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List of military nuclear accidents

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This article lists notable military accidents involving nuclear material. Civilian accidents are listed at List of civilian nuclear accidents. For a general discussion of both civilian and military accidents, see nuclear and radiation accidents.

Scope of this article

In listing military nuclear accidents, the following criteria have been adopted:

  1. There must be well-attested and substantial health damage, property damage or contamination.
  2. The damage must be related directly to radioactive material, not merely (for example) at a nuclear power plant.
  3. To qualify as “military”, the nuclear operation/material must be principally for military purposes.

1940s

  • Shortly after the Leipzig L-IV atomic pile — worked on by Werner Heisenberg and Robert Doepel — demonstrated Germany’s first signs of neutron propagation, the device was checked for a possible heavy water leak. During the inspection air leaked in igniting the uranium powder inside. The burning uranium boiled the water jacket, generating enough steam pressure to blow the reactor apart. Burning uranium powder scattered throughout the lab causing a larger fire at the facility. [1]
A sketch of Louis Slotin’s criticality accident used to determine exposure of those in the room at the time.
  • While demonstrating his technique to visiting scientists at Los Alamos, Canadian physicist Louis Slotin manually assembled a critical mass of plutonium. A momentary slip of a screwdriver caused a prompt critical reaction. Slotin died on May 30 from massive radiation poisoning, with an estimated dose of 1,000 rads (rad), or 10 grays (Gy). Seven observers, who received doses as high as 166 rads, survived.[3] Both men, Daghlian and Slotin, were working with the same bomb core which was known as the “demon core”.

1950s

  • An American B-36 bomber #44-92075 was flying a simulated combat mission from Eielson Air Force Base, near Fairbanks, Alaska, to Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth, Texas carrying one weapon containing a dummy warhead. The warhead contained uranium instead of plutonium. After six hours of flight, the bomber experienced mechanical problems and was forced to shut down three of its engines at an altitude of 12,000 feet (3,700 m). Fearing that severe weather and icing would jeopardize a safe emergency landing, the weapon was jettisoned over the Pacific Ocean from a height of 8,000 ft (2,400 m). The weapon’s high explosives detonated upon impact. All of the sixteen crew members and one passenger were able to parachute from the plane and twelve were subsequently rescued from Princess Royal Island. The Pentagon’s summary report does not mention if the weapon was later recovered.[4]
  • Three minutes after departure from Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque a B-29 bomber carrying a nuclear weapon, four spare detonators, and a crew of thirteen crashed into a mountain near Manzano Base. The crash resulted in a fire which the New York Times reported as being visible from 15 miles (24 km) The bomb’s casing was completely demolished and its high explosives ignited upon contact with the plane’s burning fuel. However, according to the Department of Defense, the four spare detonators and all nuclear components were recovered. A nuclear detonation was not possible because, while on board, the weapon’s core was not in the weapon for safety reasons. All thirteen crew members died.[4]
  • Returning one of several U.S. Mark 4 nuclear bombs secretly deployed in Canada a B-50 had engine trouble and jettisoned the weapon at 10,500 feet (3,200 m). The crew set the bomb to self-destruct at 2,500 ft (760 m) and dropped over the St. Lawrence River. The explosion shook area residents and scattered nearly 100 pounds (45 kg) of depleted uranium used in the weapon's tamper. The plutonium core (“pit”) was not in the bomb at the time.[5]
The Castle Bravo fallout pattern.
  • During the Castle Bravo test of the first deployable hydrogen bomb, a miscalculation resulted in the explosion being over twice as large as predicted, with a total explosive force of 15 megatons of TNT (63 PJ). Of the total yield, 10 Mt (42 PJ) were from fission of the natural uranium tamper, but those fission reactions were quite dirty, producing a large amount of fallout. Combined with the much-larger-than-expected yield and an unanticipated wind shift radioactive fallout was spread eastward onto the inhabited Rongelap and Rongerik Atolls. These islands were evacuated, but many of the Marshall Islands natives have since suffered from birth defects and have received some compensation from the federal government. A Japanese fishing boat, Daigo Fukuryu Maru, also came into contact with the fallout, which caused many of the crew to take ill with one fatality. The test resulted in an international uproar and reignited Japanese concerns about radiation, especially with regard to the possible contamination of fish.
  • Operator error led to a partial core meltdown in the experimental EBR-I breeder reactor, resulting in temporarily elevated radioactivity levels in the reactor building and necessitating a significant repair.[6][7]
  • A B-47 crashed into a storage igloo spreading burning fuel over three Mark 6 nuclear bombs at RAF Lakenheath. A bomb disposal expert stated it was a miracle exposed detonators on one bomb did not fire, which presumably would have released nuclear material into the environment.[8]
  • A cooling system failure resulted in a major explosion and release of radioactive materials. Hundreds of people died and hundreds of thousands were evacuated.[13]
  • October 8–12, 1957 – Sellafield, Cumbria, UK – Reactor core fire
    See Windscale fire. Technicians mistakenly overheated Windscale Pile No. 1 during an annealing process to release Wigner energy from graphite portions of the reactor. Poorly placed temperature sensors indicated the reactor was cooling rather than heating. The excess heat lead to the failure of a nuclear cartridge, which in turn allowed uranium and irradiated graphite to react with air. The resulting fire burned for days, damaging a significant portion of the reactor core. About 150 burning fuel cells could not be lifted from the core, but operators succeeded in creating a firebreak by removing nearby fuel cells. An effort to cool the graphite core with water eventually quenched the fire. The reactor had released radioactive gases into the surrounding countryside, primarily in the form of iodine-131 (131I). Milk distribution was banned in a 200-square-mile (520 km2) area around the reactor for several weeks. A 1987 report by the National Radiological Protection Board predicted the accident would cause as many as 33 long-term cancer deaths, although the Medical Research Council Committee concluded that “it is in the highest degree unlikely that any harm has been done to the health of anybody, whether a worker in the Windscale plant or a member of the general public.” The reactor that burned was one of two air-cooled graphite-moderated natural uranium reactors at the site used for production of plutonium. [14][15][16]
  • January 31, 1958 – Morocco – Nuclear bomb damaged in crash
  • During a simulated takeoff a wheel failure caused the tail of a USAF B-47 carrying an armed nuclear weapon to hit the runway, rupturing a fuel tank and sparking a fire. Some contamination was detected immediately following the accident.[17][18]
  • March 11, 1958 – Florence, South Carolina, USA – Non-nuclear detonation of a nuclear bomb
  • A B-47 bomber flying from Savannah, Georgia accidentally released a nuclear bomb after the bomb lock failed. The chemical explosives detonated on impact in the suburban neighborhood of Florence, South Carolina. Radioactive substances were flung across the area. Several minor injuries resulted and the house on which the bomb fell was destroyed. No radiation sickness occurred.
  • A supercritical portion of highly enriched uranyl nitrate was allowed to collect in the drum causing a prompt neutron criticality in in the C-1 wing of building 9212 at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Y-12 complex. It is estimated that the reaction produced fissions. Eight employees were in close proximity to the drum during the accident, receiving neutron doses ranging from 30 to 477 rems. No fatalities were reported.[20]
  • During chemical purification a critical mass of a plutonium solution was accidentally assembled at Los Alamos National Laboratory. The crane operator died of acute radiation sickness. The March, 1961 Journal of Occupational Medicine printed a special supplement medically analyzing this accident. Hand-manipulations of critical assemblies were abandoned as a matter of policy in U.S. federal facilities after this accident.[20]
  • A chemical explosion occurred during decontamination of processing machinery in the radiochemical processing plant at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee . (Report ORNL-2989, Oak Ridge National Laboratory). The accident resulted in the release of about 15 grams (0.53 oz) of 239Pu.

1960s

  • A leak developed in the steam generators and in a pipe leading to the compensator reception on the ill-fated K-8 while the Soviet Northern Fleet November-class submarine was on exercise. While the crew rigged an improvised cooling system, radioactive gases leaked into the vessel and three of the crew suffered visible radiation injuries according to radiological experts in Moscow. Some crew members had been exposed to doses of up to 1.8 - 2 Sv (180 - 200 rem).[21]
SL-1 reactor being removed from the National Reactor Testing Station.
  • During maintenance procedures the SL-1 experimental nuclear reactor underwent a prompt critical reaction causing the water surrounding the core to explosively vaporize. A pressure wave struck the top of the reactor vessel propelling the control rods and entire reactor vessel upwards. One operator who had been standing on top of the vessel was killed when flying control rods pinned him to the ceiling. Two other military personnel supervising the maintenance operations were also killed. See SL-1.
  • January 24, 1961 – Goldsboro, North Carolina – Physical destruction of a nuclear bomb, loss of nuclear materials
    • A B-52 bomber caught fire and exploded in midair due to a major leak in a wing fuel cell 12 miles (19 km) north of Seymour Johnson Air Force Base. Five crewmen parachuted to safety, but three died—two in the aircraft and one on landing. The incident released the bomber’s two Mark 39 hydrogen bombs. Three of the four arming devices on one of the bombs activated, causing it to carry out many of the steps needed to arm itself, such as the charging of the firing capacitors and, critically, the deployment of a 100-foot (30 m) diameter retardation parachute. The parachute allowed the bomb to hit the ground with little damage. The fourth arming device — the pilot’s safe/arm switch — was not activated preventing detonation. The second bomb plunged into a muddy field at around 700 mph (300 m/s) and disintegrated. Its tail was discovered about 20 feet (6 m) down and much of the bomb recovered, including the tritium bottle and the plutonium. However, excavation was abandoned due to uncontrollable ground water flooding. Most of the thermonuclear stage, containing uranium, was left in situ. It is estimated to lie around 180 feet (55 m) below ground. The Air Force purchased the land and fenced it off to prevent its disturbance, and it is tested regularly for contamination, although none has so far been found. [22]
  • July 4, 1961 – coast of Norway – Near meltdown
    • The Soviet Hotel-class submarine K-19 suffered a failure in its cooling system. Reactor core temperatures reached 800 °C (1,000 °F), nearly enough to melt the fuel rods, although the crew was able to regain temperature control by using emergency procedures. The incident contaminated parts of the ship, some of the onboard ballistic missiles and the crew, resulting in several fatalities. The movie K-19: The Widowmaker, starring Harrison Ford and Liam Neeson, offers a controversially fictionalized story of these events.
  • January 13 1964 – Salisbury, Pennsylvania and Frostburg, Maryland, USA – Accidental loss and recovery of thermonuclear bombs
    • A B-52 on airborne alert duty encountered a severe winter storm and extreme turbulance, ultimatly disintegrating mid-air over South Central Pennsylvania[23]. Only the two pilots survived. One crew member failed to bail out and the rest succumb to injuries or exposure to the harsh winter weather. A search for the missing weapons was initiated, and recovery was effected from portions of the wreckage at a farm northwest of Frostburg, MD.
  • April 21 1964 – Indian Ocean – Launch failure of a RTG powered satellite
    • A U.S. Transit-5BN-3 nuclear-powered navigational satellite failed to reach orbital velocity and began falling back down at 150,000 feet (46 km) above the Indian Ocean. The satellite’s SNAP generator contained 16 kCi (590 TBq) of 238Pu, which at least partially burned upon reentry. Increased levels of 238Pu were first documented in the stratosphere four months later. The EPA estimated the abortive launch resulted in little 238Pu contamination to human lungs (0.06 mrem or 0.6 µSv) compared to fallout from weapons tests in the 1950s (0.35 mrem or 3.5 µSv) or the EPA’s Clean Air Act airborne exposure limit of 10 mrem (100 µSv).[24][25] All subsequent Transit satellites were fitted with solar panels.
  • January 17, 1966 – Palomares, Spain – Accidental destruction, loss and recovery of nuclear bombs
    • A B-52 carrying four hydrogen bombs collided with a USAF KC-135 jet tanker during over-ocean in-flight refueling. Four of the B-52's seven crew members parachuted to safety while the remaining three were killed along with all four of the KC-135’s crew. The conventional explosives in two of the bombs detonated upon impact with the ground, dispersing plutonium over nearby farms. A third bomb landed intact near Palomares while the fourth fell 12 miles (19 km) off the coast into the Mediterranean sea. The US Navy conducted a three month search involving 12,000 men and successfully recovered the fourth bomb. The U.S. Navy employed the use of the deep-diving research submarine DSV Alvin to aid in the recovery efforts. During the ensuing cleanup, 1,500 tonnes (1,700 short tons) of radioactive soil and tomato plants were shipped to a nuclear dump in Aiken, South Carolina. The U.S. settled claims by 522 Palomares residents for $600,000. The town also received a $200,000 desalinization plant. This accident would later be called in the Palomares hydrogen bombs incident. The motion picture Men of Honor (2000), starring Cuba Gooding, Jr. as USN Diver Carl Brashear, and Robert De Niro as USN Diver Billy Sunday, contained an account of the fourth bomb’s recovery.
  • Winter 1966-1967 (date unknown) – location unknown – loss of coolant accident
    • The Soviet icebreaker Lenin, the USSR’s first nuclear-powered surface ship, suffered a major accident (possibly a meltdown — exactly what happened remains a matter of controversy in the West) in one of its three reactors. To find the leak the crew broke through the concrete and steel radiation shield with sledgehammers, causing irreparable damage. It was rumored that around 30 of the crew were killed. The ship was abandoned for a year to allow radiation levels to drop before the three reactors were removed, to be dumped into the Tsivolko Fjord on the Kara Sea, along with 60% of the fuel elements packed in a separate container. The reactors were replaced with two new ones, and she reentered service in 1970, serving until 1989.
  • January 22, 1968 – Thule Air Base, Greenland – Loss and recovery of nuclear bombs
    • A fire broke out in the navigator’s compartment of a B-52 7 miles (11 km) south of Thule Air Base, Greenland. The bomber crashed, scattering three hydrogen bombs on land and dropping one into the sea. The recovery effort was complicated by Greenland's harsh weather. Contaminated ice and debris were buried in the United States. Bomb fragments were recycled by Pantex, in Amarillo, Texas. The incident caused outrage and protests in Denmark, as Greenland is a Danish possession and Denmark forbade nuclear weapons on its territory. One warhead was recovered by Navy SEALs and Seabees (U.S. naval engineers) in 1979. An August 2000 report suggests that the other bomb remains at the bottom of Baffin Bay.
  • May 24, 1968 – location unkown – loss of cooling, radioactive contamination, nuclear fuel damaged
    • During sea trials the Soviet nuclear submarine K-27 (Project 645) suffered severe problems with its reactor cooling systems. After spending some time at reduced power, reactor output inexplicably dropped and sensors detected an increase of gamma radiation in the reactor compartment to 150 rad/h. The safety buffer tank released radioactive gases further contaminating the submarine. The crew shut the reactor down and subsequent investigation found that approximately 20% of the fuel assemblies were damaged. The entire submarine was scuttled in the Kara Sea in 1981.
  • August 27, 1968 – Severodvinsk, Russia (then USSR) – Reactor power excursion, contamination
    • While in the naval yards at Severodvinsk for repairs Soviet Yankee-class nuclear submarine K-140 suffered an uncontrolled increase of the reactor’s power output. One of the reactors activated automatically when workers raised control rods to a higher position and power increased to 18 times normal, while pressure and temperature levels in the reactor increased to four times normal. The accident also increased radiation levels aboard the vessel. The problem was traced to the incorrect installation of control rod electrical cables.
  • May 11, 1969 – Denver, Colorado, USA – Plutonium fire, contamination
    • An accident in which 5 kilograms of plutonium burnt inside a glovebox at Rocky Flats. Cleanup took two years and was the costliest industrial accident ever to occur in the United States at that time.

1970s

  • April 17,1970 – Earth Orbit and Tonga Trench – Accidental loss of an RTG
    • Upon returning to Earth Apollo XIII jettisoned a SNAP 27 radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) that contained 3735 Ci of Pu-238[29] (215 grams (7.6 oz)*). NASA intended for astronauts to leave this device on the lunar surface, however the lunar landing was aborted. The RTG survived reentry and landed in the Pacific Ocean north east of New Zealand in the Tonga Trench. It has not been recovered.
  • December 12, 1971 – In the Thames River near New London, Connecticut, radioactive coolant water was being transferred from the submarine USS Dace to the submarine tender USS Fulton when 500 US gallons (1,900 L; 420 imp gal) were spilled into the river.
  • December 1972 – A major fire and two explosions at a plutonium fabrication plant in Pawling, New York, caused plutonium to contaminate the plant and grounds, resulting in its permanent shutdown.
  • 1975 – The American Sturgeon-class submarine USS Guardfish attempted to dump the depleted resin from its purification system (used to remove dissolved radioactive minerals and particles from the primary coolant loops of submarines). The ship was contaminated when the wind blew resin back onto the ship. This type of accident was fairly common; however, U.S. Navy nuclear vessels no longer discharge resin at sea.
  • October–November 1975 – While disabled, the submarine tender USS Proteus discharged radioactive coolant water into Apra Harbor, Guam. A Geiger counter at two of the harbor's public beaches showed 100 millirems/hour, fifty times the allowable dose.
  • August 1976 – An explosion at the Hanford site Plutonium Finishing Plant contaminated several workers. The plant converted plutonium nitrate solutions into metallic form for nuclear weapons production facilities. The explosion blew out a quarter-inch-thick lead glass window that shielded workers from radioactive materials. One 64-year-old worker, Harold McCluskey, was showered with nitric acid and radioactive pieces of glass. The worker inhaled the largest dose of 241Am ever recorded. He inhaled about 500 times the U.S. government occupational standards for the element. The worker was placed in isolation for five months and given an experimental drug to flush the isotope from his body. By 1977, his body’s radiation count had fallen by about 80 percent. When the worker returned home, friends and church members avoided him. His minister finally had to tell people it was safe to be around him. He died of natural causes in 1987 at age 75.[30]
  • 1977 – The Soviet submarine K-171 accidentally released a nuclear warhead while off the coast of Kamchatka. After a frantic search involving dozens of ships and aircraft, the warhead was recovered.[31]
  • January 24, 1978 – Cosmos 954, a Soviet Radar Ocean Reconnaissance Satellite with an onboard nuclear reactor, broke up on reentry over Canada; some radioactive pieces were recovered.
  • May 22, 1978 – Aboard the submarine USS Puffer near Puget Sound, Washington, a valve was mistakenly opened, releasing up to 500 US gallons (1,900 L; 420 imp gal) of radioactive water.
  • July 16, 1979 (34th anniversary of the Trinity test) – In Church Rock, New Mexico, the earth/clay dike of a uranium mill’s “temporary” settling/evaporating pond failed. The pond was past its planned and licensed life and had been filled 2 feet (60 cm) deeper than designed, despite evident cracking. The incident drained about 100 million US gallons (400 Ml) of radioactive liquids and 1,100 short tons (1,000 t) of solid wastes, which settled out up to 70 miles (110 km) down the Rio Puerco.[32]

1980s

  • September 18, 1980 – At about 6:30 p.m., an airman conducting maintenance on the Titan-II missile at Launch Complex 374-7 in Southside (Van Buren County), just north of Damascus, Arkansas, dropped a wrench socket, which fell about eighty feet before hitting and piercing the skin on the rocket’s first-stage fuel tank, causing it to leak. At about 3:00 a.m., on September 19, 1980, the missile exploded. The W53 warhead landed about 100 feet (30 m) from the launch complex’s entry gate; its safety features operated correctly and prevented any loss of radioactive material. An Air Force airman was killed, and the complex was destroyed.[33]
  • August 8, 1982 – While on duty in the Barents Sea, there was a release of liquid metal coolant from the reactor of the Soviet Project 705 Alfa-class submarine K-123. The accident was caused by a leak in the steam generator. Approximately two tons of metal alloy leaked into the reactor compartment, irreparably damaging the reactor such that it had to be replaced. It took nine years to repair the submarine.
  • January 3, 1983 – The Soviet nuclear-powered spy satellite Kosmos 1402 burns up over the South Atlantic.
  • August 10, 1985 – About 35 miles (56 km) from Vladivostok in Chazhma Bay, a Soviet Echo-class submarine had a reactor explosion, producing fatally high levels of radiation. Ten officers are killed, but the deadly cloud of radioactivity does not reach Vladivostok.[34]
  • 1986 – The U.S. government declassifies 19,000 pages of documents indicating that between 1946 and 1986, the Hanford Site in Richland, Washington, released thousands of US gallons (several m³) of radioactive liquids. Of 270,000 people living in the affected area, most received low doses of radiation from 131I.
  • October 3, 1986 – 480 miles (770 km) east of Bermuda, K-219, a Soviet Yankee I-class submarine experienced an explosion in one of its nuclear missile tubes and at least three crew members were killed. Sixteen nuclear missiles and two reactors were on board. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachyov privately communicated news of the disaster to U.S. President Ronald Reagan before publicly acknowledging the incident on October 4. Two days later, on October 6, the submarine sank in the Atlantic Ocean while under tow in 18,000 feet (5,500 m) of water.[35]
  • October 1988 – At the nuclear trigger assembly facility at Rocky Flats in Colorado, two employees and a D.O.E. inspector inhale radioactive particles, causing closure of the plant. Several safety violations were cited, including uncalibrated monitors, inadequate fire equipment, and groundwater contaminated with radioactivity.

1990s

  • 1997 – Georgian soldiers suffer radiation poisoning and burns. They are eventually traced back to training sources abandoned, forgotten, and unlabeled after the collapse of the Soviet Union. One was a 137Cs pellet in a pocket of a shared jacket which put out about 130,000 times the level of background radiation at 1 meter distance.Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page).

2000s

  • February 2003: Oak Ridge, Tennessee Y-12 facility. During the final testing of a new saltless uranium processing method, there was a small explosion followed by a fire. The explosion occurred in an unvented vessel containing unreacted calcium, water and depleted uranium. An exothermic reaction among these articles generated enough steam to burst the container. This small explosion breached its glovebox, allowing air to enter and ignite some loose uranium powder. Three employees were contaminated. BWXT, a partnership of BWX Technologies and Bechtel National, was fined $82,500 for the accident.[36]

See also

References

  1. ^ Irving DJC (1967 (electronic: 2002)). The Virus House. Focal Point (Parforce UK Ltd.). {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  2. ^ "Harry K. Daghlian, Jr.: America's First Peacetime Atom Bomb Fatality". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  3. ^ U.S. National Atomic Museum (1995-06-01). "Trinity Atomic Bomb". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  4. ^ a b Tiwari J, Gray CJ. "U.S. Nuclear Weapons Accidents". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  5. ^ Norris RS, Arkin WM, Burr W (1999). "Where they were". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 55 (6): p. 26–35. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Rohrig ND (2004-09-09). "Dose Reconstruction Project for NIOSH" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  7. ^ "Industrial/Warnings of Serious Risks for Nuclear Reactor Operations". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  8. ^ "nh4_1.gif". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  9. ^ "A Brief History of Nuclear Fission and its Opposition". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  10. ^ "1957 Fire". Citizen Summary: Rocky Flats Historical Public Exposures Studies. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  11. ^ Rood AS, Grogan HA. "Estimated Exposure and Lifetime Cancer Incidence Risk from Plutonium Released from the 1957 Fire at the Rocky Flats Plant". RAC Report No. 2-CDPHE-RFP-1999-FINAL. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  12. ^ Wasserman H, Solomon N. Bomb Production at Rocky Flats: Death Downwind. In: Killing Our Own: The Disaster of America's Experience with Atomic Radiation. Delta. ISBN 0-440-54566-6. Retrieved 2007-06-17. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  13. ^ "Ural Mountains Nuclear Waste". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  14. ^ "Windscale Nuclear Incident". The Virtual Nuclear Tourist. 2005-12-22. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  15. ^ "The 1957 Windscale Fire". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  16. ^ "Sellafield". United Kingdom Nuclear Forces. 2005-04-28. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  17. ^ "U.S. Department of Defense Nuclear Weapons Accident 1950-1980: Introduction". The Defense Monitor. 1981. ISSN 0195-6450. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  18. ^ a b "Broken Arrows". United Kingdom Nuclear Forces. 2005-04-28. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  19. ^ CNN (2004-09-13). "Lost nuclear bomb possibly found: Device dropped in ocean off Georgia during Cold War". CNN.com. Retrieved 2007-06-17. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  20. ^ a b Walker G. "Criticality Accidents". Trinity Atomic Web Site. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  21. ^ "K-8 submarine reactor accident, 1960". Database of radiological incidents and related events--Johnston's Archive. 2004-06-10. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  22. ^ "Broken Arrow: Goldsboro, NC". 2000-12-04. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  23. ^ "Cold War Mission Ended In Tragedy for B-52 Crew".
  24. ^ Grossman K (1997). "The Wrong Stuff: Plutonium in Space - Racism and Corporate Interests" ([dead link] – Scholar search). Earth Island Journal. 12 (4). {{cite journal}}: External link in |format= (help)
  25. ^ "Plutonium". Radiation Information. 2006-10-06. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  26. ^ ATSDR - Health Consultation - Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (U.S. DOE), Livermore, Alameda County, California
  27. ^ CNN (1998). "Cold War: Broken Arrows (1960e)". CNN.com. Retrieved 2007-06-17. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  28. ^ CNN (1998). "Cold War: Broken Arrows (1970a)". CNN.com. Retrieved 2007-06-17. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  29. ^ www.cdc.gov/niosh/OCAS/pdfs/arch/mound2.pdf
  30. ^ AP wire (2005-06-03). "Hanford nuclear workers enter site of worst contamination accident". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  31. ^ CNN (1998). "Cold War: Broken Arrows (1970d)". CNN.com. Retrieved 2007-06-17. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  32. ^ Wasserman H, Solomon N. Uranium Milling and the Church Rock Disaster. In: Killing Our Own: The Disaster of America's Experience with Atomic Radiation. Delta. ISBN 0-440-54566-6. Retrieved 2007-06-17. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  33. ^ "Titan Missile Explosion".
  34. ^ CNN (1998). "Cold War: Broken Arrows (1980b)". CNN.com. Retrieved 2007-06-17. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  35. ^ CNN (1998). "Cold War: Broken Arrows (1980c)". CNN.com. Retrieved 2007-06-17. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  36. ^ Parson P (2004-06-11). "BWXT Y-12 fined for explosion, fire". The Oak Ridger. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
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