Jump to content

Pangolin

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Aurora2698 (talk | contribs) at 02:20, 12 March 2020 (pandemic now). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

"Pholidota" redirects here. For the orchid, see Pholidota (plant).

Pangolin
Temporal range: Paleocene–Present
Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica)
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Clade: Pholidotamorpha
Order: Pholidota
Suborder: Eupholidota
Superfamily: Manoidea
Weber, 1904
Family: Manidae
Gray, 1821
Genera
Species ranges
  Manis crassicaudata
  Manis pentadactyla
  Manis javanica
  Manis culionensis
  Phataginus tricuspis
  Phataginus tetradactyla
  Smutsia gigantea
  Smutsia temminckii
A pangolin in defensive posture, Horniman Museum, London

Pangolins or scaly anteaters[2] are mammals of the order Pholidota (from the Greek word φολῐ́ς, "horny scale"). The one extant family, Manidae, has three genera: Manis, which comprises the four species found in Asia; Phataginus and Smutsia, each including two species living in Sub-Saharan Africa.[3] These species range in size from 30 to 100 cm (12 to 39 in). A number of extinct pangolin species are also known.

Pangolins have large, protective keratin scales covering their skin; they are the only known mammals with this feature. They live in hollow trees or burrows, depending on the species. Pangolins are nocturnal, and their diet consists of mainly ants and termites, which they capture using their long tongues. They tend to be solitary animals, meeting only to mate and produce a litter of one to three offspring, which are raised for about two years.

Pangolins are threatened by poaching (for their meat and scales, which are used in Chinese traditional medicine) and heavy deforestation of their natural habitats, and are the most trafficked mammals in the world.[4] As of January 2020, of the eight species of pangolin, three (Manis culionensis, M. pentadactyla and M. javanica) are listed as critically endangered, three (Phataginus tricuspis, Manis crassicaudata and Smutsia gigantea) are listed as endangered and two (Phataginus tetradactyla and Smutsia temminckii) are listed as vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species.[5]

In February 2020, university researchers in China employing genomic sequencing found a 99% match between coronavirus found in pangolins and SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic.[6] Although a 99% similarity is not necessarily enough to link them, a subsequent whole-genome comparison found that the pangolin and human viruses in fact share only 90.3% of their DNA, thus ruling out the animals as a direct source.[7] The initial speculation about pangolins being the origin of the virus may have led to mass slaughters, similar to what happened to civets during the SARS outbreak. [8]

Etymology

The name pangolin comes from the Malay word pengguling, meaning "one who rolls up".[9] However, the modern name in Standard Malay is tenggiling; whereas in Indonesian it is trenggiling; and in the Philippine languages it is goling, tanggiling, or balintong (with the same meaning).[10]

The etymologies of the three generic names Manis (Linnaeus, 1758), Phataginus (Rafinesque, 1821), and Smutsia (Gray, 1865) are sometimes misunderstood.

Carl Linnaeus (1758) invented the Neo-Latin generic name Manis apparently as a feminine singular form of the Latin masculine plural Manes, the Ancient Roman name for a type of spirit, after the animal's strange appearance.[11]

Constantine Rafinesque (1821) formed the Neo-Latin generic name Phataginus from the French term phatagin, adopted by Count Buffon (1763) after the reported local name phatagin or phatagen used in the East Indies.

The British naturalist John Edward Gray named Smutsia for the South African naturalist Johannes Smuts (1808–1869),[12][13] the first South African to write a treatise on mammals in 1832 (in which he described the species Manis temminckii).

Taxonomy

See also: Pholidotamorpha

The order Pholidota in the past was considered to be the sister taxon to Xenarthra (anteaters, sloths, and armadillos), but recent genetic evidence indicates their closest living relatives are the Carnivora with which they form the clade Ferae.[14][15] Fossil groups like the creodonts[16] and palaeanodonts as even closer relatives to pangolins (the latter group being classified with pangolins in the clade Pholidotamorpha[17]).

Phylogenetic position of the Pholidota in the context of the order-level cladogram of Boreoeutheria.

Template:Laurasiatheria Cladogram

The cladogram has been reconstructed from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA and protein characters.

All species of living pangolin had been assigned to the genus Manis until the late 2000s, when research prompted the splitting of extant pangolins into three genera: Manis, Phataginus, and Smutsia.[3][17]

Ground pangolin in defensive posture

Description

Pangolin skeletons at the Museum of Osteology (2009)

The physical appearance of a pangolin is marked by large hardened overlapping plate-like scales, which are soft on newborn pangolins, but harden as the animal matures.[18] They are made of keratin, the same material from which human fingernails and tetrapod claws are made, and are structurally and compositionally very different from the scales of reptiles.[19] The pangolin's scaled body is comparable in appearance to a pine cone. It can curl up into a ball when threatened, with its overlapping scales acting as armor, while it protects its face by tucking it under its tail. The scales are sharp, providing extra defense from predators.[20]

Pangolins can emit a noxious-smelling chemical from glands near the anus, similar to the spray of a skunk.[21] They have short legs, with sharp claws which they use for burrowing into ant and termite mounds and for climbing.[22]

The tongues of pangolins are extremely long and – like those of the giant anteater and the tube-lipped nectar bat – the root of the tongue is not attached to the hyoid bone, but is in the thorax between the sternum and the trachea.[23] Large pangolins can extend their tongues as much as 40 cm (16 in), with a diameter of only 0.5 cm (0.20 in).[24]

Behaviour

Most pangolins are nocturnal animals[25] which use their well-developed sense of smell to find insects. The long-tailed pangolin is also active by day, while other species of pangolins spend most of the daytime sleeping, curled up into a ball.[24]

Arboreal pangolins live in hollow trees, whereas the ground-dwelling species dig tunnels to a depth of 3.5 m (11 ft).[24]

Some pangolins walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad, although they use the entire foot pad on their rear limbs. Furthermore, some exhibit a bipedal stance for some behaviour and may walk a few steps bipedally.[26] Pangolins are also good swimmers.[24]

Diet

Indian pangolin defending itself against Asiatic lions

Pangolins are insectivorous. Most of their diet consists of various species of ants and termites and may be supplemented by other insects, especially larvae. They are somewhat particular and tend to consume only one or two species of insects, even when many species are available to them. A pangolin can consume 140 to 200 g (4.9 to 7.1 oz) of insects per day.[27] Pangolins are an important regulator of termite populations in their natural habitats.[28]

Pangolins have very poor vision, so they rely heavily on smell and hearing. Pangolins also lack teeth; therefore they have evolved other physical characteristics to help them eat ants and termites. Their skeletal structure is sturdy and they have strong front legs that are useful for tearing into termite mounds.[29] They use their powerful front claws to dig into trees, ground, and vegetation to find prey,[30] then proceed to use their long tongues to probe inside the insect tunnels and to retrieve their prey.

The structure of their tongue and stomach is key to aiding pangolins in obtaining and digesting insects. Their saliva is sticky,[29] causing ants and termites to stick to their long tongues when they are hunting through insect tunnels. Without teeth, pangolins also lack the ability to chew;[31] however, while foraging, they ingest small stones (gastroliths) which accumulate in their stomachs to help to grind up ants.[32] This part of their stomach is called the gizzard, and it is also covered in keratinous spines.[33] These spines further aid in the grinding up and digestion of the pangolin's prey.

Some species, such as the tree pangolin, use their strong, prehensile tails to hang from tree branches and strip away bark from the trunk, exposing insect nests inside.[34]

Reproduction

Pangolins are solitary and meet only to mate. Males are larger than females, weighing up to 40% more. While the mating season is not defined, they typically mate once each year, usually during the summer or autumn. Rather than the males seeking out the females, males mark their location with urine or feces and the females will find them. If there is competition over a female, the males will use their tails as clubs to fight for the opportunity to mate with her.[35]

Gestation periods differ by species, ranging from roughly 70 to 140 days.[36] African pangolin females usually give birth to a single offspring at a time, but the Asiatic species may give birth to from one to three.[24] Weight at birth is 80 to 450 g (2.8 to 15.9 oz) and the average length is 150 mm (5.9 in). At the time of birth, the scales are soft and white. After several days, they harden and darken to resemble those of an adult pangolin. During the vulnerable stage, the mother stays with her offspring in the burrow, nursing it, and wraps her body around it if she senses danger. The young cling to the mother's tail as she moves about, although in burrowing species, they remain in the burrow for the first two to four weeks of life. At one month, they first leave the burrow riding on the mother's back. Weaning takes place around three months of age, at which stage the young begin to eat insects in addition to nursing. At two years of age, the offspring are sexually mature and are abandoned by the mother.[37]

Threats

See also: Pangolin trade
A Philippine pangolin pup and its mother, a critically endangered species endemic to the Palawan island group. It is threatened by illegal poaching for the pangolin trade to China and Vietnam where it is regarded as a luxury medicinal delicacy.[38]

Pangolins are in high demand for Chinese traditional medicine in southern China and Vietnam because their scales are believed to have medicinal properties. Their meat is also considered a delicacy.[39][40][41][42] 100,000 are estimated to be trafficked a year to China and Vietnam,[43] amounting to over one million over the past decade.[44][45] This makes it the most trafficked animal in the world.[44][46] This, coupled with deforestation, has led to a large decrease in the numbers of pangolins. Some species, such as Manis pentadactyla have become commercially extinct in certain ranges as a result of overhunting.[47] In November 2010, pangolins were added to the Zoological Society of London's list of evolutionarily distinct and endangered mammals.[48] All eight species of pangolin are assessed as threatened by the IUCN, while three are classified as critically endangered.[5] All pangolin species are currently listed under Appendix I of CITES which prohibits international trade, except when the product is intended for non-commercial purposes and a permit has been granted.[1]

Pangolins are also hunted and eaten in Ghana and are one of the more popular types of bushmeat, while local healers use the pangolin as a source of traditional medicine.[49]

Confiscated black market pangolin scales, which are in high demand in Chinese traditional medicine,[50] set to be destroyed by authorities in Cameroon in 2017

Though pangolins are protected by an international ban on their trade, populations have suffered from illegal trafficking due to beliefs in East Asia that their ground-up scales can stimulate lactation or cure cancer or asthma.[51] In the past decade, numerous seizures of illegally trafficked pangolin and pangolin meat have taken place in Asia.[52][53][54][55] In one such incident in April 2013, 10,000 kg (11 short tons) of pangolin meat were seized from a Chinese vessel that ran aground in the Philippines.[56][57] In another case in August 2016, an Indonesian man was arrested after police raided his home and found over 650 pangolins in freezers on his property.[58] The same threat is reported in Nigeria, where the animal is on the verge of extinction due to overexploitation.[59] The overexploitation comes from hunting pangolins for game meat and the reduction of their forest habitats due to deforestation caused by timber harvesting.[60] The pangolin are hunted as game meat for both medicinal purposes and food consumption.[60]

COVID-19 infection

Nucleic acid sequences of viruses taken from pangolins have been found to be a 99% match to those of the virus which causes COVID-19, SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and is responsible for the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic.[61][62] The working theory of researchers in Guangzhou, China is that SARS-CoV-2 originated in bats and, prior to infecting humans, was circulating among pangolins. The illicit Chinese trade of pangolins for use in traditional Chinese medicine is suggested as a vector for human transmission.[61] Pangolins were eventually ruled out as the definitive source, namely the bridge that the virus used to jump from bats to humans, after it emerged that the 99% match did not actually refer to the entire genome, but to a specific site known as the receptor-binding domain (RBD).[63] A whole-genome comparison had found that the pangolin and human viruses share only 90.3% of their DNA (at least 99.8% is needed for a conclusive match)[63] Ecologists worried that the early speculation about pangolins being the source may have led to mass slaughters, endangering the animals further, which was similar to what happened to civets during the SARS outbreak.[63][64]

Conservation

A coat of armor made of gilded pangolin scales from India, presented to George III in 1820.

As a result of increasing threats to pangolins, mainly in the form of illegal, international trade in pangolin skin, scales, and meat, these species have received increasing conservation attention in recent years. As of January 2020, the IUCN considered all eight species of pangolin on its Red List of Threatened Species as threatened.[5] Also, the IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group launched a global action plan to conserve pangolins, dubbed "Scaling up Pangolin Conservation" in July 2014. This action plan aims to improve all aspects of pangolin conservation with an added emphasis on combating poaching and trafficking of the animal, while educating communities in its importance.[44] Another suggested approach to fighting pangolin (and general wildlife) trafficking consists in "following the money" rather than "the animal", which aims to disrupt smugglers' profits by interrupting money flows. Financial intelligence gathering could thus become a key tool in protecting these animals, although this opportunity is often overlooked.[43] In 2018, a Chinese NGO launched the Counting Pangolins movement, calling for joint efforts to save the mammals from trafficking.[65][66][67] Wildlife conservation group TRAFFIC has identified 159 smuggling routes used by pangolin traffickers and aims to shut these down.[68]

Pangolins in an illegal wildlife market in Myanmar

Many attempts have been made to reproduce pangolins in captivity, but due to their reliance on wide-ranging habitats and very particular diets, these attempts are often unsuccessful.[36][69] Pangolins have significantly decreased immune responses due to a genetic dysfunction, making them extremely fragile.[70] They are susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia and the development of ulcers in captivity, complications which can lead to an early death.[36] In addition, pangolins rescued from illegal trade often have a higher chance of being infected with parasites such as intestinal worms, further lessening their chance for rehabilitation and reintroduction to the wild.[36] Recently, researchers have been able to improve artificial pangolin habitats to allow for reproduction of pangolins, providing some hope for future reintroduction of these species into their natural habitats.[18]

The idea of farming pangolins to reduce the amount being illegally trafficked is being explored with little success.[71] The third Saturday in February is promoted as World Pangolin Day by the conservation NPO Annamiticus.[72]

In 2017, Jackie Chan made a public service announcement called WildAid: Jackie Chan & Pangolins (Kung Fu Pangolin).[73]

Taiwan

Taiwan is one of the few conservation grounds for pangolins in the world after the country enacted the 1989 Wildlife Conservation Act.[74] The introduction of Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers in places like Luanshan (Yanping Township) in Taitung and Xiulin townships in Hualien became important communities for protecting pangolins and their habitats and has greatly improved the survival of pangolins. These centres work with local aboriginal tribes and forest police in the National Police Agency to prevent poaching, trafficking, and smuggling of pangolins, especially to black markets in China. These centres have also helped to reveal the causes of death and injury among Taiwan's pangolin population.[75]

Today, Taiwan has the highest population density of pangolins in the world.[76]

References

  1. ^ a b "The CITES Appendices". Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. CITES. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
  2. ^ Thomas, Oldfield; Lydekker, Richard (1911). "Pangolin" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
  3. ^ a b c d Gaudin, Timothy (28 August 2009). "The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis" (PDF). Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 16 (4). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Science+Business Media: 235–305. doi:10.1007/s10914-009-9119-9. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
  4. ^ Goode, Emilia (March 31, 2015). "A Struggle to Save the Scaly Pangolin". The New York Times. New York City: New York Times Company. Retrieved May 1, 2016.
  5. ^ a b c "Manidae Family search". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
  6. ^ "Coronavirus: Pangolins may have spread the disease to humans". Medical News Today. Brighton, East Sussex, England: Healthline Media. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  7. ^ Cyranoski, David (26 February 2020). "Mystery deepens over animal source of coronavirus". Nature. London, England: Nature Research. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  8. ^ "Civet Cat Slaughter To Fight SARS". CBS News. 11 January 2004. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  9. ^ Pearsall, Judy, ed. (2002). Concise Oxford English Dictionary (10th ed.). Oxfordshire, England: Oxford University Press. p. 1030. ISBN 978-0-19-860572-0.
  10. ^ Vergara, Benito S.; Idowu, Panna Melizah H.; Sumangil, Julia H.; Gonzales, Juan Carlos; Dans, Andres. Interesting Philippine Animals. Washington, D.C.: Island Publishing House, Inc. ISBN 9718538550.
  11. ^ "ITIS Report Manis Linnaeus, 1758". Retrieved May 28, 2018.
  12. ^ "S2A3 Biographical Database of Southern African Science [Johannes Smuts]". Retrieved May 28, 2018.
  13. ^ Palmer, T.S. (1904). "Index Generum Mammalium: a List of the Genera and Families of Mammals". North American Fauna. 23: 635. Retrieved May 28, 2018.
  14. ^ Murphy, William J.; Eizirik, Eduardo; et al. (December 14, 2001). "Resolution of the Early Placental Mammal Radiation Using Bayesian Phylogenetics". Science. 294 (5550): 2348–2351. Bibcode:2001Sci...294.2348M. doi:10.1126/science.1067179. PMID 11743200. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ Beck, Robin; Bininda-Emonds, Olaf; Cardillo, Marcel; Liu, Fu-Guo; Purvis, Andy (2006). "A higher-level MRP supertree of placental mammals". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 6 (1). London, England: BioMed Central: 93. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-6-93. PMC 1654192. PMID 17101039.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  16. ^ Halliday, Thomas J.D.; Upchurch, Paul; Goswami, Anjali (December 21, 2015). "Resolving the relationships of Paleocene placental mammals". Biological Reviews. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Philosophical Society. doi:10.1111/brv.12242. ISSN 1464-7931.
  17. ^ a b Kondrashov, Peter; Agadjanian, Alexandre K. (2012). "A nearly complete skeleton of Ernanodon (Mammalia, Palaeanodonta) from Mongolia: morphofunctional analysis". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 32 (5). Bethesda Maryland: Taylor & Francis: 983–1001. doi:10.1080/02724634.2012.694319. ISSN 0272-4634.
  18. ^ a b Yu, Jingyu; Jiang, Fulin; Peng, Jianjun; Yin, Xilin; Ma, Xiaohua (October 2015). "The First Birth and Survival of Cub in Captivity of Critically Endangered Malayan Pangolin (Mariis javanica)". Agricultural Science & Technology. 16 (10). Irvine, California: Juniper Publishers. ISSN 2471-6774 – via EBSCO.
  19. ^ Spearman, R.I.C. (2008). "On the nature of the horny scales of the pangolin". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 46 (310). Oxfordshire, England: Oxford University Press: 267–273. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1967.tb00508.x.
  20. ^ Wang, Bin (2016). "Pangolin armor: Overlapping, structure, and mechanical properties of the keratinous scales". Acta Biomaterialia. 41. Oxfordshire, England: Elsevier: 60–74. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2016.05.028. PMID 27221793.
  21. ^ "Meet the Pangolin!". Pangolins.org. 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-02-22.
  22. ^ "Manis tricuspis tree pangolin". Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan. 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-12-21.
  23. ^ Chan, Lap-Ki (1995). "Extrinsic Lingual Musculature of Two Pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae)". Journal of Mammalogy. 76 (2). Oxfordshire, England: Oxford University Press: 472–480. doi:10.2307/1382356. JSTOR 1382356.
  24. ^ a b c d e Mondadori, Arnoldo, ed. (1988). Great Book of the Animal Kingdom. New York City: Arch Cape Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0517667910.
  25. ^ Wilson, Amelia E. (January 1994). "Husbandry of pangolins Manis spp". International Zoo Yearbook. 33 (1): 248–251. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.1994.tb03578.x.
  26. ^ Mohapatra, Rajesh K.; Panda, Sudarsen (2014). "Behavioural descriptions of Indian pangolins (Manis crassicaudata) in captivity". Journal of Zoology. 2014. London, England: Wiley-Blackwell: 1–7. doi:10.1155/2014/795062.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  27. ^ Grosshuesch, Craig (2012). "Rollin' With the Pangolin – Diet". La Crosse, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin–La Crosse. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014.
  28. ^ Ma, Jing-E; Li, Lin-Miao; Jiang, Hai-Ying; Zhang, Xiu-Juan; Li, Juan; Li, Guan-Yu; Yuan, Li-Hong; Wu, Jun; Chen, Jin-Ping (2017). "Transcriptomic analysis identifies genes and pathways related to myrmecophagy in the Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica)". PeerJ. 5. Corte Madera, California: O'Reilly Media: e4140. doi:10.7717/peerj.4140. PMC 5742527. PMID 29302388.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  29. ^ a b Rose, Kd; Gaudin, Tj (2001). eLS. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0001556.pub2. ISBN 978-0470015902.
  30. ^ Coulson, Ian M; Heath, Martha E (Dec 1997). "Foraging behaviour and ecology of the Cape pangolin (Manis temminckii) in north-western Zimbabwe". African Journal of Ecology. 35 (4): 361–369. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1997.101-89101.x – via EBSCO.
  31. ^ Gutteridge, Lee (2008). The South African Bushveld: A Field Guide from the Waterberg. Pinetown, South Africa: 30° South Publishers. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-920143-13-8.
  32. ^ Wildlife of the World. London, England: Dorling Kindersley. 2015. p. 215. ISBN 978-1-4654-4959-7.
  33. ^ Davit-Béal, Tiphaine; Tucker, Abigail S.; Sire, Jean-Yves (April 1, 2009). "Loss of teeth and enamel in tetrapods: fossil record, genetic data and morphological adaptations". Journal of Anatomy. 214 (4). New York City: John Wiley & Sons: 477–501. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01060.x. ISSN 1469-7580. PMC 2736120. PMID 19422426.
  34. ^ Prothero, Donald R. (2016). The Princeton Field Guide to Prehistoric Mammals. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-4008-8445-2.
  35. ^ Grosshuesch, Craig (2012). "Rollin' With the Pangolin - Reproduction". University of Wisconsin–La Crosse. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014.
  36. ^ a b c d Gong, Shiping; Hua, Liushuai; Wang, Fumin; Li, Weiye; Ge, Yan; Li, Xiaonan; Hou, Fanghui (2015-08-06). "Captive breeding of pangolins: current status, problems and future prospects". ZooKeys (507): 99–114. doi:10.3897/zookeys.507.6970. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 4490220. PMID 26155072.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  37. ^ Dickman, Christopher R. (1984). MacDonald, D. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File. pp. 780–781. ISBN 978-0-87196-871-5.
  38. ^ Fabro, Keith Anthony S. (10 June 2019). "All hope is not lost for vanishing Palawan pangolin". Rappler. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
  39. ^ Hance, Jeremy (29 July 2014). "Over a million pangolins slaughtered in the last decade". Mongabay. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 7 August 2014.
  40. ^ Challender, D.; Willcox, D.H.A.; Panjang, E.; Lim, N.; Nash, H.; Heinrich, S.; Chong, J. (2019). "Manis javanica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T12763A123584856. Retrieved 30 January 2020. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  41. ^ Actman, Jani (20 December 2015). "Crime Blotter: Pangolin Scales, Tiger Skins, and More". National Geographic. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  42. ^ Cruise, Adam (18 April 2015). "Tiger Eyes, Crocodile Penis: It's What's For Dinner in Malaysia". National Geographic. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  43. ^ a b Haenlein, Alexandria Reid, Cathy; Keatinge, Tom (2018-10-10). "What's the secret to saving this rare creature?". BBC News. Retrieved 2018-10-10.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ a b c "Action Plan". www.pangolinsg.org. Retrieved 2016-09-15.
  45. ^ Ingram, Daniel J.; Coad, Lauren; Abernethy, Katharine A.; Maisels, Fiona; Stokes, Emma J.; Bobo, Kadiri S.; Breuer, Thomas; Gandiwa, Edson; Ghiurghi, Andrea; Greengrass, Elizabeth; Holmern, Tomas (March 2018). "Assessing Africa-Wide Pangolin Exploitation by Scaling Local Data: Assessing African pangolin exploitation". Conservation Letters. 11 (2): e12389. doi:10.1111/conl.12389.
  46. ^ Fletcher, Martin (2015-02-05). "The world's most-trafficked mammal – and the scaliest". BBC News. Retrieved 2018-10-10.
  47. ^ Challender, D.; Wu, S.; Kaspal, P.; Khatiwada, A.; Ghose, A.; Ching-Min Su, N.; Suwal, Laxmi (2019). "Manis pentadactyla". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T12764A123585318. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
  48. ^ Agence France-Presse (November 19, 2010). "'Asian unicorn' and scaly anteater make endangered list". The Sydney Morning Herald.
  49. ^ Boakye, Maxwell Kwame; Pietersen, Darren William; Kotzé, Antoinette; Dalton, Desiré-Lee; Jansen, Raymond (2015-01-20). "Knowledge and uses of African pangolins as a source of traditional medicine in Ghana". PLOS ONE. 10 (1): e0117199. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1017199B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117199. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4300090. PMID 25602281.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  50. ^ Sutter, John D. (April 2014). "Change the List: The Most Trafficked Mammal You've Never Heard Of". CNN.
  51. ^ Wassener, Bettina (12 March 2013). "No Species Is Safe From Burgeoning Wildlife Trade". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015.
  52. ^ Sutter, John D. (3 April 2014). "The Most Trafficked Mammal You've Never Heard Of". CNN. Archived from the original on 2 February 2015.
  53. ^ "23 tonnes of pangolins seized in a week". Traffic.org. 17 March 2008. Archived from the original on 26 November 2014.
  54. ^ Watts, Jonathan (25 May 2007). "'Noah's Ark' of 5,000 rare animals found floating off the coast of China". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 3 October 2014.
  55. ^ "Asia in Pictures". The Wall Street Journal. 27 May 2012. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015.
  56. ^ Carrington, Damian (15 April 2013). "Chinese vessel on Philippine coral reef caught with illegal pangolin meat". Associated Press. London. Archived from the original on 2013-04-16. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  57. ^ Molland, Judy (16 April 2013). "Boat Filled With 22,000 Pounds Of Pangolin Hits Endangered Coral Reef". London: Care2. Archived from the original on 2013-04-18. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
  58. ^ "Indonesian man arrested as 650 pangolins found dead in freezers". BBC News. 2016-08-26. Retrieved 2016-08-27.
  59. ^ The Daily Trust (Nigeria), Saturday 18 February 2017
  60. ^ a b Sodeinde, Olufemi A. (January 1994). "Pangolins in south-west Nigeria – current status and prognosis". ORYX. 28: 43–50. doi:10.1017/S0030605300028283.
  61. ^ a b Cyranoski, David (2020-02-07). "Did pangolins spread the China coronavirus to people?". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00364-2.
  62. ^ Liu, P.; Chen, W.; Chen, J.-P. (2019). "Viral Metagenomics Revealed Sendai Virus and Coronavirus Infection of Malayan Pangolins (Manis javanica)". Viruses. 11: 979.
  63. ^ a b c "Mystery deepens over animal source of coronavirus". Nature. 26 February 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  64. ^ "Civet Cat Slaughter To Fight SARS". CBSNews. 11 January 2004. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  65. ^ Spotlight: Pangolin conservationists call for ban on illegal trade of mammal products http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-11/21/c_137620372.htm
  66. ^ World Pangolin Day: Conservationists demand greater protection to stop extinction http://english.cri.cn/12394/2017/02/18/3124s952140.htm
  67. ^ Xinhua News: How China is combating wildlife trafficking in Africa http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-06/08/c_137240161.htm
  68. ^ "Pangolins – Species we work with at TRAFFIC". www.traffic.org. Retrieved 2019-01-10.
  69. ^ Aitken-Palmer, Copper; deMaar, Thomas W.; Johnson, James G.; Langan, Jennifer; Bergmann, Jonathan; Chinnadurai, Sathya; Guerra, Hector; Carboni, Deborah A.; Adkesson, Michael J. (September 2019). "COMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH PREGNANCY AND PARTURITION IN AFRICAN WHITE-BELLIED PANGOLINS (PHATAGINUS TRICUSPIS)". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 50 (3): 678–687. doi:10.1638/2019-0019. ISSN 1042-7260.
  70. ^ Choo, S. W.; Rayko, M.; Tan, T. K.; Hari, R.; Komissarov, A.; Wee, W. Y.; Yurchenko, A. A.; Kliver, S.; Tamazian, G.; Antunes, A.; Wilson, R. K.; Warren, W. C.; Koepfli, K. P.; Minx, P.; Krasheninnikova, K.; Kotze, A.; Dalton, D. L.; Vermaak, E.; Paterson, I. C.; Dobrynin, P.; Sitam, F. T.; Rovie-Ryan, J. J.; Johnson, W. E.; Yusoff, A. M.; Luo, S. J.; Karuppannan, K. V.; Fang, G.; Zheng, D.; Gerstein, M. B.; Lipovich, L. (2016). "Pangolin genomes and the evolution of mammalian scales and immunity". Genome Research. 26 (10): 1312–1322. doi:10.1101/gr.203521.115. PMC 5052048. PMID 27510566. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |displayauthors= ignored (|display-authors= suggested) (help)
  71. ^ Challender, Daniel W. S.; Sas-Rolfes, Michael't; Ades, Gary W. J.; Chin, Jason S. C.; Ching-Min Sun, Nick; Chong, Ju lian; Connelly, Ellen; Hywood, Lisa; Luz, Sonja; Mohapatra, Rajesh K.; de Ornellas, Paul (2019-10-01). "Evaluating the feasibility of pangolin farming and its potential conservation impact". Global Ecology and Conservation. 20: e00714. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00714. ISSN 2351-9894.
  72. ^ "World Pangolin Day – About". Pangolins.org/Annamiticus. 2011-10-26.
  73. ^ "Jackie Chan fights for pangolins". China Daily. 2017-08-23. Retrieved 2019-03-17.
  74. ^ "Taiwan's Path to Pangolin Conservation : How a Mega Pangolin Leather Exporter Transformed into a Conservation Specialist". The Reporter (Taiwan). 2019-06-23. Retrieved 2020-02-08.
  75. ^ Pei, Curtis Jai-Chyi; Chen, Chen-Chih; Chi, Meng-Jou; Lin, Wen-Chi; Lin, Jing-Shiun; Arora, Bharti; Sun, Nick Ching-Min (2019-02-06). "Mortality and morbidity in wild Taiwanese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla)". PLOS ONE. 14 (2): e0198230. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1498230S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198230. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6364958. PMID 30726204.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  76. ^ "Taiwanese Researchers Collaborate With Locals In Pangolin Conservation". The News Lens. 2019-09-25. Retrieved 2020-02-08.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pholidota.
Wikispecies has information related to Pholidota.
Look up pangolin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pangolin&oldid=945143846"