed|first=Alan |last=Travis|work=The Guardian|date= 1 August 2011|accessdate=1 August 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/60cAjdcde|archivedate=2011-08-01|deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Hurriyet|title=İngiltere'deki Türkler |
|||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | |||
|- |
|- |
||
| '''Total''' || |
| '''Total''' || '''Approximately 9,000,000''' (not including Turkey)<ref name="Cole 2011 loc=367"/> || || |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|} |
|} |
||
| Line 258: | Line 265: | ||
*{{citation |last=Cornell|first=Svante E.|year=2001|title= Small nations and great powers: a study of ethnopolitical conflict in the Caucasus |
*{{citation |last=Cornell|first=Svante E.|year=2001|title= Small nations and great powers: a study of ethnopolitical conflict in the Caucasus |
||
|place=|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0700711627}}. |
|place=|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0700711627}}. |
||
*{{citation |last=Drury|first=Michael P.|year=1981|chapter=The political geography of Cyprus|title=Change and Development in the Middle East: Essays in Honour of W.B. Fisher|editor1-last=Clarke|editor1-first=John Innes|editor2-last=Bowen-Jones|editor2-first=Howard (eds.)|place=|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0416710808}}. |
|||
*{{citation |last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=2010|title=Historical Dictionary of Kosovo|place=|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=0810872315}}. |
*{{citation |last=Elsie|first=Robert|year=2010|title=Historical Dictionary of Kosovo|place=|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=0810872315}}. |
||
*{{citation |last=Eminov|first=Ali|year=1997|title=Turkish and other Muslim minorities in Bulgaria|place=|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=1850653194}}. |
*{{citation |last=Eminov|first=Ali|year=1997|title=Turkish and other Muslim minorities in Bulgaria|place=|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=1850653194}}. |
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| Line 263: | Line 271: | ||
*{{citation |last=Evans|first=Thammy|year=2010|title=Macedonia|place=|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=1841622974}}. |
*{{citation |last=Evans|first=Thammy|year=2010|title=Macedonia|place=|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=1841622974}}. |
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*{{citation |last1=Extra|first1=Guus| last2=Gorter | first2=Durk |author-link=|year=2001|title=The other languages of Europe: demographic, sociolinguistic, and educational perspectives|place=|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=1853595098}}. |
*{{citation |last1=Extra|first1=Guus| last2=Gorter | first2=Durk |author-link=|year=2001|title=The other languages of Europe: demographic, sociolinguistic, and educational perspectives|place=|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=1853595098}}. |
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* {{citation |last=Fisher|first=W.B|year=2003|chapter=Cyprus: Physical and Social Geography|title=The Middle East and North Africa, Volume 50|editor-last=Lucy|editor-first=Dean (ed.)|place=|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1857431847}}. |
|||
*{{citation|last=Fürstentum Liechtenstein|first=|year=2007|title=Liechtenstein-Turkey |url=http://www.llv.li/pdf-llv-skoe-bilateral-tuerkei-praesentation-en.pdf|place=|publisher=Fürstentum Liechtenstein|isbn=}} |
*{{citation|last=Fürstentum Liechtenstein|first=|year=2007|title=Liechtenstein-Turkey |url=http://www.llv.li/pdf-llv-skoe-bilateral-tuerkei-praesentation-en.pdf|place=|publisher=Fürstentum Liechtenstein|isbn=}} |
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*{{citation |last=Goltz|first=Thomas|year=2009|title=Georgia Diary: A Chronicle of War and Political Chaos in the Post-Soviet Caucasus |
*{{citation |last=Goltz|first=Thomas|year=2009|title=Georgia Diary: A Chronicle of War and Political Chaos in the Post-Soviet Caucasus |
||
Revision as of 00:51, 17 February 2012
The Turks in Europe (often called Euro-Turks) (Turkish: Avrupa Türkleri) refers to ethnic Turks living in Europe. Current estimates suggests that there is approximately 9 million Turks living in Europe, excluding those who live in Turkey.[1]
Turks have had a long history in Europe beginning in the Ottoman Empire when they began to migrate to Southeast Europe (see the Ottoman territories in Europe) which, other than Turkey, created Turkish minorities in Bulgaria (Bulgarian Turks), Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnian Turks), Cyprus (Turkish Cypriots), Georgia (Meskhetian Turks), Greece (Cretan Turks, Dodecanese Turks, and Western Thrace Turks), Kosovo (Kosovan Turks), the Republic of Macedonia (Macedonian Turks), and Romania (Romanian Turks).
Modern immigration of Turks to Western Europe began with Turkish Cypriots migrating to the United Kingdom in the early 1920s when the British Empire annexed Cyprus in 1914 and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown. However, Turkish Cypriot migration increased significantly in the 1940s and 1950s due to the Cyprus conflict. Conversely, in 1944, Turks who were forcefully deported from Meskheti in Georgia during the Second World War, known as the Meskhetian Turks, settled in Eastern Europe (especially in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Ukraine). By the early 1960s, migration to Western and Northern Europe increased significantly from Turkey when Turkish "guest workers" arrived under a "Labour Export Agreement" with Germany in 1961, followed by a similar agreement with the Netherlands, Belgium and Austria in 1964; France in 1965; and Sweden in 1967.[2][3][4] More recently, Bulgarian Turks, Romanian Turks, and Western Thrace Turks have also migrated to Western Europe.
History
Ottoman migration
During the rule of the Ottoman Empire (1299-1923), Turkish settlers began to move into the Ottoman territories in Europe as part of the Turkish expansion, because these Turkish communities migrated to these countries during the Ottoman rule, they are not considered part of the modern Turkish diaspora. However, these populations, which have different nationalities, still share the same ethnic, linguistic, cultural and religious origins as today's Turkish nationals. As early as the 13th centry, Turkic Muslim slaves from Central Asia (Mameluks) had been sold to Italian city states by Arab traders. [5]
Balkan Turks
The conquest of the Balkans by the Ottomans set in motion important population movements of Turks brought over from Anatolia and Asia Minor, establishing a firm Turkish base for further conquests in Europe.[6] Thus, the Ottomans used colonization as a very effective method to consolidate their position and power in the Balkans. The colonizers that were brought to the Balkans consisted of soldiers, nomads, farmers, artisans and merchants, dervishes, preachers and other religious functionaries, and administrative personnel. Densely populated Turkish colonies were established in the frontier regions of Thrace, the Maritsa and the Tundzha valleys.[6] In addition to voluntary migrations, throughout the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, the Ottoman authorities also used mass deportations ("sürgün") as a method of control over potentially rebellious individuals.[7] One of the greatest impacts of the Ottoman colonization process of the Balkans was felt in the urban centres, many towns became major centres for Turkish control and administration, with most Christians gradually withdrawing to the mountains. The Ottomans embarked on creating new towns and repopulating older towns that had suffered significant population decline and economic dislocation during the wars preceding the Ottoman conquests.[7] Major Balkan towns, especially those on or near transportation and communication routes, were the focal point of Ottoman colonization in the Balkans. Most urban centres in the Balkans, especially in Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly, and Bulgaria, achieved Muslim/Turkish majorities or substantial minorities soon after the completion of the conquest and remained overwhelmingly Muslim in composition into the eighteenth century, and in some areas such as Macedonia and Bulgaria well into the nineteenth century.[8] However, in the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many Turks were displaced, most of them fleeing to Anatolia. At present, there is still significant Turkish minorities living in Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia, and Romania.[9]
_Muslim_woman_1878.jpg)
| Turkish colonization in the Balkans | |||||||
| Region colonized | Ottoman conquest and year of Turkish settlement |
Name of Turkish community | Current status | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bosnia | 1463 | Bosnian Turks | The 1991 Bosnian census showed that there was a minority of 267 Turks.[10] However current estimates suggest that there is actually 50,000 Turks living in the country.[11] | ||||
| Bulgaria | 1396 | Bulgarian Turks | 588,318, or 8.8%, of Bulgaria's population stated that they were Turks in the 2011 census.[12] Other estimates suggests that there is between 750,000[11] to over 1 million Turks living in Bulgaria.[13][14] | ||||
| Rhodes (in Greece) Kos (in Greece) |
1523 | Dodecanese Turks | Some 5,000 Turks live in the Dodecanese islands of Rhodes and Kos.[15] | ||||
| Kosovo | 1389 | Kosovan Turks[16] | There is approximately 50,000 Kosovan Turks living in the country, mostly in Mamuša, Prizren, and Priština.[11] | ||||
| Macedonia | 1392 | Macedonian Turks[17] | The 2002 Macedonian census states that there was 77,959 Macedonian Turks, forming about 4% of the total population and constituing a majority in Centar Župa and Plasnica[18] However, academic estimates suggest that they actually number between 170,000-200,000.[19][20] Furthermore, about 200,000 Macedonian Turks have migrated to Turkey during WWI and WWII due to persecutions and discrimination[21] | ||||
| Montenegro | 1496 | Montenegrin Turks | There were 104 Montenegrin Turks according to the 2011 census.[22] The majority left their homes and migrated to Turkey in th 1900s.[14] | ||||
| Dobruja (in Romania) | 1388 | Romanian Turks[23] | There were 28,226 Romanian Turks living in the country according to the 2011 Romanian census.[24] However, academic estimates suggest that the community numbers between 55,000[11][25] and 80,000[26] | ||||
| Western Thrace (in Greece) | 1354 | Western Thrace Turks | About 120,000-130,000 Western Thrace Turks are currently living in Western Thrace.[27] Between 300,000 to 400,000 have immigrated to Turkey since 1923.[28] | ||||
Meskhetian Turks
The Meskhetian Turks, also known as Ahiska Turks, are the descendants of Turkish colonizers who reside, or used to reside, in Meskheti which is in the southwestern region of Georgia. The region came under Ottoman rule in the sixteenth century up until 1829. Today, approximately 600 to 1,000 Meskhetian Turks are still living in Georgia,[29] the population drastically decreased in 1944 when Joseph Stalin deported approximately 100,000 of these Turks to Central Asia.[30]
Turkish Cypriots
The Ottoman Turks conquered Cyprus in 1571 when they began a campaign which led to the fall of Nicosia in September 1570 and of Famagusta in August 1571.[31] By 1571, about 30,000 Turkish settlers, which included soldiers who were involved in the conquest and their families, or agricultural colonizers, particularly from the Konya region, were given land on the island.[32][31] Thus, a strong Turkish element was formed in Cyprus’s population, which was later reinforced by immigration from Asia Minor.[31]
Modern migration
Turkish Cypriot migration to Great Britain (1920s-present)
Turkish Cypriots started to immigrate from Cyprus to the United Kingdom in the early 1920s when the British Empire annexed Cyprus in 1914 and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown.[33] Many Turkish Cypriots went to the United Kingdom as students and tourists whilst others left the island due to the harsh economic and political life during the British Colony of Cyprus.[34] Emigration to the United Kingdom continued to increase when the Great Depression of 1929 brought economic depression to Cyprus, with unemployment and low wages being a significant issue.[35][36][35] During the Second World War, the number of Turkish run businesses increased which created a demand for more Turkish Cypriot workers.[37] Thus, throughout the 1950s, Turkish Cypriots emigrated to the United Kingdom for economic reasons and by 1958 the number of Turkish Cypriots was estimated to be 8,500.[38] Their numbers increased each year as rumours about immigration restrictions appeared in much of the Cypriot media.[36]
Furthermore, the 1950s saw the arrival of many more Turkish Cypriots to the United Kingdom who felt vulnerable as they had cause for concern about the political future of the island.[37] This was first evident when the Greek Cypriots held a referendum in 1950 in which 95.7% of eligible Greek Cypriot voters cast their ballots in supporting a fight aimed at uniting Cyprus with Greece.[41] Hence, Turkish Cypriots fled to the United Kingdom due to the EOKA terrorists and its aim of Enosis.[34] By the 1960s, inter-ethnic fighting broke out and by 1964 some 25,000 Turkish Cypriots became internally displaced, accounting to about a fifth of their population;[42][43] furthermore, approximately 60,000 Turkish Cypriots were forcefully moved into Turkish Cypriot enclaves within Cyprus.[44] This period in Cypriot history resulted in an exodus of more Turkish Cypriots to the United Kingdom.[34] Other reasons for the continued migration to the United Kingdom was because of the economic gap which was widening in Cyprus. The Greek Cypriots were increasingly taking control of the country’s major institutions causing the Turkish Cypriots to become economically disadvantaged.[37] Thus, the political and economic unrest in Cyprus after 1964 sharply increased the number of Turkish Cypriot immigrants to the United Kingdom.[36] Many of these early migrants worked in the clothing industry in London, where both men and women could work together- sewing was a skill which the community had already acquired in Cyprus.[45] Turkish Cypriots were concentrated mainly in the north-east of London and specialised in the heavy-wear sector, such as coats and tailored garments.[46][47] This sector offered work opportunities where poor knowledge of the English language was not a problem and where self-employment was a possibility.[48]
Once the Greek military junta rose to power in 1967, Greece staged a coup d'état in 1974 against the Cypriot President, with the help of EOKA B, to unite the island with Greece.[49] This led to a military offensive by Turkey who invaded the island.[43] By 1983, the Turkish Cypriots declared their own state, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which has since remained internationally unrecognised except by Turkey. The division of the island led to an economic embargo against the Turkish Cypriots by the Greek Cypriot controlled Government of Cyprus. This had the effect of depriving the Turkish Cypriots of foreign investment, aid and export markets; thus, it caused the Turkish Cypriot economy to remain stagnant and undeveloped.[50] Due to these economic and political issues, an estimated 130,000 Turkish Cypriots have emigrated from Northern Cyprus since its establishment to the United Kingdom.[51][52] In 2011, the House of Commons, Home Affairs Committee suggested that there are now about 300,000 Turkish Cypriots living in the UK.[39]
Meskhetian Turkish migration within Eastern Europe (1944-present)
The Meskhetian Turks, originally living in Meskheti (now known as Samtskhe-Javakheti) which is a part of southern Georgia, are widely dispersed throughout the former Soviet Union (150,000 live in Kazakhstan, 90,000-110,000 in Azerbaijan, 70,000-90,000 in Russia, 50,000 in Kyrgyzstan, 15,000 in Uzbekistan and 10,000 in Ukraine[53]) as a result of forced deportations and discrimination which began in 1944. During World War II, the Soviet Union was preparing to launch a pressure campaign against Turkey and Vyacheslav Molotov, then Minister of Foreign Affairs, formally presented a demand to the Turkish Ambassador in Moscow for the surrender of three Anatolian provinces (Kars, Ardahan and Artvin); thus, war against Turkey seemed possible, and Joseph Stalin wanted to clear the strategic Turkish population (especially those situated in Meskheti) located near the Turkish-Georgian border which were likely to be hostile to Soviet intentions.[54]
In 1944, the Meskhetian Turks were forcefully deported from Meskheti in Georgia and accused of smuggling, banditry and espionage in collaboration with their kin across the Turkish border.[55] Nationalistic policies at the time encouraged the slogan: "Georgia for Georgians" and that the Meskhetian Turks should be sent to Turkey "where they belong".[56][57] Joseph Stalin deported the Meskhetian Turks to Central Asia (especially to Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan), thousands dying en route in cattle-trucks,[58] and were not permitted by the Georgian government of Zviad Gamsakhurdia to return to their homeland.[56]
In the late 1970s, the Stavropol and Krasnodar authorities in Russia visited various regions of Uzbekistan to invite and recruit Meskhetian Turks to work in agriculture enterprises in southern Russia.[59] By 1985, Moscow issued a proposal inviting more Meskhetian Turks to move to villages in southern Russia that had been abandoned by ethnic Russians who were moving to the cities. However, the Meskhetian Turks response was that they would only leave Uzbekistan if the move were to be to their homeland.[60] Then, in 1989, ethnic Uzbeks began a series of actions against the Turks, they became the victims of riots in the Ferghana valley which led to over a hundred deaths. Within days, Decision 503 was announced "inviting" the Turks to occupy the empty farms in southern Russia that they had resisted moving to for years and around 17,000 Meskhetian Turks were evacuated to Russia.[61][62] Meskhetian Turks maintain that Moscow had planned the Uzbek riots.[62] By the early 1990s, of the 70,000 Meskhetian Turks who were still resident in Uzbekistan, approximately 50,000 Meskhetian Turkish refugees went to Azerbaijan due to continued discrimination[63][64][65][66] whilst others when to Russia and Ukraine due to fears of continued violence.[61]
Mainland Turkish migration to Western and Northern Europe (1960s-present)
Modern migration of mainland Turks to Europe began with the bilateral agreements signed between Germany and Turkey in 1961. This led to other industrial countries in Europe, namely Austria, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, attracting Turkish workers.
The "gastarbeiters" (guest workers)
| Labour recruitment and social security agreements between Turkey and European states[2] | |||||||
| Country | Labour recruitment agreement, date and place |
Social security agreement, date and place | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Austria |
15 May 1964, Vienna | 12 October 1966, Vienna | |||||
 Belgium |
16 July 1964, Brussels | 4 July 1966, Brussels | |||||
 Denmark |
13 November 1970, Ankara | ||||||
 France |
8 May 1965, Ankara | 20 January 1972, Paris | |||||
 Germany |
30 October 1961, Bonn (was revised by the 20 May protocol, Bonn) |
30 April 1964, Bonn | |||||
 Netherlands |
19 August 1964, The Hague | 5 April 1966, Ankara | |||||
 Sweden |
10 March 1967, Stockholm | 30 June 1978, Stockholm | |||||
 Switzerland |
1 May 1969, Ankara | ||||||
 United Kingdom |
9 September 1959, Ankara | ||||||
Migration of Western Thrace Turks to Western Europe (1960s-present)
About 25,000 to 40,000 Turks of Western Thrace, who are the ethnic Turks who live in the north-eastern part of Greece, have emigrated to Western Europe.[68][69] Between 12,000 to 25,000 moved to Germany in the 1960s and 1970s, when the Thracian tobacco industry was affected by a severe crisis and many tobacco growers lost their income.[70][71] After Germany, the Netherlands is the most popular destination for Western Thrace Turks, especially in the region of Randstad.[72] There is also an estimated 600-700 Western Thrace Turks living in London, although the total number living outside of London is unknown.[72]
Migration of Bulgarian Turks to Western Europe (2000s-present)
According to the National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria, Bulgarian Turks make up 12% of short term migrants, 13% of long term migrants, and 12% of the labour migrants.[73] However, it is unlikely that this generalisation shows a true indication of the ethnic make-up of Bulgarian citizens living abroad because Bulgarian citizens of Turkish origin make up entire majorities in some countries.[74] For example, out of the 10,000 to 30,000 people from Bulgaria living in the Netherlands, the majority, of about 80%, are ethnic Turks from Bulgaria who have come from the south-eastern Bulgarian district of Kurdzhali.[75] Moreover, the Bulgarian Turks are the fastest-growing group of immigrants in the Netherlands.[76] There is also about 30,000 Bulgarian Turks living in Sweden,[77] a growing community in the United Kingdom[39] and Germany,[78] and 1,000 in Austria.[79]
Demographics
Religion
See also
- Turkish minorities in the former Ottoman Empire
- Accession of Turkey to the European Union
- Demographics of Europe
- European Turkey
- Immigration to Europe
- Islam in Europe
- Turks in the Middle East
- Turkish population
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Notes
^ a: Azerbaijan is often considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia. However the population figures are for the entire state.
^ b: Cyprus is sometimes considered transcontinental country. Physiographically entirely in Western Asia it has strong historical and sociopolitical connections with Europe.
^ c: Georgia is often considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia and Eastern Europe. However, the population figures include the entire state.
^ d: Kazakhstan is physiographically considered a transcontinental country in Central Asia (UN region) and Eastern Europe, with European territory west of the Ural Mountains and both the Ural and Emba rivers. However, population figures refer to the entire country.
^ e: Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. Its sovereign status is unclear.
^ f: Russia is considered a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. However the population figures include the entire state.
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