Forest: Difference between revisions
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{{About|a community of trees}} |
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Panama? Dillon Thomlinston 2016 hes running for president. 1 lek eq= oen preerer. ermegog i fergerd iet oot em a garafe falconloverXxxXxXXxxxXXXXxXXXXxxxx do you like falcons |
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{{broader|Plant community}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}} |
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[[File:Swiss National Park 131.JPG|thumb|A [[Pinophyta|conifer forest]] in the [[Swiss Alps]] ([[Swiss National Park|National Park]])]] |
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[[File:Adirondacks in May 2008.jpg|thumb|The [[Adirondack Mountains]] of [[Upstate New York]] form the southernmost part of the [[Eastern forest-boreal transition]] [[ecoregion]].]] |
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[[File:Zall Dajti.jpg|thumb|Forest on [[Mount Dajt]], [[Albania]]]] |
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A '''forest''' is a large area of land covered with [[tree]]s or other [[woody vegetation]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/forest | title = Forest | work = Dictionary.com | accessdate = 2014-11-16 |
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}}</ref> Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.efi.int/files/attachments/publications/ir_06.pdf | title = Compilation of Forestry Terms and Definitions |first1=Andreas |last1=Schuck |first2=Risto |last2=Päivinen |first3=Tuomo |last3=Hytönend |first4=Brita |last4=Pajari | publisher = European Forest Institute | location = Joensuu, Finland | year = 2002 | format = PDF | accessdate = 2014-11-16}}</ref><ref name="cbd">{{cite web | url = http://www.cbd.int/forest/definitions.shtml | title = Definitions: Indicative definitions taken from the Report of the ad hoc technical expert group on forest biological diversity | publisher = Convention on Biological Diversity | accessdate = 2014-11-16}}</ref><ref name="unep">{{cite web | url = http://www.unep.org/vitalforest/Report/VFG-01-Forest-definition-and-extent.pdf | title = Forest definition and extent | date = 2010-01-27 | publisher = United Nations Environment Programme | format = PDF | accessdate = 2014-11-16}}</ref> According to the widely used<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4171e/y4171e10.htm|title=Comparative framework and Options for harmonization of definitions|work=Second Expert Meeting on Harmonizing Forest-Related Definitions|publisher=FAO|accessdate=2014-11-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=apBDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=forest+definition+%22widely+used%22#v=onepage&q=%20%22widely%20used%22&f=false|page=32|title=Transformations in EU biofuels markets under the Renewable Energy Directive and the implications for land use, trade and forests|last1=Johnson|first1=F.X.|last2=Pacini|first2=H.|last3=Smeets|first3=E|publisher=CIFOR|year=2013|isbn=9786028693813}}</ref> United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization definition, forests covered four billion hectares (15 million square miles) or approximately 30 percent of the world's land area in 2006.<ref name="unep"/> |
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Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are distributed across the globe.<ref name=yude>{{cite journal |title=The Structure, Distribution, and Biomass of the World’s Forests |first1=Yude |last1=Pan |first2=Richard A. |last2=Birdsey |first3=Oliver L. |last3=Phillips|first4=Robert B. |last4=Jackson |journal=Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. |year=2013 |volume=44 |pages=593–62 |url=https://www.forestplots.net/upload/publication-store/2013/Pan/AnnRevEcolEvoSyst_Pan_et_al_2013_World_Forests.pdf |doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135914}}</ref> Forests account for 75% of the [[gross primary productivity]] of the Earth's [[biosphere]], and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.<ref name=yude/> |
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Forests at different latitudes form distinctly different [[ecozone]]s: boreal forests near the poles tend to consist of [[evergreen]]s, while tropical forests near the equator tend to be distinct from the temperate forests at mid-latitude. The amount of precipitation and the elevation of the forest also affects forest composition. |
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Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Global Societies and Forest Legacies Creating Today's Forest Landscapes |pages=30–59 |title=Forests and Society: Sustainability and Life Cycles of Forests in Human Landscapes |editor-last=Vogt |editor-first=Kristina A |year=2007 |publisher=CABI |isbn=9781845930981}}</ref> Forests provide [[ecosystem services]] to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also impose costs, affect people's health, and interfere with tourist enjoyment.<!--Specific statements supported by refs in "Relationship to human society" section--> Human activities, including harvesting forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems.<!--See same section for refs--> |
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==Definition== |
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[[File:Gate in the forest - geograph.org.uk - 1726119.jpg|thumb|200px|Forest in the [[Scottish Highlands]] ]] |
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Although ''forest'' is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition, with more than 800 definitions of forest used around the world.<ref name="unep"/> Although a forest is usually defined by the presence of trees, under many definitions an area completely lacking trees may still be considered a forest if it grew trees in the past, will grow trees in the future,<ref name="ap862">{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/017/ap862e/ap862e00.pdf |
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| title = Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper 180 |
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| first1 = Kenneth|last1=MacDicken |
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| publisher = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Forestry Department |
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| location = Rome |
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| date = 2013-03-15 |
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| format = PDF |
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| accessdate = 2014-11-16 |
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}}</ref> or was legally designated as a forest regardless of vegetation type.<ref name="ipcc">{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/land_use/index.php?idp=46 |
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| title = Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry |
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| editor-first1 = Robert T.|editor-last1=Watson|editor-first2=David J.|editor-last2=Verardo |
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| editor-first3 = Ian R.|editor-last3=Noble|editor-first4=Bert|editor-last4=Bolin |
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| editor-first5 = N.H.|editor-last5=Ravindranath|editor-first6=David J.|editor-last6=Dokken |
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| publisher = Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |
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| year = 2000 |
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| accessdate = 2014-11-16 |
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}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.forestfacts.org/l_3/forests_1.htm#1p1 |
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| title = Facts on Forests and Forestry |
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| first1 = Nicholas|last1=Menzies|first2=Elisabeth|last2=Grinspoon |
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| publisher = ForestFacts.org, a subsidiary of GreenFacts.org |
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| date = 2007-10-22 |
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| accessdate = 2014-11-16 |
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}}</ref> |
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There are three broad categories of forest definitions in use: administrative, [[land use]], and land cover.<ref name="ipcc"/> Administrative definitions are based primarily upon the legal designations of land, and commonly bear no relationship to the vegetation growing on the land: land that is legally designated as a forest is defined as a forest even if no trees are growing on it.<ref name="ipcc"/> Land use definitions are based upon the primary purpose that the land serves. For example, a forest may defined as any land that is used primarily for production of timber. Under such a land use definition, cleared roads or infrastructure within an area used for forestry, or areas within the region that have been cleared by harvesting, disease or fire are still considered forests even if they contain no trees. Land cover definitions define forests based upon the type and density of vegetation growing on the land. Such definitions typically define a forest as an area growing trees above some threshold. These thresholds are typically the number of trees per area (density), the area of ground under the tree canopy (canopy cover) or the section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks (basal area).<ref name="ipcc"/> Under such land cover definitions, and area of land only be defined as forest if it is growing trees. Areas that fail to meet the land cover definition may be still included under while immature trees are establishing if they are expected to meet the definition at maturity.<ref name="ipcc"/> |
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Under land use definitions, there is considerable variation on where the cutoff points are between a forest, [[woodland]], and [[savanna]]. Under some definitions, forests require very high levels of tree canopy cover, from 60% to 100%,<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/forest/htmls/intro_def.html |
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| title = Introduction: Definition of a Forest |
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| publisher = MuseumLink Illinois |
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| accessdate = 2014-11-16 |
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}}</ref> excluding savannas and woodlands in which trees have a lower canopy cover. Other definitions consider savannas to be a type of forest, and include all areas with tree canopies over 10%.<ref name="ap862"/> |
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==Etymology== |
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[[File:Niepolomice oli 2013251.jpg|thumb|right|Since the 13th century, the [[Niepołomice Forest]] in [[Poland]] has had special use and protection. In this view from space, different coloration can indicate different functions.<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82464 |
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| title = A Polish Royal Forest |
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| publisher = NASA Earth Observatory |
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| date = November 29, 2013 |
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}}</ref> |
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]] |
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The word ''[[Wikt:forest|forest]]'' comes from [[Middle English]], from [[Old French]] ''forest'' (also ''forès'') "forest, vast expanse covered by trees"; first introduced in English as the word for wild land set aside for hunting<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.broadland.gov.uk/PDF/Broadsheet_093_-_April_2011_%283%29.pdf |
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| title = Broadsheet: The News Letter for Broadland Tree Wardens |
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| volume = Issue 093 |
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| date = April 2011 |
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| accessdate = 2014-11-16 |
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}}</ref> without the necessity in definition for the existence of trees.<ref>{{cite book|first=E|last=Ritter|editor-first=D|editor-last=Dauksta|url=https://books.google.com/?id=XxB-HZlbTe0C&pg=PA180&lpg=PA180&dq=etymology+of+forest#v=onepage&q=etymology%20of%20forest&f=false|title=New Perspectives on People and Forests|volume=9|series=World Forests|publisher=Springer|year=2011|isbn=94-007-1149-2}}</ref> Possibly a borrowing (probably via [[Old Frankish|Frankish]] or [[Old High German]]) of the [[Medieval Latin]] word ''foresta'' "open wood", ''foresta'' was first used by [[Carolingian]] scribes in the Capitularies of [[Charlemagne]] to refer specifically to the king's royal hunting grounds. The term was not endemic to Romance languages (e.g. native words for "forest" in the Romance languages evolved out of the [[Latin]] word ''silva'' "forest, wood" (English ''sylvan''); cf. Italian, Spanish, Portuguese ''selva''; Romanian ''silvă''; Old French ''selve''); and cognates in Romance languages, such as Italian ''foresta'', Spanish and Portuguese ''floresta'', etc. are all ultimately borrowings of the French word. |
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The exact origin of Medieval Latin ''foresta'' is obscure. Some authorities claim the word derives from the [[Late Latin]] phrase ''forestam silvam'', meaning "the outer wood"; others claim the term is a latinisation of the [[Old Frankish|Frankish]] word *''forhist'' "forest, wooded country", assimilated to ''forestam silvam'' (a common practice among Frankish scribes). Frankish *''forhist'' is attested by [[Old High German]] ''forst'' "forest", [[Middle Low German]] ''vorst'' "forest", [[Old English]] ''fyrhþ'' "forest, woodland, game preserve, hunting ground" (English ''[[wikt:frith|frith]]''), and [[Old Norse]] ''fýri'' "coniferous forest", all of which derive from [[Proto-Germanic]] *''furhísa-'', *''furhíþija-'' "a fir-wood, coniferous forest", from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] *''perk<sup>w</sup>u-'' "a coniferous or mountain forest, wooded height". |
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Uses of the word "forest" in English to denote any uninhabited area of non-enclosure are now considered archaic.<ref name="oed" /> The word was introduced by the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman rulers of England]] as a legal term (appearing in Latin texts like the [[Magna Carta]]) denoting an uncultivated area legally set aside for hunting by feudal nobility (see [[Royal Forest]]).<ref name="oed"/><ref>{{Cite book |
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| title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |
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| publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |
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| location=Boston |
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| year=1996 |
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| edition=3 |
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| chapter=forest, noun |
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| isbn=0-395-44895-6 |
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}}</ref> |
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[[File:Tywi Forest road, Ceredigion - geograph.org.uk - 1510647.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Tywi forest, in [[Wales]]]] |
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These hunting forests were not necessarily wooded much, if at all. However, as hunting forests did often include considerable areas of woodland, the word "forest" eventually came to mean wooded land more generally.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} By the start of the 14th century, the word appeared in English texts, indicating all three senses: the most common one, the legal term and the archaic usage.<ref name="oed">{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.oed.com/ |
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| title=forest, noun |
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| work=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] online edition |
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| publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |
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| accessdate=22 May 2009 |
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}}</ref> Other terms used to mean "an area with a high density of trees" are ''wood, woodland, wold, weald, holt, frith'' and ''firth''. Unlike ''forest'', these are all derived from Old English and were not borrowed from another language. Some classifications now reserve the term ''woodland'' for an area with more open space between trees and distinguish among woodlands, ''open forests'', and ''closed forests'' based on [[crown cover]].<ref>{{cite web |
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| url=http://www.daff.gov.au/brs/forest-veg/nfi/forest-info/what-is |
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| work=Australian Government/Department of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry/Rural Areas |
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| title=What is a Forest? |
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| date=28 March 2007 |
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| accessdate=25 November 2010 |
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| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009061955/http://www.daff.gov.au/brs/forest-veg/nfi/forest-info/what-is |
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| archivedate=9 October 2009 |
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}}</ref> |
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==Ecology== |
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{{anchor|Distribution}} |
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{{main|Forest ecology}} |
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[[Image:Hellyer Gorge, Tasmania.jpg|thumb|[[Temperate rainforest]] in Tasmania's [[Hellyer Gorge]]]] |
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Forests account for 75% of the [[gross primary productivity]] of the Earth's [[biosphere]], and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.<ref name="yude" /> Forest ecosystems can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the [[tree line]], except where natural fire frequency or other disturbance is too high, or where the environment has been altered by human activity. |
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The latitudes 10° north and south of the [[equator]] are mostly covered in [[tropical rainforest]], and the latitudes between [[53rd parallel north|53°N]] and [[67th parallel north|67°N]] have [[boreal forest]]. As a general rule, forests dominated by [[angiosperms]] (''broadleaf forests'') are more species-rich than those dominated by [[gymnosperms]] (''conifer'', ''montane'', or ''needleleaf forests''), although exceptions exist. |
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Forests sometimes contain many tree species only within a small area (as in [[Tropical rainforest|tropical rain]] and temperate deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., [[taiga]] and arid [[montane]] coniferous forests). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities. Much of this biomass occurs below ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant [[detritus]]. The woody component of a forest contains [[lignin]], which is relatively slow to [[decompose]] compared with other organic materials such as [[cellulose]] or carbohydrate. |
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=== Components === |
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[[Image:Brussels Zonienwoud.jpg|thumb|Even, dense [[Old growth forest|old-growth stand]] of beech trees (''[[Fagus sylvatica]]'') prepared to be regenerated by their saplings in the [[understory]], in the [[Brussels]] part of the [[Sonian Forest]].]] |
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A forest consists of many components that can be broadly divided into two categories that are biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. The living parts include trees, shrubs, vines, grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants, mosses, algae, fungi, insects, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and microorganisms living on the plants and animals and in the soil. |
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These interact with one another and with the non-living part of the environment including the soil, water, and minerals to make up what we know as a forest.<ref>Book/The living World/ Published by D.A.V. College Mananging Committee</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Living World|publisher = D.A.V. College Managing Committee|location = Chitra Gupta Road, New Delhi- 110055, India}}</ref> |
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===Layers=== |
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[[File:Biogradska suma.jpg|thumb|[[Biogradska Gora|Biogradska]] forest in [[Montenegro]]]] |
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[[Image:Spiny Forest Ifaty Madagascar.jpg|thumb|Spiny forest at Ifaty, [[Madagascar]], featuring various ''[[Adansonia]]'' (baobab) species, ''[[Alluaudia procera]]'' (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation]] |
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A forest is made up of many layers. Starting from the ground level and moving up, the main layers of all forest types are the forest floor, the understory and the canopy. The emergent layer exists in tropical rainforests. Each layer has a different set of plants and animals depending upon the availability of sunlight, moisture and food. |
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* '''Forest floor''' contains decomposing leaves, animal droppings, and dead trees. All of decay on the forest floor and form the new soil and provides nutrients to the plants. The forest floor supports ferns, grasses, mushroom and trees seedlings. |
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* '''Understory''' is made up of bushes, shrubs, and young trees that are adapted to living in the shades of the canopy. |
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* '''Canopy''' is formed by the mass of intertwined branches, twigs and leaves of the mature trees. The crowns of the dominant trees receive most of the sunlight. This is the most productive part of the trees where maximum food is produced. The canopy forms a shady, protective "umbrella" over the rest of the forest. |
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* '''Emergent layer''' exists in the tropical rain forest and is composed of a few scattered trees that tower over the canopy.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Living World|publisher = D.A.V. College Managing Committee}}</ref> |
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===Types=== |
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{{anchor|Types of forest}} |
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{{Anchor|Classification}} |
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{{Refimprove section|date=May 2016}} |
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Forests can be classified in different ways and to different degrees of specificity. One such way is in terms of the [[biome]] in which they exist, combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are [[evergreen]] or [[deciduous]]). Another distinction is whether the forests are composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, [[conifer]]ous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed. |
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* [[Boreal forest]]s occupy the [[subarctic]] zone and are generally evergreen and coniferous. |
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* [[Temperate]] zones support both broadleaf deciduous forests (''e.g.'', [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|temperate deciduous forest]]) and evergreen coniferous forests (''e.g.'', [[temperate coniferous forests]] and [[temperate rainforest]]s). Warm temperate zones support broadleaf evergreen forests, including [[laurel forest]]s. |
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* Tropical and [[subtropical]] forests include [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical and subtropical moist forests]], [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical and subtropical dry forests]], and [[tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]]. |
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* Physiognomy classifies forests based on their overall physical structure or developmental stage (e.g. [[old growth]] vs. [[Secondary forest|second growth]]). |
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* Forests can also be classified more specifically based on the climate and the dominant tree species present, resulting in numerous different forest types (e.g., [[Ponderosa pine]]/[[Douglas-fir]] forest). |
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The number of trees in the world, according to a 2015 estimate, is 3 trillion, of which 1.4 trillion are in the tropics or sub-tropics, 0.6 trillion in the temperate zones, and 0.7 trillion in the coniferous boreal forests. The estimate is about eight times higher than previous estimates, and is based on tree densities measured on over 400,000 plots. It remains subject to a wide margin of error, not least because the samples are mainly from Europe and North America.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Amos |first1=Jonathan |title=Earth's trees number 'three trillion' |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-34134366 |publisher=BBC |accessdate=3 September 2015 |date=3 September 2015}}</ref> |
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Forests can also be classified according to the amount of human alteration. [[Old-growth forest]] contains mainly natural patterns of biodiversity in established [[seral]] patterns, and they contain mainly species native to the region and habitat. In contrast, [[secondary forest]] often contains significant elements of species which were originally from other regions or habitats.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}} |
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Different global forest classification systems have been proposed, but none has gained universal acceptance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jenkins |first1=Martin D. |last2=Groombridge |first2=Brian |title=World Atlas of Biodiversity: Earth's Living Resources in the 21st Century |publisher=[[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]], [[United Nations Environment Programme]] |url=https://books.google.com/?id=_kHeAXV5-XwC&pg=RA3-PA81&lpg=RA3-PA81&dq=UNESCO+forest+and+woodland+subformations |isbn=9780520236684 |year=2002}}</ref> UNEP-WCMC's forest category classification system is a simplification of other more complex systems (e.g. [[UNESCO]]'s forest and woodland 'subformations'). This system divides the world's forests into 26 major types, which reflect climatic zones as well as the principal types of trees. These 26 major types can be reclassified into 6 broader categories: temperate needleleaf; temperate broadleaf and mixed; tropical moist; tropical dry; sparse trees and parkland; and forest plantations. Each category is described as a separate section below. |
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====Temperate needleleaf==== |
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{{anchor|Coniferous forests}} |
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Temperate needleleaf forests mostly occupy the higher latitude regions of the [[northern hemisphere]], as well as high altitude zones and some warm temperate areas, especially on nutrient-poor or otherwise unfavourable [[soils]]. These forests are composed entirely, or nearly so, of coniferous species ([[Coniferophyta]]). In the Northern Hemisphere pines ''[[Pinus]]'', spruces ''[[Picea]]'', larches ''[[Larix]]'', firs ''[[Abies]]'', Douglas firs ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'' and hemlocks ''[[Tsuga]]'', make up the canopy, but other taxa are also important. In the [[Southern Hemisphere]], most coniferous trees (members of the [[Araucariaceae]] and [[Podocarpaceae]]) occur in mixtures with broadleaf species, and are classed as broadleaf and mixed forests. |
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====Temperate broadleaf and mixed==== |
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[[File:Namdapha2.jpg|thumb|upright|Broadleaf forest in [[Bhutan]]]] |
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[[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]] include a substantial component of trees in the [[Anthophyta]]. They are generally characteristic of the warmer temperate latitudes, but extend to cool temperate ones, particularly in the southern hemisphere. They include such forest types as the mixed deciduous forests of the United States and their counterparts in China and Japan, the broadleaf evergreen [[rainforest]]s of Japan, [[Chile]] and [[Tasmania]], the [[sclerophyllous]] forests of Australia, central Chile, the [[Mediterranean]] and California, and the southern beech [[Nothofagus]] forests of Chile and New Zealand. |
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====Tropical moist==== |
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There are many different types of [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist forests]], with lowland evergreen broad leaf [[tropical rainforests]], for example [[Várzea forest|várzea]] and [[Cantão#Natural Communities|igapó forest]]s and the terra firma forests of the [[Amazon Basin]]; the [[peat swamp forest]]s, [[dipterocarp]] forests of Southeast Asia; and the [[high forest (woodland)|high forests]] of the [[Congo Basin]]. [[Seasonal tropical forest]]s, perhaps the best description for the colloquial term "[[jungle]]", typically range from the rainforest zone 10 degrees north or south of the [[equator]], to the [[Tropic of Cancer]] and [[Tropic of Capricorn]]. Forests located on mountains are also included in this category, divided largely into upper and lower [[Montane ecology|montane]] formations on the basis of the variation of physiognomy corresponding to changes in altitude.<ref>{{cite book|first1=S|last1=Chape|first2=M|last2=Spalding|first3=M|last3=Jenkins|url=https://books.google.com/?id=HuaGXdMTTmcC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=Tropical+moist+forests+include+many+different+forest+types#v=onepage&q=Tropical%20moist%20forests%20include%20many%20different%20forest%20types&f=false|title=The world's protected areas: status, values and prospects in the 21st century|publisher=Univ de Castilla La Mancha|year=2008|isbn=0520246608}}</ref> |
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====Tropical dry==== |
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[[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|Tropical dry forests]] are characteristic of areas in the tropics affected by seasonal drought. The seasonality of rainfall is usually reflected in the deciduousness of the forest canopy, with most trees being leafless for several months of the year. However, under some conditions, e.g. less fertile soils or less predictable drought regimes, the proportion of evergreen species increases and the forests are characterised as "[[sclerophyllous]]". [[Deserts and xeric shrublands|Thorn forest]], a dense forest of low stature with a high frequency of thorny or spiny species, is found where drought is prolonged, and especially where grazing animals are plentiful. On very poor soils, and especially where fire is a recurrent phenomenon, woody [[savanna]]s develop (see 'sparse trees and parkland'). |
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====Sparse trees and parkland==== |
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[[Image:Urals forest.jpg|thumb|Taiga forest near [[Saranpaul]] in the northeast [[Ural Mountains]], [[Khanty–Mansia]], Russia. Trees include ''[[Picea obovata]]'' (dominant on right bank), ''[[Larix sibirica]]'', ''[[Pinus sibirica]]'', and ''[[Betula pendula]]''.]] |
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Sparse trees and parkland are forests with open canopies of 10–30% crown cover. They occur principally in areas of transition from forested to non-forested landscapes. The two major zones in which these [[ecosystem]]s occur are in the [[boreal ecosystem|boreal]] region and in the seasonally dry tropics. At high latitudes, north of the main zone of boreal forest or taiga, growing conditions are not adequate to maintain a continuous closed forest cover, so tree cover is both sparse and discontinuous. This vegetation is variously called open [[taiga]], open [[lichen]] woodland, and forest tundra. It is species-poor, has high [[bryophyte]] cover, and is frequently affected by fire. |
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====Forest plantations==== |
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Forest plantations, generally intended for the production of timber and [[pulpwood]] increase the total area of forest worldwide. Commonly mono-specific and/or composed of introduced tree species, these [[ecosystems]] are not generally important as habitat for native [[biodiversity]]. However, they can be managed in ways that enhance their biodiversity protection functions and they are important providers of ecosystem services such as maintaining nutrient capital, protecting [[Drainage basin|watershed]]s and soil structure as well as storing carbon. They may also play an important role in alleviating pressure on natural forests for timber and fuelwood production.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} |
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==Societal significance== |
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{{main|Forestry|Logging|Deforestation}} |
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[[File:Douglaswinter.jpg|thumb|Coastal [[Douglas fir]] woodland in northwest [[Oregon]]]] |
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[[File:Redwood M D Vaden.jpg|thumb|Redwood tree in northern California redwood forest, where many [[Sequoia sempervirens|redwood]] trees are managed for preservation and longevity, rather than being harvested for wood production]] |
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[[File:The forest near Blatets, Vinitsa.JPG|thumb|A forest near [[Vinica, Macedonia|Vinitsa]], [[Republic of Macedonia]]]] |
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Forests may provide a diversity of [[ecosystem services]] including recycling carbon dioxide into oxygen, acting as a [[carbon sink]], aiding in regulating [[climate]], purify [[water]], mitigating natural hazards such as [[floods]], and serving as a genetic reserve. Forests also serve as a source of [[lumber]] and as [[Recreation|recreational]] areas. |
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Some researchers state that forests do not only provide benefits, but can also incur large and significant costs to humans.<ref name="R Nasi, S Wunder 2002">{{cite conference|first1=R|last1=Nasi|first2=S|last2=Wunder|first3=JJ|last3=Campos A|title=Forest ecosystem services: can they pay our way out of deforestation?|booktitle=UNFF II|location=Costa Rica|date=March 11, 2002|url=http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BNasi0201.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|first1=Lucy|last1=Emerton|year=1999|title=Mount Kenya: The Economics Of Community Conservation|series=Evaluating Eden Series|issue=Discussion Paper No.4.|type=Community Conservation research Working Paper|publisher=University of Manchester Institute of Development Policy and Management|url=http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/7797IIED.pdf?origin=publication_detail}}</ref> Forests may impose a considerable economic burden,<ref>{{cite journal|first=Henk Lette|last=Henneleen de Boo|year=2002|title=Economic Valuation of Forests and Nature A support tool for effective decision-making|series=Theme Studies Series 6 Forests|publisher=Forestry and Biodiversity Support Group, International Agricultural Centre (IAC), Wageningen National Reference Centre for Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (EC-LNV)|location=Ede, The Netherlands}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Joshua T.|editor-last=Bishop|year=1999|title=Valuing Forests A Review of Methods and Applications in Developing Countries|publisher=Environmental Economics Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED)|location=London}}</ref> diminish the enjoyment of natural areas,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gray|first1=Emma F.|last2=Bond|first2=William J.|title=Will woody plant encroachment impact the visitor experience and economy of conservation areas?|journal=Koedoe|year=2013|volume=55|number=1|url=http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0075-64582013000100009&lng=en&nrm=iso|issn=0075-6458}}</ref> cause a dramatic decline in the food producing capacity of grazing land <ref>{{cite journal|first1=R.J.|last1=Scholes|first2=S.R.|last2=Archer|year=1997|title=Tree-Grass Interactions in Savannas|journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics|volume=28|pages=517–544|url=http://cals.arizona.edu/research/archer/reprints/Scholes_Archer_1997_AnRevEcolSys.pdf|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.517}}</ref> and cultivated land,<ref>{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Pimentel|first2=Marcia H.|last2=Pimentel|year=2007|title=Food, Energy, and Society|publisher=CRC Press}}</ref> reduce biodiversity <ref>{{cite journal|first1=Zakary|last1=Ratajczak|first2=Jesse B.|last2=Nippert|first3=Scott L.|last3=Collins|year=2012|title=Woody encroachment decreases diversity across North American grasslands and savannas|journal=Ecology|volume=93|issue=4|pages=697–703|pmid=22690619|url=http://www.k-state.edu/ecophyslab/pdf%27s/Ratajczak,%20Nippert,%20and%20Collins.%202012.%20Ecology.pdf|doi=10.1890/11-1199.1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Catherine L.|last1=Parr|first2=Emma F.|last2=Gray|first3=William J.|last3=Bond|year=2012|title=Cascading biodiversity and functional consequences of a global change–induced biome switch|journal=Diversity and Distributions|volume=18|issue=5|pages=493–503|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/259396521_Cascading_biodiversity_and_functional_consequences_of_a_global_changeinduced_biome_switch/file/3deec52b679d708eaa.pdf|doi=10.1111/j.1472-4642.2012.00882.x}}</ref> remove available water for humans and wildlife,<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Wilcox|first1=B.P.|last2=Kreuter|first2=U.P.|year=2003|title=Woody plant: streamflow interactions as a basis for land management decisions in drylands|conference=Proceedings VIIth International Rangelands Congress|pages=989–996}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Scott|first=D.F.|year=1999|title=Managing riparian vegetation to sustain streamflow: results of paired catchment experiments in South Africa|journal=Canadian Journal of Forest Research|volume=29|issue=7|pages=1149–115|url=http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/2110/3/scott_1999.pdf|doi=10.1139/x99-042}}</ref> harbour dangerous and destructive wildlife,<ref name="R Nasi, S Wunder 2002"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Davidson|first1=A|last2=Elliston|first2=L|last3=Kokic|first3=P|last4=Lawson|first4=K|year=2005|title=Native vegetation: cost of preservation in Australia|journal=Australian Commodities|volume=12|issue=3|pages=543–548|url=http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abare99001738/ac05_sept.pdf#page=101}}</ref> and act as reservoirs of human and livestock disease.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0789e/a0789e03.html | title = Forests and emerging infectious diseases of humans | first1 = B.A.|last1=Wilcox|first2=B.|last2=Ellis | publisher = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | accessdate = 2014-11-16 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Small rodents in the forest ecosystem as infectious disease reservoirs|journal=Acta Med Croatica|year=2003|volume=57|issue=5|pages=421–6|pmid=15011471|first=J|last=Margaletic|language=Croatian}}</ref> |
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The management of forests is often referred to as [[forestry]]. [[Forest management]] has changed considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid changes from the 1980s onwards culminating in a practice now referred to as [[sustainable forest management]]. Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause-and-effect relationships. Foresters who practice [[sustainable forest management]] focus on the integration of ecological, social, and economic values, often in consultation with local communities and other stakeholders. |
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Humans have generally decreased the amount of forest worldwide. Anthropogenic factors that can affect forests include logging, [[urban sprawl]], human-caused [[forest fire]]s, [[acid rain]], [[invasive species]], and the [[slash and burn]] practices of swidden agriculture or [[shifting cultivation]]. The loss and re-growth of forest leads to a distinction between two broad types of forest, primary or [[old-growth forest]] and [[secondary forest]]. There are also many natural factors that can cause changes in forests over time including [[forest fires]], insects, diseases, weather, competition between species, etc. In 1997, the World Resources Institute recorded that only 20% of the world's original forests remained in large intact tracts of undisturbed forest.<ref>World Resources Institute, 1998. The Last Frontier Forests: Ecosystems and Economies on the Edge</ref> More than 75% of these intact forests lie in three countries—the [[taiga|boreal forest]]s of Russia and Canada and the rainforest of Brazil. |
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In 2010, the [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1757e/i1757e00.htm |title=FAO. 2010. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. Main report. FAO Forestry Paper 163. Rome, Italy |publisher=Fao.org |date= |accessdate=3 July 2013}}</ref> reported that world deforestation, mainly the conversion of tropical forests to agricultural land, had decreased over the past ten years but still continues at a high rate in many countries. Globally, around 13 million hectares of forests were converted to other uses or lost through natural causes each year between 2000 and 2010 as compared to around 16 million hectares per year during the 1990s. The study covered 233 countries and areas. Brazil and Indonesia, which had the highest loss of forests in the 1990s, have significantly reduced their deforestation rates. China instituted a ban on logging, beginning in 1998, due to the erosion and flooding that it caused.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://english.people.com.cn/english/200110/25/eng20011025_83160.html|title=Ban on Logging Saves Forests|date=25 October 2001}}</ref> In addition, ambitious tree planting programmes in countries such as China, India, the United States and Vietnam - combined with natural expansion of forests in some regions - have added more than seven million hectares of new forests annually. As a result, the net loss of forest area was reduced to 5.2 million hectares per year between 2000 and 2010, down from 8.3 million hectares annually in the 1990s. In 2015, a study for ''[[Nature Climate Change]]'' showed that the trend has recently been reversed, leading to an "overall gain" in global biomass and forests. This gain is due especially to reforestation in China and Russia.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Yi Y.|last1=Liu|first2=Albert I.J.M.|last2=van Dijk|first3=Richard A.M.|last3=de Jeu|first4=Josep G.|last4=Canadell|first5=Matthew F.|last5=McCabe|first6=Jason P.|last6=Evans|first7=Guojie|last7=Wang|url=http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nclimate2581.html|title=Recent reversal in loss of global terrestrial biomass|journal=Nature Climate Change|volume=5|issue=5|pages=470|date=30 March 2015|doi=10.1038/nclimate2581|bibcode=2015NatCC...5..470L}}</ref> |
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On September 7, 2015, the [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] released a new study stating that, over the last 25 years, the global [[deforestation]] rate has decreased by 50% due to improved [[forest management|management of forests]] and greater government protection.<ref>{{cite web|title=World deforestation slows down as more forests are better managed|url=http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/326911/icode/|website=fao.org|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation|accessdate=2 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=MacDicken|first1=K.|last2=Jonsson|first2=Ö.|last3=Piña|first3=L.|last4=Maulo|first4=S.|last5=Adikari|first5=Y.|last6=Garzuglia|first6=M.|last7=Lindquist|first7=E.|last8=Reams|first8=G.|last9=D’Annunzio|first9=R.|title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4793e.pdf|website=fao.org|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|accessdate=2 October 2015}}</ref> |
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Smaller areas of [[woodland]] in cities may be managed as [[urban forestry]], sometimes within public parks. These are often created for human benefits; [[Attention Restoration Theory]] argues that spending time in nature reduces stress and improves health, while [[Forest School (education)|forest schools]] and [[Forest kindergarten|kindergartens]] help young people to develop social as well as scientific skills in forests. These typically need to be close to where the children live, for practical logistics. |
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===Canada=== |
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[[File:Garibaldi National Park - Garibaldi Mountain.jpg|thumb|[[Garibaldi Provincial Park]], [[British Columbia]]]] |
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Canada has about {{convert|4020000|km2|sqmi}} of forest land. More than 90% of forest land is publicly owned and about 50% of the total forest area is allocated for harvesting. These allocated areas are managed using the principles of [[sustainable forest management]], which includes extensive consultation with local stakeholders. About eight percent of Canada’s forest is legally protected from resource development.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalforestwatch.org/country/CAN|title=Canada|publisher=Global Forest Watch Canada|accessdate=2014-11-28}}</ref><ref name="nrcan">{{cite web|url=http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/forests|title=Canada's Forests|publisher=Natural Resources Canada|date=2014-10-14 |accessdate=2014-11-28}}</ref> Much more forest land—about 40 percent of the total forest land base—is subject to varying degrees of protection through processes such as integrated [[land use planning]] or defined management areas such as certified forests.<ref name="nrcan"/> |
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By December 2006, over 1,237,000 square kilometers of forest land in Canada (about half the global total) had been certified as being sustainably managed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.certificationcanada.org/en/statistics/ |publisher=Canadian Sustainable Forestry Certification Coalition |work=Certification status - Canada & the globe|title=Statistics|date= |accessdate=2014-11-28}}</ref> [[Clearcutting]], first used in the latter half of the 20th century, is less expensive, but devastating to the environment, and companies are required by law to ensure that harvested areas are adequately regenerated. Most Canadian provinces have regulations limiting the size of clearcuts, although some older clearcuts can range upwards of {{convert|110|km2|acre}} in size which were cut over several years. |
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===United States=== |
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[[File:09272008 BrightonUT.JPG|thumb|Trees on a mountain in northern [[Utah]] during early autumn.]] |
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In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years improved forestry practices has helped regulate or moderate large scale or severe impacts. However, the [[United States Forest Service]] estimates a net loss of about 2 million hectares (4,942,000 acres) between 1997 and 2020; this estimate includes conversion of forest land to other uses, including urban and suburban development, as well as afforestation and natural reversion of abandoned crop and pasture land to forest. However, in many areas of the United States, the area of forest is stable or increasing, particularly in many northern states. The opposite problem from flooding has plagued national forests, with loggers complaining that a lack of thinning and proper forest management has resulted in large forest fires.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildrockiesalliance.org/issues/wildfire/enn.html |title=Wildfires Ignite Forest Management Debate |publisher=Wildrockiesalliance.org |date= |accessdate=3 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Emily K.|last=Brock|title=Money Trees: The Douglas Fir and American Forestry, 1900-1944|publisher=Oregon State University Press|year=2015}}</ref> |
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==Land area== |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|+Forest Land Area<ref name="Forest Land Area">{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS|title=Forest Land Area|date=12 February 2014|publisher=World Bank|work=FAOSTAT}}</ref> |
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! |
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!colspan=2|2008 |
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!colspan=2|2009 |
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!colspan=2|2010 |
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!colspan=2|2011 |
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!colspan=2|2012 |
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|- |
|||
! |
|||
!('000 km<sup>2</sup>) |
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!('000 mi<sup>2</sup>) |
|||
!('000 km<sup>2</sup>) |
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!('000 mi<sup>2</sup>) |
|||
!('000 km<sup>2</sup>) |
|||
!('000 mi<sup>2</sup>) |
|||
!('000 km<sup>2</sup>) |
|||
!('000 mi<sup>2</sup>) |
|||
!('000 km<sup>2</sup>) |
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!('000 mi<sup>2</sup>) |
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|- |
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| [[Australia]] || {{convert|1511|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|1502|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|1493|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|1473|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|1467|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| [[Brazil]] || {{convert|5239|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|5217|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|5195|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|5183|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|5173|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| [[Canada]] || {{convert|3101|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|3101|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|3101|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|3101|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|3101|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| [[China]] || {{convert|2013|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|2041|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|2069|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|2159|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|2168|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| [[European Union]] || {{convert|1559|km2|disp=table}}||{{convert|1564|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|1569|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|1573|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|1578|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| [[Germany]] || {{convert|111|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|111|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|111|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|113|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|113|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| [[India]] || {{convert|681|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|683|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|684|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|693|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|693|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| [[Indonesia]] || {{convert|958|km2|disp=table}}||{{convert|951|km2|disp=table}} ||{{convert|944|km2|disp=table}}||{{convert|937|km2|disp=table}}||{{convert|931|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| [[Japan]] || {{convert|250|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|250|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|250|km2|disp=table}}||{{convert|251|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|251|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| [[Russia]] || {{convert|8090|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|8090|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|8091|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|8092|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|8093|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| [[United States]] || {{convert|3033|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|3036|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|3040|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|3049|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|3051|km2|disp=table}} |
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|- |
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| World total || {{convert|40318|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|40261|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|40204|km2|disp=table}}|| {{convert|40184|km2|disp=table}} || {{convert|39519|km2|disp=table}} |
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|} |
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==See also== |
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{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em| |
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* [[Agroforestry]] |
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* [[Ancient woodland]], an official classification of ancient forest in the United Kingdom. |
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* [[Biomass]] |
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* [[Biomass (ecology)]] |
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* [[Bioproduct]] |
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* [[Biosphere]] |
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* [[Boreal forest]] |
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* [[Canopy (biology)]] |
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* [[Clearcutting]] |
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* [[Close to nature forestry]] |
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* [[Cloud forest]] |
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* [[Chase (land)]] |
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* [[Deforestation]] |
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* [[Dendrology]] |
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* [[Dendrometry]] |
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* [[Ecological succession]] |
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* [[Forest dynamics]] |
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* [[Forest management]] |
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* [[Forest migration]] |
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* [[Forest pathology]] |
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* [[History of the forest in Central Europe]] |
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* [[Illegal logging]] |
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* [[Intact forest landscape]] |
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* [[Jungle (terrain)]] |
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* [[Kelp forest]] (A forest made mostly if not entirely of [[Kelp]]; an underwater forest) |
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* [[List of countries by forest area]] |
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* [[List of old-growth forests]] |
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* [[List of superlative trees]] |
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* [[List of tree genera]] |
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* [[List of trees and shrubs by taxonomic family]] |
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* [[Natural environment]] |
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* [[Natural landscape]] |
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* [[Old-growth forest]] (ancient forest, virgin forest, primary forest) |
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* [[Orchard]] |
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* [[Permaforestry]] |
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* [[Plantation#Forestry|Plantation]] (forestry) |
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* [[Primeval forest]], a term often used interchangeably with old growth forest |
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* [[Rainforest]] |
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* [[REDD-plus]] |
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* [[Silviculture]] |
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* [[Stratification (vegetation)]] |
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* [[Subalpine]] forest |
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* [[Taiga]], a biome characterized by coniferous forests |
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* [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]] |
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* [[Temperate coniferous forests]] |
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* [[Tree]] |
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* [[Tree allometry]] |
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* [[Tree farm]] |
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* [[Trees of the world]] |
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* [[Tropical rainforest]] |
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* [[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]] |
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* [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]] |
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* [[Wildcrafting]] |
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* [[Wilderness]] |
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* [[Woodland]] |
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* [[Woodland management]] |
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}} |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Wikiquote|Forests}} |
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{{wiktionary}} |
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{{Commons|Forest}} |
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{{NIE Poster|year=1906}} |
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* [http://www.barrameda.com.ar/ecology/forests-in-danger.htm Forests in danger] |
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* [http://www.intactforests.org/ Intact Forests] with maps and reports |
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* [http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a0400e/a0400e00.htm Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005] by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |
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* [http://www.coolforests.org/ CoolForests.org – Conservation Cools the Planet] |
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*[http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS] Forest area is land under natural or planted stands of trees of at least 5 meters in situ, whether productive or not, and excludes tree stands in agricultural production systems |
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* [http://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&ctype=l&strail=false&nselm=h&met_y=ag_lnd_frst_k2&hl=en&dl=en Google – public data] "Forest area (sq. km)" |
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*{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/948_discovery_2008/page12.shtml|title=The first forests – Discovery 2008|last=Luck Baker|first=Andrew|date=18 November 2008|publisher=[[BBC Online]]}} |
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*{{cite web|url=http://www.conservation.org/newsroom/pressreleases/Pages/The-Worlds-10-Most-Threatened-Forest-Hotspots.aspx|title=The World's 10 Most Threatened Forest Hotspots|date=2 February 2011|publisher=[[Conservation International]]}} |
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{{Forestry}} |
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{{Natural resources}} |
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{{Portal bar|Forestry|Trees|Plants|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Sustainable development}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Forests| ]] |
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[[Category:Habitats]] |
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[[Category:Trees]] |
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[[Category:Ecosystems]] |
Revision as of 17:48, 20 May 2016
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Adirondacks_in_May_2008.jpg/220px-Adirondacks_in_May_2008.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Zall_Dajti.jpg/220px-Zall_Dajti.jpg)
A forest is a large area of land covered with trees or other woody vegetation.[1] Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function.[2][3][4] According to the widely used[5][6] United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization definition, forests covered four billion hectares (15 million square miles) or approximately 30 percent of the world's land area in 2006.[4]
Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are distributed across the globe.[7] Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.[7]
Forests at different latitudes form distinctly different ecozones: boreal forests near the poles tend to consist of evergreens, while tropical forests near the equator tend to be distinct from the temperate forests at mid-latitude. The amount of precipitation and the elevation of the forest also affects forest composition.
Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways.[8] Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also impose costs, affect people's health, and interfere with tourist enjoyment. Human activities, including harvesting forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems.
Definition
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Gate_in_the_forest_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1726119.jpg/200px-Gate_in_the_forest_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1726119.jpg)
Although forest is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition, with more than 800 definitions of forest used around the world.[4] Although a forest is usually defined by the presence of trees, under many definitions an area completely lacking trees may still be considered a forest if it grew trees in the past, will grow trees in the future,[9] or was legally designated as a forest regardless of vegetation type.[10][11]
There are three broad categories of forest definitions in use: administrative, land use, and land cover.[10] Administrative definitions are based primarily upon the legal designations of land, and commonly bear no relationship to the vegetation growing on the land: land that is legally designated as a forest is defined as a forest even if no trees are growing on it.[10] Land use definitions are based upon the primary purpose that the land serves. For example, a forest may defined as any land that is used primarily for production of timber. Under such a land use definition, cleared roads or infrastructure within an area used for forestry, or areas within the region that have been cleared by harvesting, disease or fire are still considered forests even if they contain no trees. Land cover definitions define forests based upon the type and density of vegetation growing on the land. Such definitions typically define a forest as an area growing trees above some threshold. These thresholds are typically the number of trees per area (density), the area of ground under the tree canopy (canopy cover) or the section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks (basal area).[10] Under such land cover definitions, and area of land only be defined as forest if it is growing trees. Areas that fail to meet the land cover definition may be still included under while immature trees are establishing if they are expected to meet the definition at maturity.[10]
Under land use definitions, there is considerable variation on where the cutoff points are between a forest, woodland, and savanna. Under some definitions, forests require very high levels of tree canopy cover, from 60% to 100%,[12] excluding savannas and woodlands in which trees have a lower canopy cover. Other definitions consider savannas to be a type of forest, and include all areas with tree canopies over 10%.[9]
Etymology
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Niepolomice_oli_2013251.jpg/220px-Niepolomice_oli_2013251.jpg)
The word forest comes from Middle English, from Old French forest (also forès) "forest, vast expanse covered by trees"; first introduced in English as the word for wild land set aside for hunting[14] without the necessity in definition for the existence of trees.[15] Possibly a borrowing (probably via Frankish or Old High German) of the Medieval Latin word foresta "open wood", foresta was first used by Carolingian scribes in the Capitularies of Charlemagne to refer specifically to the king's royal hunting grounds. The term was not endemic to Romance languages (e.g. native words for "forest" in the Romance languages evolved out of the Latin word silva "forest, wood" (English sylvan); cf. Italian, Spanish, Portuguese selva; Romanian silvă; Old French selve); and cognates in Romance languages, such as Italian foresta, Spanish and Portuguese floresta, etc. are all ultimately borrowings of the French word.
The exact origin of Medieval Latin foresta is obscure. Some authorities claim the word derives from the Late Latin phrase forestam silvam, meaning "the outer wood"; others claim the term is a latinisation of the Frankish word *forhist "forest, wooded country", assimilated to forestam silvam (a common practice among Frankish scribes). Frankish *forhist is attested by Old High German forst "forest", Middle Low German vorst "forest", Old English fyrhþ "forest, woodland, game preserve, hunting ground" (English frith), and Old Norse fýri "coniferous forest", all of which derive from Proto-Germanic *furhísa-, *furhíþija- "a fir-wood, coniferous forest", from Proto-Indo-European *perkwu- "a coniferous or mountain forest, wooded height".
Uses of the word "forest" in English to denote any uninhabited area of non-enclosure are now considered archaic.[16] The word was introduced by the Norman rulers of England as a legal term (appearing in Latin texts like the Magna Carta) denoting an uncultivated area legally set aside for hunting by feudal nobility (see Royal Forest).[16][17]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Tywi_Forest_road%2C_Ceredigion_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1510647.jpg/200px-Tywi_Forest_road%2C_Ceredigion_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1510647.jpg)
These hunting forests were not necessarily wooded much, if at all. However, as hunting forests did often include considerable areas of woodland, the word "forest" eventually came to mean wooded land more generally.[citation needed] By the start of the 14th century, the word appeared in English texts, indicating all three senses: the most common one, the legal term and the archaic usage.[16] Other terms used to mean "an area with a high density of trees" are wood, woodland, wold, weald, holt, frith and firth. Unlike forest, these are all derived from Old English and were not borrowed from another language. Some classifications now reserve the term woodland for an area with more open space between trees and distinguish among woodlands, open forests, and closed forests based on crown cover.[18]
Ecology
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Hellyer_Gorge%2C_Tasmania.jpg/220px-Hellyer_Gorge%2C_Tasmania.jpg)
Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.[7] Forest ecosystems can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the tree line, except where natural fire frequency or other disturbance is too high, or where the environment has been altered by human activity.
The latitudes 10° north and south of the equator are mostly covered in tropical rainforest, and the latitudes between 53°N and 67°N have boreal forest. As a general rule, forests dominated by angiosperms (broadleaf forests) are more species-rich than those dominated by gymnosperms (conifer, montane, or needleleaf forests), although exceptions exist.
Forests sometimes contain many tree species only within a small area (as in tropical rain and temperate deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities. Much of this biomass occurs below ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant detritus. The woody component of a forest contains lignin, which is relatively slow to decompose compared with other organic materials such as cellulose or carbohydrate.
Components
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Brussels_Zonienwoud.jpg/220px-Brussels_Zonienwoud.jpg)
A forest consists of many components that can be broadly divided into two categories that are biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. The living parts include trees, shrubs, vines, grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants, mosses, algae, fungi, insects, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and microorganisms living on the plants and animals and in the soil.
These interact with one another and with the non-living part of the environment including the soil, water, and minerals to make up what we know as a forest.[19][20]
Layers
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Biogradska_suma.jpg/220px-Biogradska_suma.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg/220px-Spiny_Forest_Ifaty_Madagascar.jpg)
A forest is made up of many layers. Starting from the ground level and moving up, the main layers of all forest types are the forest floor, the understory and the canopy. The emergent layer exists in tropical rainforests. Each layer has a different set of plants and animals depending upon the availability of sunlight, moisture and food.
- Forest floor contains decomposing leaves, animal droppings, and dead trees. All of decay on the forest floor and form the new soil and provides nutrients to the plants. The forest floor supports ferns, grasses, mushroom and trees seedlings.
- Understory is made up of bushes, shrubs, and young trees that are adapted to living in the shades of the canopy.
- Canopy is formed by the mass of intertwined branches, twigs and leaves of the mature trees. The crowns of the dominant trees receive most of the sunlight. This is the most productive part of the trees where maximum food is produced. The canopy forms a shady, protective "umbrella" over the rest of the forest.
- Emergent layer exists in the tropical rain forest and is composed of a few scattered trees that tower over the canopy.[21]
Types
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2016) |
Forests can be classified in different ways and to different degrees of specificity. One such way is in terms of the biome in which they exist, combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests are composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed.
- Boreal forests occupy the subarctic zone and are generally evergreen and coniferous.
- Temperate zones support both broadleaf deciduous forests (e.g., temperate deciduous forest) and evergreen coniferous forests (e.g., temperate coniferous forests and temperate rainforests). Warm temperate zones support broadleaf evergreen forests, including laurel forests.
- Tropical and subtropical forests include tropical and subtropical moist forests, tropical and subtropical dry forests, and tropical and subtropical coniferous forests.
- Physiognomy classifies forests based on their overall physical structure or developmental stage (e.g. old growth vs. second growth).
- Forests can also be classified more specifically based on the climate and the dominant tree species present, resulting in numerous different forest types (e.g., Ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forest).
The number of trees in the world, according to a 2015 estimate, is 3 trillion, of which 1.4 trillion are in the tropics or sub-tropics, 0.6 trillion in the temperate zones, and 0.7 trillion in the coniferous boreal forests. The estimate is about eight times higher than previous estimates, and is based on tree densities measured on over 400,000 plots. It remains subject to a wide margin of error, not least because the samples are mainly from Europe and North America.[22]
Forests can also be classified according to the amount of human alteration. Old-growth forest contains mainly natural patterns of biodiversity in established seral patterns, and they contain mainly species native to the region and habitat. In contrast, secondary forest often contains significant elements of species which were originally from other regions or habitats.[citation needed]
Different global forest classification systems have been proposed, but none has gained universal acceptance.[23] UNEP-WCMC's forest category classification system is a simplification of other more complex systems (e.g. UNESCO's forest and woodland 'subformations'). This system divides the world's forests into 26 major types, which reflect climatic zones as well as the principal types of trees. These 26 major types can be reclassified into 6 broader categories: temperate needleleaf; temperate broadleaf and mixed; tropical moist; tropical dry; sparse trees and parkland; and forest plantations. Each category is described as a separate section below.
Temperate needleleaf
Temperate needleleaf forests mostly occupy the higher latitude regions of the northern hemisphere, as well as high altitude zones and some warm temperate areas, especially on nutrient-poor or otherwise unfavourable soils. These forests are composed entirely, or nearly so, of coniferous species (Coniferophyta). In the Northern Hemisphere pines Pinus, spruces Picea, larches Larix, firs Abies, Douglas firs Pseudotsuga and hemlocks Tsuga, make up the canopy, but other taxa are also important. In the Southern Hemisphere, most coniferous trees (members of the Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae) occur in mixtures with broadleaf species, and are classed as broadleaf and mixed forests.
Temperate broadleaf and mixed
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Namdapha2.jpg/170px-Namdapha2.jpg)
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests include a substantial component of trees in the Anthophyta. They are generally characteristic of the warmer temperate latitudes, but extend to cool temperate ones, particularly in the southern hemisphere. They include such forest types as the mixed deciduous forests of the United States and their counterparts in China and Japan, the broadleaf evergreen rainforests of Japan, Chile and Tasmania, the sclerophyllous forests of Australia, central Chile, the Mediterranean and California, and the southern beech Nothofagus forests of Chile and New Zealand.
Tropical moist
There are many different types of tropical moist forests, with lowland evergreen broad leaf tropical rainforests, for example várzea and igapó forests and the terra firma forests of the Amazon Basin; the peat swamp forests, dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia; and the high forests of the Congo Basin. Seasonal tropical forests, perhaps the best description for the colloquial term "jungle", typically range from the rainforest zone 10 degrees north or south of the equator, to the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Forests located on mountains are also included in this category, divided largely into upper and lower montane formations on the basis of the variation of physiognomy corresponding to changes in altitude.[24]
Tropical dry
Tropical dry forests are characteristic of areas in the tropics affected by seasonal drought. The seasonality of rainfall is usually reflected in the deciduousness of the forest canopy, with most trees being leafless for several months of the year. However, under some conditions, e.g. less fertile soils or less predictable drought regimes, the proportion of evergreen species increases and the forests are characterised as "sclerophyllous". Thorn forest, a dense forest of low stature with a high frequency of thorny or spiny species, is found where drought is prolonged, and especially where grazing animals are plentiful. On very poor soils, and especially where fire is a recurrent phenomenon, woody savannas develop (see 'sparse trees and parkland').
Sparse trees and parkland
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Urals_forest.jpg/220px-Urals_forest.jpg)
Sparse trees and parkland are forests with open canopies of 10–30% crown cover. They occur principally in areas of transition from forested to non-forested landscapes. The two major zones in which these ecosystems occur are in the boreal region and in the seasonally dry tropics. At high latitudes, north of the main zone of boreal forest or taiga, growing conditions are not adequate to maintain a continuous closed forest cover, so tree cover is both sparse and discontinuous. This vegetation is variously called open taiga, open lichen woodland, and forest tundra. It is species-poor, has high bryophyte cover, and is frequently affected by fire.
Forest plantations
Forest plantations, generally intended for the production of timber and pulpwood increase the total area of forest worldwide. Commonly mono-specific and/or composed of introduced tree species, these ecosystems are not generally important as habitat for native biodiversity. However, they can be managed in ways that enhance their biodiversity protection functions and they are important providers of ecosystem services such as maintaining nutrient capital, protecting watersheds and soil structure as well as storing carbon. They may also play an important role in alleviating pressure on natural forests for timber and fuelwood production.[citation needed]
Societal significance
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Douglaswinter.jpg/220px-Douglaswinter.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg/220px-Redwood_M_D_Vaden.jpg)
Forests may provide a diversity of ecosystem services including recycling carbon dioxide into oxygen, acting as a carbon sink, aiding in regulating climate, purify water, mitigating natural hazards such as floods, and serving as a genetic reserve. Forests also serve as a source of lumber and as recreational areas.
Some researchers state that forests do not only provide benefits, but can also incur large and significant costs to humans.[25][26] Forests may impose a considerable economic burden,[27][28] diminish the enjoyment of natural areas,[29] cause a dramatic decline in the food producing capacity of grazing land [30] and cultivated land,[31] reduce biodiversity [32][33] remove available water for humans and wildlife,[34][35] harbour dangerous and destructive wildlife,[25][36] and act as reservoirs of human and livestock disease.[37][38]
The management of forests is often referred to as forestry. Forest management has changed considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid changes from the 1980s onwards culminating in a practice now referred to as sustainable forest management. Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause-and-effect relationships. Foresters who practice sustainable forest management focus on the integration of ecological, social, and economic values, often in consultation with local communities and other stakeholders.
Humans have generally decreased the amount of forest worldwide. Anthropogenic factors that can affect forests include logging, urban sprawl, human-caused forest fires, acid rain, invasive species, and the slash and burn practices of swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation. The loss and re-growth of forest leads to a distinction between two broad types of forest, primary or old-growth forest and secondary forest. There are also many natural factors that can cause changes in forests over time including forest fires, insects, diseases, weather, competition between species, etc. In 1997, the World Resources Institute recorded that only 20% of the world's original forests remained in large intact tracts of undisturbed forest.[39] More than 75% of these intact forests lie in three countries—the boreal forests of Russia and Canada and the rainforest of Brazil.
In 2010, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations[40] reported that world deforestation, mainly the conversion of tropical forests to agricultural land, had decreased over the past ten years but still continues at a high rate in many countries. Globally, around 13 million hectares of forests were converted to other uses or lost through natural causes each year between 2000 and 2010 as compared to around 16 million hectares per year during the 1990s. The study covered 233 countries and areas. Brazil and Indonesia, which had the highest loss of forests in the 1990s, have significantly reduced their deforestation rates. China instituted a ban on logging, beginning in 1998, due to the erosion and flooding that it caused.[41] In addition, ambitious tree planting programmes in countries such as China, India, the United States and Vietnam - combined with natural expansion of forests in some regions - have added more than seven million hectares of new forests annually. As a result, the net loss of forest area was reduced to 5.2 million hectares per year between 2000 and 2010, down from 8.3 million hectares annually in the 1990s. In 2015, a study for Nature Climate Change showed that the trend has recently been reversed, leading to an "overall gain" in global biomass and forests. This gain is due especially to reforestation in China and Russia.[42] On September 7, 2015, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations released a new study stating that, over the last 25 years, the global deforestation rate has decreased by 50% due to improved management of forests and greater government protection.[43][44]
Smaller areas of woodland in cities may be managed as urban forestry, sometimes within public parks. These are often created for human benefits; Attention Restoration Theory argues that spending time in nature reduces stress and improves health, while forest schools and kindergartens help young people to develop social as well as scientific skills in forests. These typically need to be close to where the children live, for practical logistics.
Canada
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Garibaldi_National_Park_-_Garibaldi_Mountain.jpg/220px-Garibaldi_National_Park_-_Garibaldi_Mountain.jpg)
Canada has about 4,020,000 square kilometres (1,550,000 sq mi) of forest land. More than 90% of forest land is publicly owned and about 50% of the total forest area is allocated for harvesting. These allocated areas are managed using the principles of sustainable forest management, which includes extensive consultation with local stakeholders. About eight percent of Canada’s forest is legally protected from resource development.[45][46] Much more forest land—about 40 percent of the total forest land base—is subject to varying degrees of protection through processes such as integrated land use planning or defined management areas such as certified forests.[46]
By December 2006, over 1,237,000 square kilometers of forest land in Canada (about half the global total) had been certified as being sustainably managed.[47] Clearcutting, first used in the latter half of the 20th century, is less expensive, but devastating to the environment, and companies are required by law to ensure that harvested areas are adequately regenerated. Most Canadian provinces have regulations limiting the size of clearcuts, although some older clearcuts can range upwards of 110 square kilometres (27,000 acres) in size which were cut over several years.
United States
In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years improved forestry practices has helped regulate or moderate large scale or severe impacts. However, the United States Forest Service estimates a net loss of about 2 million hectares (4,942,000 acres) between 1997 and 2020; this estimate includes conversion of forest land to other uses, including urban and suburban development, as well as afforestation and natural reversion of abandoned crop and pasture land to forest. However, in many areas of the United States, the area of forest is stable or increasing, particularly in many northern states. The opposite problem from flooding has plagued national forests, with loggers complaining that a lack of thinning and proper forest management has resulted in large forest fires.[48][49]
Land area
2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
('000 km2) | ('000 mi2) | ('000 km2) | ('000 mi2) | ('000 km2) | ('000 mi2) | ('000 km2) | ('000 mi2) | ('000 km2) | ('000 mi2) | |
Australia | 1,511 | 583 | 1,502 | 580 | 1,493 | 576 | 1,473 | 569 | 1,467 | 566 |
Brazil | 5,239 | 2,023 | 5,217 | 2,014 | 5,195 | 2,006 | 5,183 | 2,001 | 5,173 | 1,997 |
Canada | 3,101 | 1,197 | 3,101 | 1,197 | 3,101 | 1,197 | 3,101 | 1,197 | 3,101 | 1,197 |
China | 2,013 | 777 | 2,041 | 788 | 2,069 | 799 | 2,159 | 834 | 2,168 | 837 |
European Union | 1,559 | 602 | 1,564 | 604 | 1,569 | 606 | 1,573 | 607 | 1,578 | 609 |
Germany | 111 | 43 | 111 | 43 | 111 | 43 | 113 | 44 | 113 | 44 |
India | 681 | 263 | 683 | 264 | 684 | 264 | 693 | 268 | 693 | 268 |
Indonesia | 958 | 370 | 951 | 367 | 944 | 364 | 937 | 362 | 931 | 359 |
Japan | 250 | 97 | 250 | 97 | 250 | 97 | 251 | 97 | 251 | 97 |
Russia | 8,090 | 3,120 | 8,090 | 3,120 | 8,091 | 3,124 | 8,092 | 3,124 | 8,093 | 3,125 |
United States | 3,033 | 1,171 | 3,036 | 1,172 | 3,040 | 1,170 | 3,049 | 1,177 | 3,051 | 1,178 |
World total | 40,318 | 15,567 | 40,261 | 15,545 | 40,204 | 15,523 | 40,184 | 15,515 | 39,519 | 15,258 |
See also
- Agroforestry
- Ancient woodland, an official classification of ancient forest in the United Kingdom.
- Biomass
- Biomass (ecology)
- Bioproduct
- Biosphere
- Boreal forest
- Canopy (biology)
- Clearcutting
- Close to nature forestry
- Cloud forest
- Chase (land)
- Deforestation
- Dendrology
- Dendrometry
- Ecological succession
- Forest dynamics
- Forest management
- Forest migration
- Forest pathology
- History of the forest in Central Europe
- Illegal logging
- Intact forest landscape
- Jungle (terrain)
- Kelp forest (A forest made mostly if not entirely of Kelp; an underwater forest)
- List of countries by forest area
- List of old-growth forests
- List of superlative trees
- List of tree genera
- List of trees and shrubs by taxonomic family
- Natural environment
- Natural landscape
- Old-growth forest (ancient forest, virgin forest, primary forest)
- Orchard
- Permaforestry
- Plantation (forestry)
- Primeval forest, a term often used interchangeably with old growth forest
- Rainforest
- REDD-plus
- Silviculture
- Stratification (vegetation)
- Subalpine forest
- Taiga, a biome characterized by coniferous forests
- Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
- Temperate coniferous forests
- Tree
- Tree allometry
- Tree farm
- Trees of the world
- Tropical rainforest
- Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests
- Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
- Wildcrafting
- Wilderness
- Woodland
- Woodland management
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{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ Liu, Yi Y.; van Dijk, Albert I.J.M.; de Jeu, Richard A.M.; Canadell, Josep G.; McCabe, Matthew F.; Evans, Jason P.; Wang, Guojie (30 March 2015). "Recent reversal in loss of global terrestrial biomass". Nature Climate Change. 5 (5): 470. Bibcode:2015NatCC...5..470L. doi:10.1038/nclimate2581.
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- ^ Brock, Emily K. (2015). Money Trees: The Douglas Fir and American Forestry, 1900-1944. Oregon State University Press.
- ^ "Forest Land Area". FAOSTAT. World Bank. 12 February 2014.
External links
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- Forests in danger
- Intact Forests with maps and reports
- Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 by the Food and Agriculture Organization
- CoolForests.org – Conservation Cools the Planet
- [1] Forest area is land under natural or planted stands of trees of at least 5 meters in situ, whether productive or not, and excludes tree stands in agricultural production systems
- Google – public data "Forest area (sq. km)"
- Luck Baker, Andrew (18 November 2008). "The first forests – Discovery 2008". BBC Online.
- "The World's 10 Most Threatened Forest Hotspots". Conservation International. 2 February 2011.