History of Puerto Rico
The history of Puerto Rico begins with the settlement of the archipielago of Puerto Rico by Arcaico Indians sometime between 3000-2000 BC. Other tribes such as the Igneri and Arawak Indians populated the island between 120 and 1000 AD. When the Spanish arrived in the New World the dominant indigenous culture were the Taínos. However, the Taíno culture would soon cease to exist due to exploitation, war and diseases brought by the Spanish.
Located in the northeastern Caribbean Sea, Puerto Rico was key to the Spanish Empire since the early years of conquest and colonization of the New World. The smallest of the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico was a major military post during many wars between Spain and other European powers for control of the region during the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It was a stepping stone in the passage from Europe to Cuba, Mexico, Central America, and the northern territories of South America. Throughout the most of the nineteenth century and until the conclusion of the Spanish-American War, Puerto Rico and Cuba were the last two Spanish colonies in the New World and served as the final outposts in Spanish strategies to regain control of the American continents.
In 1898, during the Spanish-American war, Puerto Rico was invaded and subsequently become a possession of the United States of America. The first part of the twentieth century was marked with the struggle to obtain greater democratic rights from the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900, which established a civil government, and the Jones Act of 1917, which granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship, paved the way for the drafting of Puerto Rico's Constitution and the establishment of democratic elections in 1952. However, the political status of Puerto Rico, a Commonwealth controlled by the U.S., remains an anomaly, more than 500 years after the first Europeans settled the island.
Pre-colonial Puerto Rico
The settlement of Puerto Rico began with the arrival of the Arcaico Indians from either Florida or Central America. Some scholars suggest that their settlement dates back 5000 years [1] and an archeological dig at the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Arcaico man (named Puerto Ferro man) which was dated to around 2000 BC.[2] Afterwards, between 120 and 400 AD, the Igneri, a peaceful tribe that preceded both the Caribs and Taínos, arrived on the island.[3] Between the seventh and eleventh century Arawak Indians are thought to have settled the island of Puerto Rico. In this time, the Taíno culture developed and by approximately 1000, the Taíno culture had become dominant on the island. Taíno culture originated in the village of Saladero at the basin of the Orinoco River in Venezuela.[4] They arrived at Puerto Rico by migrating across the Lesser Antilles At the time of Columbus' arrival, an estimated 30-60 thousand mainly Taíno Amerindians inhabited the island which they called Boriken, meaning "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord".[5] The natives lived in small villages led by a cacique (or chief). Taínos subsisted on hunting, fishing and gathering of indigenous cassava root and fruits. When the Spaniards arrived in 1493, conflicts with raiding Carib Indians, who were moving up the Antilles chain, were taking place. At this time, the principal cacique of Boriken was Agüeybaná. The domination of the Taíno culture on the island was about to end as the Spanish arrival would mark the beginning of their extinction. However, the culture is strongly embedded in Puerto Rican culture today. Musical instruments such as maracas and güiro, the hammock, and words such as Mayagüez, Arecibo, iguana, huracán (hurricane) represent some examples of the legacy left by the Taíno culture in this world.
Spanish rule (1493-1898)
Colonization begins
Christopher Columbus set sail from Cádiz on September 25, 1493, with 17 ships and 1,200-1,500 men for his second voyage.[6] On November 19, 1493, Columbus landed on the island in the name of the king and queen of Spain, naming it San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist. The first settlement, Caparra, was founded on August 8, 1508 by Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, who later became the first governor of the island.[7] The following year, the settlement was abandoned in favor of a nearby islet on the coast which had a suitable harbor. Two years later, in 1511, a second settlement, San Germán, would be established in the southwestern part of the island. By the 1520s, the island took the name of Puerto Rico while the port became San Juan.
Colonization took shape as encomienda settlements, where settlers enslaved Taínos as laborers and in return Taínos were provided with military protection.[1] To stop the exploitation of the indigenous people and because of pressure by the Roman Catholic Church the Burgos' Laws were issued on December 27, 1512 by Ferdinand II of Aragon. The laws, among other things, prohibited the use of any form of punishment toward the indigenous people, regulated their work hours, pay, hygiene, and care and ordered them to be catechesized. This modification of the encomiendas was called the repartimiento system. However, the laws were mostly ignored and reality was more akin to abject slavery. In 1511, the Taínos would strike back, revolting against the Spanish. It is claimed that cacique Urayoán, as planned by Agüeybaná II, ordered his warriors to drown Diego Salcedo to determine whether or not the Spaniards were immortal. After drowning Diego, they kept watch over his body for three days until they were sure that he was dead.[8] The revolt was easily crushed by Ponce de León, who ordered thousands killed. Within a few decades much of the native population had been decimated by disease, violence, and a high occurance of suicide.[1]
The Roman Catholic Church, realizing the opportunity to expand its influence, also "colonized" the island. On August 8, 1511, Pope Julius II established three dioceses in the New World, one in Puerto Rico and two on the island of Hispaniola under the archbishop of Seville.[9] The Canon of Salamanca, Alonso Manso, was appointed bishop of the Puerto Rican diocese. On September 26, 1512, before his arrival on the island, the first school of advanced studies was established by the bishop.[10] Taking possession in 1513 he became the first bishop to arrive in America. Puerto Rico would also become the first ecclesiastical headquarters in the New World during the reign of Pope Leo X and the general headquarters of the Spanish Inquisition in the New World.[11]
As part of the colonization process African slaves were introduced to the island in 1513. Over the years, following the decline of the Taíno population, many more slaves were brought to Puerto Rico. However, the number of slaves in the island paled in comparison to those in neighboring islands. Also, at this early time of colonization attempts were made to wrestle control of Puerto Rico away from Spain. The Caribs, a raiding tribe of the Caribbean, attacked Spanish settlements along the banks of the Daguao and Macao rivers in 1514 and again in 1521 but each time they were easily repelled by the superior Spanish firepower. However, these would not be the last attempts to wrestle control of Puerto Rico. The European powers would quickly realize the potential of these newly discovered lands and would attempt to gain control of them.
European threats
Sparked by the possibility of immense wealth the 16th, 17th and 18th century saw many attempts by the European powers to wrestle control of the Americas away from Spain. This, in turn, led to many invasions of the island of Puerto Rico. These invasions had varying degrees of success but, in the end, all failed to maintain permanent control of the island. In 1528, the French, recognizing the strategic value of Puerto Rico, sacked and burned the southwest town of San Germán.[12] They also destroyed many of the island's first settlements, including Guánica, Sotomayor, Daguao and Loíza, before the local militia forced them to retreat. The only settlement that remained was the capital, San Juan. Spain, also recognizing the strategic value of Puerto Rico, began the fortification of the inlet of San Juan in the early 16th century. In 1532, construction of the first fortifications would begin with La Fortaleza ("the Fortress") near the entrance to San Juan bay.[13] Seven years later, in 1539, the construction of massive defenses around San Juan began, including Fort San Felipe del Morro astride the entrance to San Juan bay.[13] Later, Fort San Cristóbal and Fort San Jerónimo also garrisoned troops and defended against land attacks. These forts were built with a financial subsidy from the Mexican mines. In 1587, engineers Juan de Tejada and Juan Bautista Antonelli redesigned Fort San Felipe del Morro. These changes still endure today. Template:Inote
On November 22, 1595, Sir Francis Drake, with 27 vessels and 2,500 troops, sailed into San Juan Bay in an attempt to loot the city.[14] Even though San Juan was set ablaze, they were unable to defeat the entrenched forces in the forts. With the knowledge of Drake's failure to overtake the defenses of the city by sea, on June 15, 1598, the British Navy led by George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland, landed troops from 21 ships to the east in Santurce. Spanish resistance was met while Clifford and his men were attempting to cross the San Antonio bridge (from an area known today as Condado) into the islet of San Juan. The Earl of Cumberland nearly drowned after falling into the water in heavy armor. Nonetheless, the British conquered the island and held it for several months. They were forced to abandon the island owing to an outbreak of dysentery among the troops. The following year Spain sent soldiers, cannons and a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to rebuild the city of San Juan.
The 17th century and 18th centuries saw more attacks on the island of Puerto Rico. On September 25, 1625, the Dutch attacked San Juan under the leadership of Boudewijn Hendrick (Balduino Enrico), besieging Fort San Felipe del Morro and La Fortaleza. Residents fled the city and the Spanish, led by Governor Juan de Haro were able to repel the Dutch troops from Fort San Felipe del Morro. In their retreat the Dutch set the city ablaze. Meanwhile, the fortification of San Juan continued. In 1634, Philip IV of Spain fortified Fort San Cristóbal, along with six fortresses linked by a line of sandstone walls surrounding the city. In 1702, the British assaulted the town of Arecibo, located on the north coast, west of San Juan, with no success. In 1797, the French and Spanish declared war on England. The British attempted again to conquer the island, attacking San Juan with an invasion force of 7,000 British troops and an armada consisting of 64 warships[15]under the command of General Ralph Abercromby. Captain General Don Ramón de Castro and his army successfully resisted the attack.[16]
Amidst the constant attacks the first threads of Puerto Rican society emerge. In 1765, a census of the population is conducted by Lt. General Alejandro O'Reilly. The total population was only 44,883. Of these, 5,037 (11.2%) were slaves. This constitutes a low percentage when compared to the other Spanish colonies in the Caribbean. In 1786, the first comprehensive book of Puerto Rico was published by Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra. The book, titled Historia Geográfica, Civil y Política de Puerto Rico, was published in Madrid, and constitutes a complete history of Puerto Rico from the time of its discovery in 1493 until 1783.[17] The book also presents a first hand account of Puerto Rican identity, including music, clothing, personality and nationality among other topics.
Early nineteenth century
The 19th century brought many changes to the status quo of Puerto Rico. Some of these changes were of a political nature while others related to Puerto Rican society. In 1809, the Spanish government, in opposition to Napoleon, was convened in Cádiz in Southernmost Spain. While still swearing allegiance to the king, the Cortes invited voting representatives from the colonies. Ramón Power y Giralt was nominated as the local delegate to the Cádiz Cortes. The Power Law soon followed, which designated five ports for free commerce, Fajardo, Mayagüez, Aguadilla, Cabo Rojo and Ponce, and also established economic reforms in the interest of developing a more efficient economy.[18] In 1812, the Cádiz Constitution was adopted, dividing Spain and its territories into provinces, each with a local corporation or council to promote its prosperity and defend its interests, and granted Puerto Ricans conditional citizenship. On August 10, 1815, the Royal Decree of Grace was issued, allowing foreigners to enter Puerto Rico (including French refugees from Hispaniola), and opened the port to trade with nations other than Spain. This was the beginning of an agriculture-based economic growth, with sugar, tobacco and coffee being the main products. The Decree also gave free land to anyone who swore their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Many people from Germany, Corsica, Ireland, France, Portugal, the Canary Islands and other locations, escaping from harsh economic times in Europe and lured by the offer of free land, soon inmigrated to Puerto Rico. However, these small gains in autonomy and rights were short lived. After the fall of Napoleon, absolute power returned to Spain which revoked the Cádiz Constitution and reinstated Puerto Rico to its former condition of a colony, subject to the unrestricted power of the Spanish monarch.
Aside from the integration of immigrants to Puerto Rican culture other events further changed Puerto Rican society. On June 25, 1835, Queen María Cristina abolished the slave trade to Spanish colonies. In 1851, Governor Juan de la Pezuela Cevallos founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. The academy licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests which promoted the intellectual and literary progress of the island. In 1858, the telegraph was introduced into the island with the assistance of Samuel Morse when he installed a line in the town of Arroyo at Havienda La Enriqueta.
The struggle for autonomy
The latter half of the 19th century was marked by the Puerto Rican struggle for autonomy. A census conducted in 1860 revealed a population of 583,308. Of these 300,406 (51.5%) were white and 282,775 (48.5%) were colored (which included Blacks, Mulattos and Mestizos).[19] The majority of the population was illiterate (83.7%) and lived in poverty. The agriculture industry, which at the time was the main source of income, was hampered by lack of roads, rudimentary tools and equipment and natural disasters, such as hurricanes and droughts. The economy also suffered from increasing tariffs and taxes imposed by the Spanish Crown. Furthermore, Spain had also begun to exile or jail any person who called for liberal reforms.
On September 23, 1868, hundreds of women and men in the town of Lares, stricken by poverty and political estrangement from Spain, revolted against Spanish rule seeking Puerto Rican independence. El Grito de Lares ("Lares Cry" or "Lares Uprising") was planned by a group led by Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances, at the time exiled to the Dominican Republic, and Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Dr. Betances had founded the Comité Revolucionario de Puerto Rico (Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico) in January 1868. The most important figures in the uprising were Manuel Rojas, Mathias Brugman, Mariana Bracetti, Francisco Ramirez Medina and Lola Rodríguez de Tió. The uprising, although significant, was easily crushed.
As a result of the Grito de Lares political and social reforms would occur toward the end of the 19th century. On June 4, 1870, as a result of the efforts of Roman Baldorioty de Castro, Luis Padial and Julio Vizcarrondo, the Moret Law is approved, in which liberty was given to slaves born after September 17, 1868 or over 60 years old and on March 22, 1873, the Spanish National Assembly officially abolished, with a few special clauses[20], slavery in Puerto Rico. In 1870, the first political organizations on the island were formed as two factions emerged. The Traditionalists, known as the Partido Liberal Conservador (Liberal Conservative Party) and led by José R. Fernández, Pablo Ubarri and Francisco Paula Acuña, advocated assimilation into the political party system of Spain. Meanwhile,the Autonomists, known as the Partido Liberal Reformista (Liberal Reformist Party) and led by Román Baldorioty de Castro, José Julián Acosta, Nicolás Aguayo and Pedro Gerónimo Goico advocated decentralization away from Spanish control. Both parties would later change their names to Partido Federal Reformista (Reformist Federal Party) and Partido Español Incondicional (Unconditional Spanish Party), respectively. In March 1887, the Partido Federal Reformista was reformed and named the Partido Autonomista Puertorriqueño (Puerto Rican Autonomist Party). It tried to create a political and legal identity for Puerto Rico while emulating Spain in all political matters. It was led by Román Baldorioty de Castro, José Celso Barbosa, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón and Luis Muñoz Rivera.
The struggle for autonomy came close to achieving its goal when on November 25, 1897, the Carta Autonómica (Autonomic Charter) was approved in Spain. It conceded political and administrative autonomy to the island. It also allowed the island to retain its representation in the Spanish Cortes, and provided for a bicameral legislature.[21] This legislature consisted of a Council of Administration with eight elected and seven appointed members, and a Chamber of Representatives with one member for every 25,000 inhabitants. That same year, the Partido Autonomista Ortodoxo (Orthodox Autonomist Party) would be founded, led by José Celso Barbosa and Manuel Fernández Juncos. On February 9, 1898, the new government officially began. Governor General Manuel Macías, who had no authority to intervene in civil and political matters unless authorized to do so by the Cabinet, inaugurated the new government of Puerto Rico under the Autonomous Charter which gave town councils complete autonomy in local matters.[21] However, the partially autonomous government would be short lived as Puerto Rico was about to be invaded by the United States of America in the onset of the Spanish-American War.
Invasion of 1898
On March 10, 1898, Dr. Julio J. Henna and Robert H. Todd, leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, began to correspond with United States President William McKinley and the United States Senate in hopes that they would consider including Puerto Rico the intervention planned for Cuba. Henna and Todd also provided the U.S. government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island. On April 24, Spanish Minister of Defense Segismundo Bermejo sent instructions to Spanish Admiral Cervera to proceed with his fleet from Cape Verde to the Caribbean, Cuba and Puerto Rico.[21]
In May, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission. He provided maps and information on the Spanish military forces to the U.S. government that would be useful for an invasion. On May 10, Spanish forces at Fort San Cristóbal in San Juan exchanged fire with the USS Yale under the command of Capt. William C. Wise. Two days later on May 12, a squadron of 12 U.S. ships commanded by Rear Adm. William T. Sampson bombarded San Juan, causing panic among the residents. On June 25, the USS Yosemite blocked San Juan harbor. On July 18, General Nelson A. Miles, commander of U.S. forces, received orders to sail for Puerto Rico and to land his troops. On July 21, a convoy with nine transports and 3,300 soldiers, escorted by USS Massachusetts (BB-2), sailed for Puerto Rico from Guantánamo.[21] General Nelson Miles landed unopposed at Guánica, located in the southern coast of the island, on July 25, 1898 with the first contingent of American troops. Opposition was met in the southern and central regions of the island but by the end of August the island was under United States control.
On August 12, peace protocols were signed in Washington, DC. U.S. and Spanish Commissions met in San Juan on September 9, to discuss the details of the withdrawal of Spanish troops and the cession of the island to the United States. On October 1, an initial meeting is held in Paris to draft the Peace Treaty and on December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris is signed (ratified by the U.S. Senate February 6, 1899).[22] Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded Guam and Puerto Rico and its dependent islets to the United States, and transferred sovereignty over the Philippines to the United States for $20,000,000.[21] General John R. Brooke became the first United States military governor of the island.
Rule under the United States of America (1898-Present)
Military government
After the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1898 Puerto Rico came under the military control of the United States of America. This brought about many changes which are still in effect today. The name of the island was changed to Porto Rico (The name would be changed back to Puerto Rico in 1932) and the currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the United States dollar. Freedom of assembly, speech, press, and religion were decreed and an eight-hour day for government employees was established. A public school system was begun and the U.S. Postal service was extended to the island. The highway system was enlarged, and bridges over the more important rivers were constructed. The government lottery was abolished, cockfighting was forbidden, and a centralized public health service established. Health conditions were poor with high rates of infant mortality and numerous endemic diseases. In 1920, tuberculosis, malaria and un-cinariasis (hookworm), together with infant mortality, still accounted for 60% of the total death rate.
The beginning of the military government also marked the creation of new political groups. The "Partido Republicano" (Republican Party) and the American Federal Party were created. They were led, respectively, by José Celso Barbosa and Luis Muñoz Rivera. Both groups supported the annexation to the United States as a solution to the colonial situation.
Disaster also struck as two hurricanes ravaged the island in August, Hurricane San Ciriaco on August 8, and another unnamed hurricane on August 22. Approximately 3,400 people died in the floods and thousands were left without shelter, food, or work. The effects on the economy were devastating as millions of dollars were lost due to the destruction of the majority of the sugar and coffee plantations.
Foraker Act of 1900
The rule of the military government in Puerto Rico was short lived. It was disbanded on April 2, 1900 when the US Congress enacted the Foraker Act (also known as the Organic Act of 1900), under sponsorship of Senator Joseph B. Foraker.[23] This act established a civil government and free commerce between the island and the United States. The structure of the insular government included a governor appointed by the president, an executive council (the equivalent of a senate), and a legislature with 35 members, though the executive veto required a two-thirds vote to over-ride. The first appointed civil governor, Charles Herbert Allen, was inaugurated on May 1, 1900.[23] On June 5, President McKinley appointed an Executive Council which included five Puerto Rican members and six U.S. members.[24] The act also established the creation of a judicial system headed by the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico and allowed Puerto Rico to send a Resident Commissioner as a representative to Congress.[23] The Department of Education was subsequently formed, headed by Dr. M. G. Braumbaugh (later governor of Pennsylvania). Teaching was conducted entirely in English with Spanish treated as a special subject. However, both Spanish and English were official languages in the island. On November 6, the first elections under the Foraker Act were held with 123,140 registered voters and on December 3, the first Legislative Assembly took office. Federico Degetau takes office in Washington as the first Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico on March 14, 1901.
The new political status sparked the creation of more political groups in the island. In 1900, the Partido Federal (Federal Party) was founded. The party campaigned for Puerto Rico to become one of the states in the United States. Four years later, in 1904, Luis Muñoz Rivera and José de Diego restructured the American Federal Party into the Partido Unionista de Puerto Rico (Unionist Party of Puerto Rico) with the intention of fighting against the colonial government established under the Foraker Act. In 1909, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, Manuel Zeno Gandía, Luis Llorens Torres, Eugenio Benítez Castaño, and Pedro Franceschi founded the Partido Independentista (Independence Party). It was the first political party whose agenda was the independence of Puerto Rico.
The status quo would again be altered in 1909 when the Foraker Act, due to weaknesses and a small crisis in Puerto Rico's government, was modified by the Olmsted Amendment. This Amendment placed the supervision of Puerto Rican affairs in the jurisdiction of an executive department to be designated by the president.[25] In 1914, the first Puerto Rican officers, Martin Travieso (Secretary) and Manuel V. Domenech (Commissioner of Interiors), were assigned to the Executive Cabinet, allowing islanders a majority. A 1915 delegation from Puerto Rico, accompanied by the Governor Arthur Yager, traveled to Washington in order to ask Congress to grant the island more autonomy. This delegation and speeches made by Resident Commisioner Luis Muñoz Rivera in Congress, coupled with political and economic interests, led to the drafting of the Jones Act of 1917.
Jones Act of 1917
The Jones Act was approved on December 5, 1916, and signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on March 2, 1917.[26] The law made Puerto Rico a United States territory which is "organized but unincorporated". It also granted U.S. citizenship to all Puerto Ricans.[26] The Act allowed conscription to be extended to the island, which sent 20,000 soldiers to the U.S. Army during the First World War. The Act also divided gubermental powers into three branches: executive (appointed by the President of the United States), legislative, and judicial. The legislative branch was composed by the senate, consisting of 19 members, and a house of representatives, consisting of 39 members.[26] The members of the legislature were freely elected by the Puerto Rican people. A bill of rights was also created, and it established that elections were to be held every four years. The Act also made English the official language of the Puerto Rican courts.
On October 11, 1918, an earthquake occurred, with an approximate magnitude of 7.3 on the Richter scale and was accompanied by a tsunami reaching 6.1 metres (20 feet) in height.[27] The epicenter was located northwest of Aguadilla in the Mona Canyon (between Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic).[27] This earthquake caused great damage and loss of life at Mayagüez, and lesser damage along the west coast. Tremors continued for several weeks.
As a consequence of the Jones Act and the establishment of elections, new political parties were created in the 1920s. In June 1920, the Partido Socialista Puertorriqueño (Socialist Puerto Rican Party) was founded by Santiago Iglesias Pantín. Two years later, on September 17, 1922, the Partido Nacionalista de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rican Nationalist Party) was founded. In the 1930s, the Nationalist Party, led by Pedro Albizu Campos withdrew from political participation and increased conflict arose between their adherents and the authorities. They attacked Blanton Winship, the appointed Governor of Puerto Rico, Elisha Francis Riggs Chief of Police, and Robert A. Cooper Judge of the Federal Tribunal in Puerto Rico. On February 23, 1936, two Nationalists Hiram Rosado and Elias Beauchamp, in retaliation for the "Rio Piedras Massacre", killed Police Chief Riggs in San Juan. They were apprehended and summarily executed at police headquarters. On July 31, 1936, Pedro Albizu Campos, Juan Antonio Corretjer, Clemente Soto Vélez and other Nationalists were sentenced to 6-10 years in federal prison. Later, in 1937, police opened fire at a Nacionalista de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rican Nationalist) Party parade, known as the "Ponce Massacre"; 20 people were killed and 100 wounded.
In the 1920s the economy of Puerto Rico was booming. The drastic increase in the price of sugar, Puerto Rico's principal export, brought increasing revenues to the island. As a result the island's infrastructure was steadily upgraded. New schools, roads and bridges were constructed. The increase in private wealth was reflected in the erection of many residences, while the development of commerce and agriculture stimulated the extension of banking and transport facilities. The high infant mortality death rate of the late 19th century declined steadily, thanks in large measure to basic public health programs. However, the economic growth would come to a screeching halt in 1929 when the United States stock market crashed.
The Great Depression hit the island hard. At the time, agriculture was the main contributor to the economy.[28] Industry and commerce slowed during the 1930s as well.[29] The depression was further aggravated when on September 27, 1932, Hurricane San Ciprián struck the island. Exact figures of the destruction are not known but estimates say that 200-300 people were killed, more than a thousand were injured, and property damage escalated to $30-50 million.[30] The agricultural production, the principal economic driver for the island, came to a standstill. However, the decline of the economy would not end there. A new federal minimum wage law of 25 cents an hour took effect in 1938. As a consequence, two thirds of the island's textile factories closed because worker productivity was below that level.
Establishment of the Commonwealth
After World War II social, political and economical changes began to take place which would resonate until today. The end of World War II saw the beginning of a two decade migration to the continental United States, mainly to New York. The main reasons for this were an undesirable economic situation brought by the Great Depression and the heavy recruitment made by the U.S. armed forces and U.S. companies.[31] Currently more than 2 million Puerto Ricans live abroad. Political changes began in 1946 when President Truman designated the first native as governor of Puerto Rico, Commisioner Resident Jesús T. Piñero, and when one year later the United States Congress passed an act allowing Puerto Ricans to vote for their own governor. The first elections under this act were performed on November 2, 1948. Luis Muñoz Marín, president of the Puerto Rican senate, successfully campaigned and became the first democratically elected Governor of the island on January 2, 1949. In the 1950s, an ambitious industrialization project dubbed Operation Bootstrap was launched under governor Muñoz Marín. It was coupled with agrarian reform (land redistribution) which limited the area that could be held by large sugarcane interests. Operation Bootstrap enticed U.S. mainland investors to transfer or create manufactoring plants by granting them local and federal tax concessions, but maintaining the access to US markets free of import duties. Another incentive were the lower wage scales in the densely populated island, which had a rising urban unemployed population. The program accelerated the shift from an agricultural to an industrial society.[32] The 1950s saw the development of labor-intensive light industries, such as textiles; later manufacturing gave way to heavy industry, such as petrochemicals and oil refining, in the 1960s and 1970s.[33] Muñoz Marín's development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class. The industrialization was in part fueled by generous local incentives and freedom from federal taxation, while providing access to continental U.S. markets without import duties. As a result, a rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class.
On July 4, 1950, President Harry S. Truman signed Public Act 600, which allowed Puerto Ricans to draft their own constitution establishing the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The U.S. Congress had granted commonwealth status on Puerto Rico which enhanced Puerto Rico's political status from protectorate to commonwealth. This, coupled with Muñoz Marín's reversal on not pursuing Puerto Rican Independence angered some Puerto Ricans. On late October 1950, a group of Puerto Rican nationalists,led by Pedro Albizu Campos, staged several revolts, the most successful of which is known as the Jayuya Uprising. The revolts included an attack on the governor's mansion, La Fortaleza, the United States Capitol and at Blair House, where nationalists attempted to assassinate United States President Harry S. Truman. These acts led Muñoz to crack down on Puerto Rican Nationalists and advocates of Puerto Rican Independence. The actions by both Muñoz and the United States' Government would later be determined as infringing on constitutional rights.[34][35] On July 25, 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by voters in a referendum, and the island organized as the Estado Libre Asociado (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico).[36] That same year marked the first time that the Flag of Puerto Rico could be publically displayed.[37]
The Partido Estadistas Unidos (United Statehooders Party) was founded by Luis A. Ferré to campaign for statehood in the 1967 plebiscite. On July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico was held. Voters overwhelmingly affirmed continuation of Commonwealth status (Commonwealth–60.4% Statehood–39%; Independence–0.6%).[38] Other plebiscites have taken place to determine the political status of Puerto Rico, one in 1993 and another in 1998. Both times, although by smaller margins, the status quo has been upheld.[39] However, the U.S. constitution does not mention this avenue of status, hence legally the island remains territory of the U.S. under congressional supervision. Estadistas Unidos organized the Partido Nuevo Progresista (New Progressive Party) under Ferré's leadership. The party campaigned for Puerto Rico to become the 51st state in the Union. Luis A. Ferré was elected governor on November 5, 1968, with 43.6% of the vote, the first time a pro-statehood governor has received a majority. The New Progressive Party, the Popular Democratic Party and the Independence Party constitute the current established political parties in the island.
Present-day Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing center. Still, Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status. Even though Puerto Rico was granted local autonomy in 1952 it remains a territory of the United States. This ambiguity continues to spark political debates which dominate Puerto Rican society. Economically, Puerto Rico has recently seen its credit rating downgraded to Baa2 by Moody's Inverstor Services with the possibility of more downgrades happening in the near future.[40] This has led to fiscal reforms to reduce government spending, increase revenues and balance the budget.
See also
- Black history in Puerto Rico
- List of Registered Historic Places in Puerto Rico
- List of Puerto Ricans
- Military history of Puerto Rico
References
Cited references
- ^ a b c Rouse, Irving. The Tainos : Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus ISBN 0300056966.
- ^ Mahaffy, Cheryl (January 28, 2006). "Vieques Island - What lies beneath". Edmonton Journal. Retrieved February 11.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Blackburn Moreno, Ronald (February 2001). "Brief Chronology of Puerto Rico" (PDF). ASPIRA Association, Inc. Retrieved February 11.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Figueroa, Ivonne (July 1996). "Taínos". Retrieved March 20.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Chief Pedro Guanikeyu Torres. "The Dictionary of the Taíno Language". Taino Inter-Tribal Council Inc. Retrieved February 11.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "The second voyage of Columbus". World Book, Inc. Retrieved February 11.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Vicente Yañez Pinzón is considered the first appointed governor of Puerto Rico, but he never arrived at the island.
- ^ Mari, Brenda A. (April 22, 2005). "The Legacy of Añasco: Where the Gods Come to Die". Puerto Rico Herald. Retrieved March 1.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Jones, W.A. "Porto Rico". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved March 4.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Religion". Puerto Rico: A Guide to the Island of Boriquén. Federal Writers Project. 1940. Retrieved March 6.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Puerto Rico and the Death Penalty". Death Penalty Information Center. Retrieved March 21.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ French corsairs would again sack San Germán in 1538 and 1554.
- ^ a b "La Fortaleza/San Juan National Historic Site, Puerto Rico". National Parks Services. Retrieved March 1.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "The Life of Sir Francis Drake". July 20, 2004. Retrieved March 1.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ The exact number of ships and troops is presently uncertain. The number of ships varies from 60 to 64 ships and the number of troops varies from 7,000 to 13,000. No exact number of ships is given by British accounts. For more information see Alonso, María M., The Eighteenth Century Caribbean & The British Attack on Puerto Rico in 1797 ISBN 1881713202.
- ^ Alonso, María M. "Chapter XIV - Abercromby's Siege". The Eighteenth Century Caribbean & The British Attack on Puerto Rico in 1797. Retrieved February 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Template:Es icon Abbad y Lasierra, Iñigo. Historia Geográfica, Civil y Política de Puerto Rico. ISBN 0847708004.
- ^ Template:Es icon "Aspectos políticos en Puerto Rico: 1765-1837". Retrieved March 4.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Grose, Howard B.,Advance in the Antilles ASIN B00085O1E8
- ^ These clauses included that slaves were required to continue working for three more years and that the owners would be compensated 35 million pesetas per slave.
- ^ a b c d e "Chronology of Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War". Library of Congress. Retrieved March 10.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ The American peace commission consisted of William R. Day, Sen. Cushman K. Davis, Sen. William P. Frye, Sen. George Gray, and the Hon. Whitelaw Reid. The Spanish commission was headed by Eugenio Montero Ríos, the President of the Senate. Jules Cambon, a French diplomat, also negotiated on Spain's behalf.
- ^ a b c "Foraker Act (Organic Act of 1900)". Library of Congress. Retrieved March 10.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ The Pueto Rican members were José Celso Barbosa, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, José de Diego, Manuel Camuñas and Andrés Crosas. The U.S. members were William H. Hunt, Secretary; Jacob Hollander, Treasurer; J. R. Garrison, Auditor; W. B. Eliot, Interiors; James A. Harlan, Attorney General; and Dr. Martin G. Brumbaugh, Secretary of Education.
- ^ "An American Empire: Relations with Territories gained in the Treaty of Paris 1898". National Center for History in the Schools Standards. Retrieved March 21.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c "Jones Act". Library of Congress. Retrieved March 10.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b "Earthquake of 1918". Puerto Rico Seismic Network. Retrieved March 12.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Agriculture". Puerto Rico: A Guide to the Island of Boriquén. Federal Writers Project. 1940. Retrieved March 6.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Industry, Commerce, and Labor". Puerto Rico: A Guide to the Island of Boriquén. Federal Writers Project. 1940. Retrieved March 6.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Hodgson, Michael, E. and Palm, Risa I. Natural Hazards in Puerto Rico: Attitudes, Experience, and Behavior of Homeowners. 1993.
- ^ "Puerto Rico: Migrating to a new land". Library of Congress. April 22, 2004. Retrieved March 10.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Resistance in Paradise: Rethinking 100 Years of U.S. Involvement in the Caribbean and the Pacific". American Friends Service Committee. Retrieved March 19.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ "Luis Muñoz Marín Foundation". Retrieved February 25.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ González, Juan (May 23, 2000). "FBI Files on Puerto Ricans". Retrieved March 24.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Freedom of Information and Privacy Acts Section" (PDF). Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved March 24.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ A literal translation of Estado Libre Asociado would be Free Associated State but since the U.S. is composed of states it was deemed cumbersome to make this the official name, hence Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was chosen.
- ^ From 1895 to 1952 the Puerto Rican flag was outlawed.
- ^ "Elections in Puerto Rico: Results 1967 Plebiscite". Retrieved March 14.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ For the complete statistics regarding these plebiscites please refer to Elections in Puerto Rico:Results.
- ^ "Moody's places Puerto Rico's credit rating in watchlist for a possible downgrade" (PDF). Government Development Bank of Puerto Rico. Retrieved March 15.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help)
General references
- Fernández, Ronald (1996). The Disenchanted Island : Puerto Rico and the United States in the Twentieth Century (2nd ed.). Praeger Paperback. ISBN 0275952274.
- Jiménez de Wagenheim, Olga (2002). The Puerto Ricans: A Documentary History. Markus Wiener Publishers. ISBN 1558762914.
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- Morales Carrión, Arturo (1984). Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393301931.
- Dietz, James L. (1987). Economic History of Puerto Rico. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691022488.
- Van Middledyk, R.A. (2004). The History of Puerto Rico. IndyPublish.com. ISBN 1414230370.
- "History: Puerto Rico". Retrieved March 19.
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Additional reading
- Rivera Batiz, Francisco L. (1998). Island Paradox: Puerto Rico in the 1990s. Russell Sage Foundation Publications. ISBN 0871547511.
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- Duany, Jorge (2002). The Puerto Rican Nation on the Move: Identities on the Island and in the United States. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807853720.
- Cordasco, Francesco (1973). The Puerto Rican Experience: A Sociological Sourcebook. Littlefield Adams. ISBN 0822602598.
- Johnson, Robert D. (1997). "Anti-Imperialism And The Good Neighbour Policy: Ernest Gruening and Puerto Rican Affairs, 1934–1939". Journal of Latin American Studies. 29 (1): 89–110.