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[[Image:Osroene.png|250px|thumb|Roman province of ''Osroene'', [[120]], higlighted within the Roman Empire]]
[[Image:Osroene.png|250px|thumb|Roman province of ''Osroene'', [[120]], higlighted within the Roman Empire]]
'''Osroene''' (also spelled '''Osrohene''', '''Osrhoene'''; [[Syriac language|Syriac]]:'''ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܥܣܪܐ ܥܝܢܐ''' ''{{unicode|Malkuṯā d-Bēt ʿŌsrā ʿĪnē}}''), also known by the name of its [[capital city]], '''[[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]]''' (modern [[Şanlıurfa]], [[Turkey]]), was a historic kingdom located in [[Mesopotamia]], The [[Assyrian]]<ref>{{cite web |first= |last= |authorlink= |author=[[Simo Parpola|Parpola, Simo]] |coauthors= |title=Assyrian Identity in Ancient Times and Today |url=http://www.aina.org/articles/assyrianidentity.pdf |format=PDF |work=[[Assyriologist]] |publisher=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |id= |pages= |page=15 |date= |accessdate= |language=English |quote=When the Seleucid Empire disintegrated at the end of the second century BC, its western remnants were annexed to Rome, while several semi-independent kingdoms of decidedly Assyrian identity (Osrhoene, Adiabene, Hatra, Assur) popped up in the east under Parthian overlordship. }}</ref><ref>The Revival of Spiritual Healing, by Barsom J. Kashish, 2002, p. 217 [http://books.google.com/books?id=1L2agBbKBAAC&pg=PA217&dq=Osrhoene+assyrian&sig=0aRNL3lZNY-zY9Ebi5GiRDXl0Hk]</ref> kingdom enjoyed semi-autonomy to complete independence from the years of 132 BC to AD 244.<ref>The Revival of Spiritual Healing, by Barsom J. Kashish, 2002, p. 217</ref><ref>Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson Eds. The Writings of the Fathers Down to AD
'''Osroene''' (also spelled '''Osrohene''', '''Osrhoene''', from the [[Greek language|Greek]] '''{{Polytonic|Όσροηνῆ}}'''; [[Syriac language|Syriac]]:'''ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܥܣܪܐ ܥܝܢܐ''' ''{{unicode|Malkuṯā d-Bēt ʿŌsrā ʿĪnē}}''), also known by the name of its [[capital city]], '''[[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]]''' (modern [[Şanlıurfa]], [[Turkey]]), was a historic kingdom located on the present-day border of [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]]. The kingdom was [[Assyrian]]<ref>{{cite web |first= |last= |authorlink= |author=[[Simo Parpola|Parpola, Simo]] |coauthors= |title=Assyrian Identity in Ancient Times and Today |url=http://www.aina.org/articles/assyrianidentity.pdf |format=PDF |work=[[Assyriologist]] |publisher=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |id= |pages= |page=15 |date= |accessdate= |language=English |quote=When the Seleucid Empire disintegrated at the end of the second century BC, its western remnants were annexed to Rome, while several semi-independent kingdoms of decidedly Assyrian identity (Osroene, Adiabene, Hatra, Assur) popped up in the east under Parthian overlordship. }}</ref><ref>The Revival of Spiritual Healing, by Barsom J. Kashish, 2002, p. 217 [http://books.google.com/books?id=1L2agBbKBAAC&pg=PA217&dq=Osrhoene+assyrian&sig=0aRNL3lZNY-zY9Ebi5GiRDXl0Hk]</ref> and enjoyed semi-autonomy to complete independence from the years of [[132 BCE]] to [[244]] AD<ref>The Revival of Spiritual Healing, by Barsom J. Kashish, 2002, p. 217</ref><ref>Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson Eds. The Writings of the Fathers Down to AD
325: Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8 (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers,
325: Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8 (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers,
1994), 657-672. [http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v14n2/missick.pdf]</ref>
1994), 657-672. [http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v14n2/missick.pdf]</ref>.
It was a [[Syriac]] speaking kingdom<ref>The Ancient Name of Edessa, Amir Harrak,
It was a [[Syriac]] speaking kingdom<ref>The Ancient Name of Edessa, Amir Harrak,
Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 51, No. 3 (Jul., 1992), pp. 209-214 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2968(199207)51%3A3%3C209%3ATANOE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z]</ref>, and according to an ancient legend King [[Abgar V of Edessa]] was converted<ref name="herbermann">{{cite book |title=The Catholic Encyclopedia |last=Herbermann |first=Charles George |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1913 |publisher=Encyclopedia Press |location= |isbn= |pages=282}}</ref> to [[Christianity]] by [[Thaddeus of Edessa]], or [[Addai|Saint Addai]], one of the [[Seventy-two Disciples]]<ref name="herbermann" />. By [[201 AD]] or earlier<ref name="vonHarnack">{{cite book |title=The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries |last=von Harnack |first=Adolph |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1905 |publisher=Williams & Norgate |location= |isbn= |pages=293 |quote=there is no doubt that even before 190 A.D. Christianity had spread vigorously within Edessa and its surroundings and that (shortly after 201 or even earlier?) the royal house joined the church}}</ref>, under King Abgar IX<ref>{{cite book |title=China in World History |last=Adshead |first=Samuel Adrian Miles |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2000 |publisher=Macmillan |location= |isbn=0312225652 |pages=27 }}</ref>, Osroene became the first Christian state<ref name="cheetham">{{cite book |title=A History of the Christian Church During the First Six Centuries |last=Cheetham |first=Samuel |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1905 |publisher=Macmillan and Co |location= |isbn= |pages=58 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=All the Apostles of the Bible |last=Lockyer |first=Herbert |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1988 |publisher=Zondervan |location= |isbn=0310280117 |pages=260 }}</ref>.
Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 51, No. 3 (Jul., 1992), pp. 209-214 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2968(199207)51%3A3%3C209%3ATANOE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z]</ref>.


⚫
==History==
The kingdom's area, the upper course of the [[Euphrates]], became a traditional battleground for the powers that ruled [[Asia Minor]], [[Persia]], [[History of Syria|Syria]], and [[Kingdom of Armenia|Armenia]]. On the dissolution of [[Seleucid Empire]], it was divided between Rome and [[Parthia]]. At this time ''Osrhoene'' was within Parthian [[suzerainty]]. However, the Romans later made several attempts to recover the region.
=== Origins and early period ===
⚫
Osroene, or Edessa, acquired independence from the collapsing Seleucid empire under a dynasty of [[Arab people|Arab]] stock from [[132 BCE]], though remained under [[Parthian]] suzerainty. Most of the kings of Osroene are called Abgar or Manu, and they were Arab sheiks who settled in urban centers.<ref>J. F. Healey, H. J. W. Drijvers, ''The Old Syriac Inscriptions of Edessa and Osrhoene: Texts, Translations, and Commentary'', BRILL Publishers, 1999, ISBN 9004112847, pp.35-36</ref><ref>M. A. R. College, ''The Parthians'', 1967 (see p.58)</ref> The name ''Osroene'' is most likely derived from ''Osroes'', an Arab sheik who in [[120 BCE]] wrested control of this region from the Seleucids in Syria.<ref>C. Anthon, ''A System of Ancient and Medieval Geography for the Use of Schools and Colleges'', Harper Publishers, 1850, Digitized 2007, p.681</ref> For other possible origins of the name, see [[#Etymology|below]]. In his writings, [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] refers to the natives of Osroene and [[Commagene]] as Arabs and the region as [[Ancient Arabia|Arabia]].<ref>H. I. MacAdam, N. J. Munday, ''Cicero's Reference to Bostra (AD Q. FRAT. 2. 11. 3)'', Classical Philology, pp.131-136, 1983.</ref> According to Pliny, a nomadic Arab tribe called ''Orrhoei'' occupied Edessa about 130 B.C.<ref>Pliny vol. 85; vi. 25, 117, 129</ref> The Orrhoei founded a small state, ruled by their chieftains with the title of kings, and the district was called after them ''Orrhoene''. This name was occasionally has been changed into Osroene, in assimilation to the Parthian name Osroes or Chosroes (Khosrau).<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Osroene Osroene], 1911 Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica</ref>


Located in the upper course of the river [[Euphrates]], Osroene was a traditional battleground of the powers which ruled [[Asia Minor]], [[Persia]] and the [[Middle East]]. During the reign of [[Tigranes the Great]], from [[83 BCE]] to [[69 BCE]], [[Kingdom of Armenia]] managed to take control of Osroene from Parthians. Tigranes also handed over the kingdom of Edessa or Osroene to a tribe of nomadic [[Arab people|Arab]]s, which he had resettled in the region<ref>Theodor Mommsen, ''The History of Rome'', Book V, p.3 [http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/theodor-mommsen/the-history-of-rome-book-v-507/page-3-the-history-of-rome-book-v-507.shtml]</ref>.
⚫
Osroene, or Edessa, acquired independence from the collapsing Seleucid empire under a dynasty of [[Arab people|Arab]] stock from 132 BC. Most of the kings of Osroene are called ''Abgar'' or ''Manu'' and they were Arab sheiks who settled in urban centers<ref>J. F. Healey, H. J. W. Drijvers, ''The Old Syriac Inscriptions of Edessa and Osrhoene: Texts, Translations, and Commentary'', BRILL Publishers, 1999, ISBN 9004112847, pp.35-36</ref><ref>M. A. R. College, ''The Parthians'', 1967 (see p.58)</ref>. The name ''Osroene'' is derived from ''Osroes'' an [[Arab people|Arab]] sheik who in [[120]] BC wrested control of this region from the Seleucids in Syria<ref>C. Anthon, ''A System of Ancient and Medieval Geography for the Use of Schools and Colleges'', Harper Publishers, 1850, Digitized 2007, p.681</ref>.
⚫
[[Image:20tigranes95-66.gif|250px|thumb|Map showing Osroene as a vassal of the [[Kingdom of Armenia|Armenian Empire]] under [[Tigranes the Great]]]]
⚫
The [[Arab people|Arab]]s in Osroene were later brought into submission by [[Lucius Afranius (consul)|Lucius Afranius]] of [[Roman Empire|Rome]]. He started out his campaign from [[Corduene]] and proceeded to upper [[Mesopotamia]] and, after a perilous march through the desert, he managed to defeat the Arabs of Osroene with the help of the [[Hellen]]es settled in [[Carrhae]]<ref>Theodor Mommsen, ''The History of Rome'', Book V, p.9 [http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/theodor-mommsen/the-history-of-rome-book-v-507/page-9-the-history-of-rome-book-v-507.shtml]</ref>.


==Osroene in Roman Sources==
=== Roman protectorate ===
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[[Abgar II of Osroene|Abgarus]] of Osroene signed a peace treaty with the Romans during [[Pompey]]'s eastern campaigns, and was initially an ally of the Roman general [[Crassus]] in his campaign against the [[Parthians]] in [[53]] BC. Later on however, he secretly switched sides and became a spy for the [[Parthia]]n king [[Orodes II]] in the war effort by providing faulty intelligence to Crassus. This was one of the main factors in Crassus' defeat at [[Battle of Carrhae|Carrhae]]. He influenced Crassus' plans, convincing him to give up the idea of advancing to the [[Greek people|Greek]] city of [[Seleucia at the Zeugma|Seleucia]] near the [[Euphrates]], whose inhabitants were sympathetic to the Romans. Instead Abgarus persuaded him to attack the Parthian general, Surena, but in the midst of the battle he changed sides.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'',Book 40, Chapter 20, p.126, Project Gutenberg [http://history-world.org/dio2.pdf]</ref> Abgarus has been identified as an [[Arab people|Arab]] shaikh in another source. In this campaign, an [[Armenians|Armenian]] force of 16,000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry accompanied Crassus. Orodes also managed to keep the Armenian force out by making peace with ''Artavazd''<ref>S. Beck, [http://san.beck.org/1-6-Persia.html Ethics of Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires]</ref>.
{{POV|date=December 2007}}
{{History of Assyrian people}}
⚫
[[Tigranes the Great|Tigranes]], the Armenian king, was pursuing an effective policy of conquest against the [[Parthians]] and managed to push them back into the interior of [[Asia]]. [[Media Atropatene]], [[Corduene]], [[Adiabene]] and the region around [[Nisbis]] all fell to Armenia and became its dependencies. Tigranes also handed over the kingdom of Edessa or Osrhoene to a tribe of nomad [[Arab people|Arab]]s, which he had resettled in the region<ref>Theodor Mommsen, ''The History of Rome'', Book V, p.3 [http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/theodor-mommsen/the-history-of-rome-book-v-507/page-3-the-history-of-rome-book-v-507.shtml]</ref>. The [[Arab people|Arab]]s in Osrhoene were later brought into submission by [[Lucius Afranius (consul)|Lucius Afranius]]. He started out his campaign from [[Corduene]] and proceeded to upper [[Mesopotamia]] and, after a perilous march through the desert, he managed to defeat the Arabs of Osroene with the help of the [[Hellen]]es settled in [[Carrhae]]<ref>Theodor Mommsen, ''The History of Rome'', Book V, p.9 [http://www.ebooksread.com/authors-eng/theodor-mommsen/the-history-of-rome-book-v-507/page-9-the-history-of-rome-book-v-507.shtml]</ref>.


During [[Trajan]]'s time, around [[116 AD]], the Roman general [[Lusius Quietus|Lucius Quietus]] sacked Edessa and turned Osroene into a semi-autonomous vassal state. After the war with Parthians under [[Marcus Aurelius]], forts were built and a Roman [[garrison]] was stationed in [[Nisibis]]. Osroene attempted to throw off the Roman yoke, falling under [[Arsacid]] rule. In the period from Trajan's conquest to 216, [[Christianity]] began to spread in Edessa. [[Abgar IX]] (177-212 BCE) was the first Christian King of Edessa and Osroene enjoys the distinction of being the first state which adopted [[Christianity]] as a [[state religion|official religion]]<ref name="cheetham" /> in [[201 AD]]<ref name="vonHarnack" />.
⚫
''Abgarus'' of Osrhoene had signed a peace treaty with the Romans during time of [[Pompey]] and was initially an ally of the Roman general [[Crassus]] in his campaign against the [[Parthians]] in [[53]] BC. Later on, however, he secretly switched sides and became a spy for the Parthian king [[Orodes II]] in the war effort by providing faulty intelligence to Crassus. This was one of the main factors in Crassus' defeat. He influenced Crassus' plans, convincing him to give up the idea of advancing to the [[Greek people|Greek]] city of Seleucia near [[Euphrates]], whose inhabitants were sympathetic to the Romans. Instead Abgarus persuaded him to attack ''Surena'', however in the midst of the battle he himself joined the other side<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'',Book 40, Chapter 20, p.126, Project Gutenberg [http://history-world.org/dio2.pdf].</ref>. Abgarus has been identified as an [[Arab people|Arab]] shaikh in another source. In this campaign, an [[Armenians|Armenian]] force of 16,000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry accompanied Crassus. Orodes also managed to keep the Armenian force out by making peace with ''Artavazd''<ref>S. Beck, [http://san.beck.org/1-6-Persia.html Ethics of Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires]</ref>.


=== Roman province ===
⚫
The Romans recaptured Osroene by [[216 AD]] and incorporated it as a [[Roman province|province]] of the Roman Empire. Edessa was again brought under Roman control by [[Decius]] and was made a center of Roman operations against the Persian [[Sassanids]]. Amru, possibly a descendant of Abgar, is mentioned as king in the [[Paikuli inscription]], recording the victory of [[Narseh]] in the Sassanid civil war of 293 AD. Historians identify this Amru as Amru ibn Adi, the fourth king of the [[Lakhmid]] dynasty which was at that time still based in [[Harran]], not yet moved to [[al-Hirah|Hirah]] in Babylonia.<ref>A. T. Olmstead, ''The Mid-Third Century of the Christian Era. II'', Classical Philology, pp.398-420, 1942. (see p.399)</ref>


⚫
Since Emperor [[Diocletian]]'s [[Tetrarchy]] reform in the [[290s]], Osroene was part of the [[diocese of the East|diocese of Oriens]], in the [[praetorian prefecture of the East|praetorian prefecture of the same name]]. It was governed by a ''[[Dux]]'', who ranked as ''[[vir spectabilis]]'' and commanded (circa 400) the following troops:
⚫
During [[Trajan]]'s time, around [[116]] A.D., the Roman general [[Lusius Quietus|Lucius Quietus]] sacked Edessa and put an end to Osrhoene's independence. After the war with Parthians under [[Marcus Aurelius]], forts were built and a Roman [[garrison]] was stationed in [[Nisibis]]. Osrhoene attempted to throw off the Roman yoke, however in [[216]], its king ''Abgar IX'' was imprisoned and exiled to Rome and the region became a Roman province. In the period from Trajan's conquest to 216, [[Christianity]] began to spread in Edessa. Abgar IX (179-186 AD) was the first Christian King of Edessa. It is believed that the [[Gospel of Thomas]] emanated from Edessa around 140 AD. Prominent early Christian figures have lived in and emerged from this region such as ''[[Tatian]] the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]]'' who came to Edessa from Hadiab ([[Adiabene]]). He made a trip to Rome and returned to Edessa around 172-173. He had controversial opinions, seceded from the Church, denounced marriage as defilement and maintained that the flesh of [[Christ]] was imaginary. He composed ''Diatessaron'' or ''harmony of the Gospels'' in [[Syriac]] which contained eclectic ideas from Jewish-Christian and dualistic traditions. This became the Gospel par-excellence of [[Syriac]]-speaking Christianity until in the fifth century ''Rabbula'' [[bishop]] of Edessa suppressed it and substituted a revision of the Old Syriac Canonical Gospels.<ref>L.W. Barnard, ''The Origins and Emergence of the Church in Edessa during the First Two Centuries A.D.'', Vigiliae Christianae, pp.161-175, 1968 (see pp.162,165,167,169).</ref>.
⚫
*''Equites Dalmatae Illyriciani'', garrisoned at Ganaba.

⚫
*''Equites promoti Illyriciani'', at [[Callinicum]].
⚫
After this, Edessa was again brought under Roman control by [[Decius]] and it was made a center of Roman operations against the Persian [[Sassanids]]. ''Amru'', possibly a descendant of Abgar, is mentioned as king in the [[Paikuli inscription]], recording the victory of [[Narseh]] in the Sassanid civil war of 293 CE. Historians identify this Amru as ''Amru ibn Adi'', the fourth king of the [[Lakhmid]] dynasty which was at that time still based in [[Harran]], not yet moved to [[al-Hirah|Hirah]] in Babylonia<ref>A. T. Olmstead, ''The Mid-Third Century of the Christian Era. II'', Classical Philology, pp.398-420, 1942. (see p.399)</ref>.
⚫
*''Equites Mauri Illyriciani'', Dabana.

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*''Equites promoti indigenae'', Banasam
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Many centuries later, ''Dagalaiphus'' and ''Secundinus'' duke of Osrhoene, accompanied [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] in his war against the [[Sassanid]] king [[Shapur II]] in 4th century<ref>E. Gibbon, ''The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire'', Vol. I, Chapter XXIV [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap24.htm].</ref>.
⚫
*''Equites promoti indigenae'', Sina Iudaeorum.

⚫
*''Equites sagittarii indigenae'', Oraba.
In his writings [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] refers to the natives of Osroene and [[Commagene]] as [[Arab people|Arab]]s and the region as [[Ancient Arabia|Arabia]]<ref>H. I. MacAdam, N. J. Munday, ''Cicero's Reference to Bostra (AD Q. FRAT. 2. 11. 3)'', Classical Philology, pp.131-136, 1983.</ref>. According to Pliny, a nomadic Arab tribe called ''Orrhoei'' occupied Edessa about 130 B.C.<ref>Pliny vol. 85; vi. 25, 117, 129</ref>. Orrhoei founded a small state ruled by their chieftains with the title of kings and the district was called after them ''Orrhoene''. This name was occasionally has been changed into Osroene, in assimilation to the Parthian name Osroes or Chosroes (Khosrau)<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Osroene Osroene], 1911 Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica</ref>.
⚫
*''Equites sagittarii indigenae'', Thillazamana.

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*''Equites sagittarii indigenae Medianenses'', Mediana.

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*''Equites primi Osrhoeni'', Rasin.
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== Etymology ==
*a ''praefectus legionis'' of the ''[[Legio IV Parthica|quarta Parthica]]'', Circesio.
''(from www.cavemanart.com)<ref>http://cavemanart.com/osroene/osroene.htm</ref>''

There are several theories about the origin of the name Osroene:

⚫
* One theory states that the name of the kingdom is a compound name, derived from Esro-Ayne (meaning the "Ten-Chiefs"). This theory states that, after the fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C. (the capital of the Assyrian Empire), the Assyrian King Ashur Uballit (II) along with ten of his army chiefs, retreated with part of his population. Travelling westward towards Harran, heading towards Hdatu the western provincial capital of the Assyrian Empire {modern Arslan Tash near Urhoy (Urfa)}. Russian historian Dr. Matviev says in his book History of the Assyrians, that the kingdom of Osroene was founded by the ten Assyrian chiefs who called their kingdom Esroyo which later became Esro-Eyneh (the Ten Chiefs).

⚫
* The second theory about the origin of the name of Osroene is that during the time of the Assyrian Empire, the tenth battalion of the Assyrian army was stationed in the region of Hdatu. When the capital Nineveh collapsed, the only battalion that survived was the Tenth Assyrian Battalion of that region. Thus this territory was called Esronoyo (meaning the Tenth) or Beth-Esroyo the (Place of the Tenth).

⚫
* The third theory about the origin of the name of Osroene, goes back to the Ten tribes of Subartu the origin of the Assyrian Nation. The Turkish historian Dr. Shemsettin Gunaltay in his book Sharq Tarihi (History of the East) traces the Kingdom of Osroene to the ancient On-Asurilar the {Ten Assyrian (tribes)}, and he states that the Kadim Suryanilar (Ancient Syriacs) are the descendants of the Subari Asurilar (Subartu Assyrians). (See: Tarihta Suryanilar, by: Rev Gabriel Aydin, 1994, Page 18).

⚫
* The term Ondaligh used by the Suryoyo/Assyrian community of Urhoy for their meeting place (after Sunday mass) is a compound Turkish word consisting of "On" meaning "Ten", and "Daligh" meaning "Branchs" in other words the Ten Branches, (i.e. confirming the above three theories).

⚫
* The name ''Osroene'' might be derived from ''Osroes'' an [[Arab people|Arab]] sheik who in [[120]] BC wrested control of this region from the Seleucids in Syria<ref>C. Anthon, ''A System of Ancient and Medieval Geography for the Use of Schools and Colleges'', Harper Publishers, 1850, Digitized 2007, p.681</ref>.


⚫
== History ==
Osroene was one of several kingdoms arising from the dissolution of the [[Seleucid Empire]]. The kingdom occupied an area on what is now the border between [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]].

It was in this region that the "legend of Abgar" originated, for which see [[Abgar V of Edessa|Abgarus of Edessa]].

Osroene was absorbed into the [[Roman Empire]] in [[114]] as a semi-autonomous vassal state, after a period under [[Arsacid]] (Persian) rule, incorporated as a simple [[Roman province]] in [[214]]. Osroene was the first state to have a Christian king. <ref>Osroene's king Abgar IX converted to Christianity in the 200's. It was, however, Armenia that was the first state to adopt Christianity as its official religion in 301 AD</ref>The independence of the state ended in [[244]] when it was incorporated in the [[Roman Empire]].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia]
⚫
[[Image:20tigranes95-66.gif|250px|thumb|Map showing Osroene as a vassal of the [[Kingdom of Armenia|Armenian Empire]] under [[Tigranes the Great]]]]
⚫
Since Emperor [[Diocletian]]'s [[Tetrarchy]] reform circa [[300]], it was part of the [[diocese of the East|diocese of Oriens]], in the [[praetorian prefecture of the East|praetorian prefecture of the same name]]. It was governed by a ''[[Dux]]'', who ranked as [[vir spectabilis]] and commanded (circa 400) the following troops:
⚫
*Equites Dalmatae Illyriciani, garrisoned at Ganaba.
⚫
*Equites promoti Illyriciani, Callinico.
⚫
*Equites Mauri Illyriciani, Dabana.
⚫
*Equites promoti indigenae, Banasam
⚫
*Equites promoti indigenae, Sina Iudaeorum.
⚫
*Equites sagittarii indigenae, Oraba.
⚫
*Equites sagittarii indigenae, Thillazamana.
⚫
*Equites sagittarii indigenae Medianenses, Mediana.
⚫
*Equites primi Osrhoeni, Rasin.
*Praefectus legionis quartae Parthicae, Circesio.
*(an illegible command, possibly [[Legio III Parthica|Legio III ''Parthica'']]), Apatna.
*(an illegible command, possibly [[Legio III Parthica|Legio III ''Parthica'']]), Apatna.
as well as, 'on the minor roll', apparently auxiliaries:
as well as, 'on the minor roll', apparently auxiliaries:
*Ala septima Valeria praelectorum, Thillacama.
*''Ala septima Valeria praelectorum'', Thillacama.
*Ala prima Victoriae, Tovia -contra Bintha.
*''Ala prima Victoriae'', Tovia, opposite Bintha.
*Ala secunda Paflagonum, Thillafica.
*''Ala secunda Paflagonum'', Thillafica.
*Ala prima Parthorum, Resaia.
*''Ala prima Parthorum'', Resaia.
*Ala prima nova Diocletiana, inter Thannurin et Horobam.
*''Ala prima nova Diocletiana'', between Thannurin and Horobam.
*Cohors prima Gaetulorum, Thillaamana.
*''Cohors prima Gaetulorum'', Thillaamana.
*Cohors prima Eufratensis, Maratha.
*''Cohors prima Eufratensis'', Maratha.
*Ala prima salutaria, Duodecimo constituta.
*''Ala prima salutaria'', Duodecimo constituta.
His [[Officium]] (administrative staff) included the Princeps de scola agentum in rebus, some Numerarii and their adiutores, a
His [[Officium]] (administrative staff) included a ''scola'' of [[agentes in rebus]]'' under a ''princeps'', some ''numerarii'' and their ''adiutores'', secretaries (a ''commentariensis'', an ''adiutor'' and an ''a libellis'') and various ''exceptores'' and other officials.
Commentariensis, an Adiutor, an A libellis = subscribendarius and various
Exceptores 'and other' officiales.


⚫
A century later, [[Dagalaiphus]] and Secundinus, duke of Osroene, accompanied [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] in his war against the [[Sassanid]] king [[Shapur II]].<ref>E. Gibbon, ''The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire'', Vol. I, Chapter XXIV [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap24.htm].</ref> Osroene remained a province under Roman (and later [[Byzantine Empire|East Roman]]) control until the [[Muslim conquests]] of the [[7th century]].
⚫
According to [[Sozomen]]'s Ecclesiastical history, "there were some very learned men who formerly flourished in Osroene, as for instance [[Bardasanes]], who devised a heresy designated by his name, and his son [[Harmonius]]. It is related that this latter was deeply versed in Grecian erudition, and was the first to subdue his native tongue to meters and musical laws; these verses he delivered to the choirs" and that [[Arianism]] —a more successful heresy— met with opposition there.


== Rulers of Osroene ==
=== Rulers of Osroene ===
*[[Aryu of Osroene|Aryu]] ([[132 BC|132]]–[[127 BC]])
*[[Aryu of Osroene|Aryu]] ([[132 BC|132]]–[[127 BC]])
*[[Abdu of Osroene|Abdu bar Maz'ur]] ([[127 BC|127]]–[[120 BC]])
*[[Abdu of Osroene|Abdu bar Maz'ur]] ([[127 BC|127]]–[[120 BC]])
Line 92: Line 62:
*[[Abgar IV of Osroene|Abgar IV Sumaqa]] ([[26 BC|26]]–[[23 BC]])
*[[Abgar IV of Osroene|Abgar IV Sumaqa]] ([[26 BC|26]]–[[23 BC]])
*[[Ma'nu III of Osroene|Ma'nu III Saphul]] ([[23 BC|23]]–[[4 BC]])
*[[Ma'nu III of Osroene|Ma'nu III Saphul]] ([[23 BC|23]]–[[4 BC]])
*Abgar V Ukkama bar Ma'nu ([[Abgarus of Edessa]]) ([[4 BC]]–AD [[7]])
*[[Abgar V of Edessa|Abgar V Ukkama bar Ma'nu]] or ([[Abgarus of Edessa]]) ([[4 BC]]–AD [[7]])
*[[Ma'nu IV of Osroene|Ma'nu IV bar Ma'nu]] (AD [[7]]–[[13]])
*[[Ma'nu IV of Osroene|Ma'nu IV bar Ma'nu]] (AD [[7]]–[[13]])
*Abgar V Ukkama bar Ma'nu ([[13]]–[[50]])
*[[Abgar V of Edessa|Abgar V Ukkama bar Ma'nu]] or ([[Abgarus of Edessa]]) ([[13]]–[[50]])
*[[Ma'nu V of Osroene|Ma'nu V bar Abgar]] ([[50]]–[[57]])
*[[Ma'nu V of Osroene|Ma'nu V bar Abgar]] ([[50]]–[[57]])
*[[Ma'nu VI of Osroene|Ma'nu VI bar Abgar]] ([[57]]–[[71]])
*[[Ma'nu VI of Osroene|Ma'nu VI bar Abgar]] ([[57]]–[[71]])
Line 113: Line 83:
*Ma’nu (IX) Bar Abgar (X) Severus ([[216]]–[[242]])
*Ma’nu (IX) Bar Abgar (X) Severus ([[216]]–[[242]])
*Abgar (XI) Farhat Bar Ma’nu (IX) ([[242]]–[[244]])
*Abgar (XI) Farhat Bar Ma’nu (IX) ([[242]]–[[244]])

== Christian theology in Osroene ==
⚫
It is believed that the [[Gospel of Thomas]] emanated from Edessa around [[140 AD]]. Prominent early Christian figures have lived in and emerged from this region such as ''[[Tatian]] the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]]'' who came to Edessa from Hadiab ([[Adiabene]]). He made a trip to Rome and returned to Edessa around 172-173. He had controversial opinions, seceded from the Church, denounced marriage as defilement and maintained that the flesh of [[Christ]] was imaginary. He composed ''Diatessaron'' or ''harmony of the Gospels'' in [[Syriac]] which contained eclectic ideas from Jewish-Christian and dualistic traditions. This became the Gospel par-excellence of [[Syriac]]-speaking Christianity until in the fifth century ''Rabbula'' [[bishop]] of Edessa suppressed it and substituted a revision of the Old Syriac Canonical Gospels.<ref>L.W. Barnard, ''The Origins and Emergence of the Church in Edessa during the First Two Centuries A.D.'', Vigiliae Christianae, pp.161-175, 1968 (see pp.162,165,167,169).</ref>.

⚫
According to [[Sozomen]]'s Ecclesiastical history, "there were some very learned men who formerly flourished in Osroene, as for instance [[Bardasanes]], who devised a heresy designated by his name, and his son [[Harmonius]]. It is related that this latter was deeply versed in Grecian erudition, and was the first to subdue his native tongue to meters and musical laws; these verses he delivered to the choirs" and that [[Arianism]] —a more successful heresy— met with opposition there.

⚫
== Etymology ==
There are several theories about the origin of the name Osroene:<ref>[http://cavemanart.com/osroene/osroene.htm ''The Kingdom of Osroene''], at ''www.cavemanart.com''</ref>

⚫
* One theory states that the name of the kingdom is a compound name, derived from Esro-Ayne (meaning the "Ten-Chiefs"). This theory states that, after the fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C. (the capital of the Assyrian Empire), the Assyrian King Ashur Uballit (II) along with ten of his army chiefs, retreated with part of his population. Travelling westward towards Harran, heading towards Hdatu the western provincial capital of the Assyrian Empire {modern Arslan Tash near Urhoy (Urfa)}. Russian historian Dr. Matviev says in his book History of the Assyrians, that the kingdom of Osroene was founded by the ten Assyrian chiefs who called their kingdom Esroyo which later became Esro-Eyneh (the Ten Chiefs).

⚫
* The second theory about the origin of the name of Osroene is that during the time of the Assyrian Empire, the tenth battalion of the Assyrian army was stationed in the region of Hdatu. When the capital Nineveh collapsed, the only battalion that survived was the Tenth Assyrian Battalion of that region. Thus this territory was called Esronoyo (meaning the Tenth) or Beth-Esroyo the (Place of the Tenth).

⚫
* The third theory about the origin of the name of Osroene, goes back to the Ten tribes of Subartu the origin of the Assyrian Nation. The Turkish historian Dr. Shemsettin Gunaltay in his book Sharq Tarihi (History of the East) traces the Kingdom of Osroene to the ancient ''On-Asurilar'', the "Ten Assyrian (tribes)", and he states that the Kadim Suryanilar (Ancient Syriacs) are the descendants of the Subari Asurilar (Subartu Assyrians). (See: Tarihta Suryanilar, by: Rev Gabriel Aydin, 1994, Page 18).

⚫
* The term Ondaligh used by the Suryoyo/Assyrian community of Urhoy for their meeting place (after Sunday mass) is a compound Turkish word consisting of "On" meaning "Ten", and "Daligh" meaning "Branchs" in other words the Ten Branches, (i.e. confirming the above three theories).

⚫
* The name ''Osroene'' might be derived from ''Osroes'' an [[Arab people|Arab]] sheik who in [[120]] BC wrested control of this region from the Seleucids in Syria<ref>C. Anthon, ''A System of Ancient and Medieval Geography for the Use of Schools and Colleges'', Harper Publishers, 1850, Digitized 2007, p.681</ref>.


== See also ==
== See also ==
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{{Roman provinces 120 AD}}
{{Roman provinces 120 AD}}
{{Late Roman Provinces}}


[[Category:Ancient Near East]]
[[Category:Ancient Near East]]
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[[ar:مملكة الرها]]
[[ar:مملكة الرها]]
[[arc:ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܥܣܪ ܥܝܢܐ]]
[[arc:ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܥܣܪܐ ܥܝܢܐ]]
[[br:Osroene]]
[[br:Osroene]]
[[ca:Osroene]]
[[ca:Osroene]]

Revision as of 18:29, 24 March 2008

Roman province of Osroene, 120, higlighted within the Roman Empire

Osroene (also spelled Osrohene, Osrhoene, from the Greek Όσροηνῆ; Syriac:ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܥܣܪܐ ܥܝܢܐ

Malkuṯā d-Bēt ʿŌsrā ʿĪnē), also known by the name of its capital city, Edessa (modern Şanlıurfa, Turkey), was a historic kingdom located on the present-day border of Syria and Turkey. The kingdom was Assyrian[1][2] and enjoyed semi-autonomy to complete independence from the years of 132 BCE to 244 AD[3][4]. It was a Syriac speaking kingdom[5], and according to an ancient legend King Abgar V of Edessa was converted[6] to Christianity by Thaddeus of Edessa, or Saint Addai, one of the Seventy-two Disciples[6]. By 201 AD or earlier[7], under King Abgar IX[8], Osroene became the first Christian state[9][10].

History

Origins and early period

Osroene, or Edessa, acquired independence from the collapsing Seleucid empire under a dynasty of Arab stock from 132 BCE, though remained under Parthian suzerainty. Most of the kings of Osroene are called Abgar or Manu, and they were Arab sheiks who settled in urban centers.[11][12] The name Osroene is most likely derived from Osroes, an Arab sheik who in 120 BCE wrested control of this region from the Seleucids in Syria.[13] For other possible origins of the name, see below. In his writings, Pliny refers to the natives of Osroene and Commagene as Arabs and the region as Arabia.[14] According to Pliny, a nomadic Arab tribe called Orrhoei occupied Edessa about 130 B.C.[15] The Orrhoei founded a small state, ruled by their chieftains with the title of kings, and the district was called after them Orrhoene. This name was occasionally has been changed into Osroene, in assimilation to the Parthian name Osroes or Chosroes (Khosrau).[16]

Located in the upper course of the river Euphrates, Osroene was a traditional battleground of the powers which ruled Asia Minor, Persia and the Middle East. During the reign of Tigranes the Great, from 83 BCE to 69 BCE, Kingdom of Armenia managed to take control of Osroene from Parthians. Tigranes also handed over the kingdom of Edessa or Osroene to a tribe of nomadic Arabs, which he had resettled in the region[17].

Map showing Osroene as a vassal of the Armenian Empire under Tigranes the Great

The Arabs in Osroene were later brought into submission by Lucius Afranius of Rome. He started out his campaign from Corduene and proceeded to upper Mesopotamia and, after a perilous march through the desert, he managed to defeat the Arabs of Osroene with the help of the Hellenes settled in Carrhae[18].

Roman protectorate

Abgarus of Osroene signed a peace treaty with the Romans during Pompey's eastern campaigns, and was initially an ally of the Roman general Crassus in his campaign against the Parthians in 53 BC. Later on however, he secretly switched sides and became a spy for the Parthian king Orodes II in the war effort by providing faulty intelligence to Crassus. This was one of the main factors in Crassus' defeat at Carrhae. He influenced Crassus' plans, convincing him to give up the idea of advancing to the Greek city of Seleucia near the Euphrates, whose inhabitants were sympathetic to the Romans. Instead Abgarus persuaded him to attack the Parthian general, Surena, but in the midst of the battle he changed sides.[19] Abgarus has been identified as an Arab shaikh in another source. In this campaign, an Armenian force of 16,000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry accompanied Crassus. Orodes also managed to keep the Armenian force out by making peace with Artavazd[20].

During Trajan's time, around 116 AD, the Roman general Lucius Quietus sacked Edessa and turned Osroene into a semi-autonomous vassal state. After the war with Parthians under Marcus Aurelius, forts were built and a Roman garrison was stationed in Nisibis. Osroene attempted to throw off the Roman yoke, falling under Arsacid rule. In the period from Trajan's conquest to 216, Christianity began to spread in Edessa. Abgar IX (177-212 BCE) was the first Christian King of Edessa and Osroene enjoys the distinction of being the first state which adopted Christianity as a official religion[9] in 201 AD[7].

Roman province

The Romans recaptured Osroene by 216 AD and incorporated it as a province of the Roman Empire. Edessa was again brought under Roman control by Decius and was made a center of Roman operations against the Persian Sassanids. Amru, possibly a descendant of Abgar, is mentioned as king in the Paikuli inscription, recording the victory of Narseh in the Sassanid civil war of 293 AD. Historians identify this Amru as Amru ibn Adi, the fourth king of the Lakhmid dynasty which was at that time still based in Harran, not yet moved to Hirah in Babylonia.[21]

Since Emperor Diocletian's Tetrarchy reform in the 290s, Osroene was part of the diocese of Oriens, in the praetorian prefecture of the same name. It was governed by a Dux, who ranked as vir spectabilis and commanded (circa 400) the following troops:

  • Equites Dalmatae Illyriciani, garrisoned at Ganaba.
  • Equites promoti Illyriciani, at Callinicum.
  • Equites Mauri Illyriciani, Dabana.
  • Equites promoti indigenae, Banasam
  • Equites promoti indigenae, Sina Iudaeorum.
  • Equites sagittarii indigenae, Oraba.
  • Equites sagittarii indigenae, Thillazamana.
  • Equites sagittarii indigenae Medianenses, Mediana.
  • Equites primi Osrhoeni, Rasin.
  • a praefectus legionis of the quarta Parthica, Circesio.
  • (an illegible command, possibly Legio III Parthica), Apatna.

as well as, 'on the minor roll', apparently auxiliaries:

  • Ala septima Valeria praelectorum, Thillacama.
  • Ala prima Victoriae, Tovia, opposite Bintha.
  • Ala secunda Paflagonum, Thillafica.
  • Ala prima Parthorum, Resaia.
  • Ala prima nova Diocletiana, between Thannurin and Horobam.
  • Cohors prima Gaetulorum, Thillaamana.
  • Cohors prima Eufratensis, Maratha.
  • Ala prima salutaria, Duodecimo constituta.

His Officium (administrative staff) included a scola of agentes in rebus under a princeps, some numerarii and their adiutores, secretaries (a commentariensis, an adiutor and an a libellis) and various exceptores and other officials.

A century later, Dagalaiphus and Secundinus, duke of Osroene, accompanied Julian in his war against the Sassanid king Shapur II.[22] Osroene remained a province under Roman (and later East Roman) control until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century.

Rulers of Osroene

Christian theology in Osroene

It is believed that the Gospel of Thomas emanated from Edessa around 140 AD. Prominent early Christian figures have lived in and emerged from this region such as Tatian the Assyrian who came to Edessa from Hadiab (Adiabene). He made a trip to Rome and returned to Edessa around 172-173. He had controversial opinions, seceded from the Church, denounced marriage as defilement and maintained that the flesh of Christ was imaginary. He composed Diatessaron or harmony of the Gospels in Syriac which contained eclectic ideas from Jewish-Christian and dualistic traditions. This became the Gospel par-excellence of Syriac-speaking Christianity until in the fifth century Rabbula bishop of Edessa suppressed it and substituted a revision of the Old Syriac Canonical Gospels.[23].

According to Sozomen's Ecclesiastical history, "there were some very learned men who formerly flourished in Osroene, as for instance Bardasanes, who devised a heresy designated by his name, and his son Harmonius. It is related that this latter was deeply versed in Grecian erudition, and was the first to subdue his native tongue to meters and musical laws; these verses he delivered to the choirs" and that Arianism —a more successful heresy— met with opposition there.

Etymology

There are several theories about the origin of the name Osroene:[24]

  • One theory states that the name of the kingdom is a compound name, derived from Esro-Ayne (meaning the "Ten-Chiefs"). This theory states that, after the fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C. (the capital of the Assyrian Empire), the Assyrian King Ashur Uballit (II) along with ten of his army chiefs, retreated with part of his population. Travelling westward towards Harran, heading towards Hdatu the western provincial capital of the Assyrian Empire {modern Arslan Tash near Urhoy (Urfa)}. Russian historian Dr. Matviev says in his book History of the Assyrians, that the kingdom of Osroene was founded by the ten Assyrian chiefs who called their kingdom Esroyo which later became Esro-Eyneh (the Ten Chiefs).
  • The second theory about the origin of the name of Osroene is that during the time of the Assyrian Empire, the tenth battalion of the Assyrian army was stationed in the region of Hdatu. When the capital Nineveh collapsed, the only battalion that survived was the Tenth Assyrian Battalion of that region. Thus this territory was called Esronoyo (meaning the Tenth) or Beth-Esroyo the (Place of the Tenth).
  • The third theory about the origin of the name of Osroene, goes back to the Ten tribes of Subartu the origin of the Assyrian Nation. The Turkish historian Dr. Shemsettin Gunaltay in his book Sharq Tarihi (History of the East) traces the Kingdom of Osroene to the ancient On-Asurilar, the "Ten Assyrian (tribes)", and he states that the Kadim Suryanilar (Ancient Syriacs) are the descendants of the Subari Asurilar (Subartu Assyrians). (See: Tarihta Suryanilar, by: Rev Gabriel Aydin, 1994, Page 18).
  • The term Ondaligh used by the Suryoyo/Assyrian community of Urhoy for their meeting place (after Sunday mass) is a compound Turkish word consisting of "On" meaning "Ten", and "Daligh" meaning "Branchs" in other words the Ten Branches, (i.e. confirming the above three theories).
  • The name Osroene might be derived from Osroes an Arab sheik who in 120 BC wrested control of this region from the Seleucids in Syria[25].

See also

External links

Sources and references

  1. ^ Parpola, Simo. "Assyrian Identity in Ancient Times and Today" (PDF). Assyriologist. Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. p. 15. When the Seleucid Empire disintegrated at the end of the second century BC, its western remnants were annexed to Rome, while several semi-independent kingdoms of decidedly Assyrian identity (Osroene, Adiabene, Hatra, Assur) popped up in the east under Parthian overlordship. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  2. ^ The Revival of Spiritual Healing, by Barsom J. Kashish, 2002, p. 217 [1]
  3. ^ The Revival of Spiritual Healing, by Barsom J. Kashish, 2002, p. 217
  4. ^ Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson Eds. The Writings of the Fathers Down to AD 325: Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 8 (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1994), 657-672. [2]
  5. ^ The Ancient Name of Edessa, Amir Harrak, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 51, No. 3 (Jul., 1992), pp. 209-214 [3]
  6. ^ a b Herbermann, Charles George (1913). The Catholic Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Press. p. 282. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  7. ^ a b von Harnack, Adolph (1905). The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries. Williams & Norgate. p. 293. there is no doubt that even before 190 A.D. Christianity had spread vigorously within Edessa and its surroundings and that (shortly after 201 or even earlier?) the royal house joined the church {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  8. ^ Adshead, Samuel Adrian Miles (2000). China in World History. Macmillan. p. 27. ISBN 0312225652. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  9. ^ a b Cheetham, Samuel (1905). A History of the Christian Church During the First Six Centuries. Macmillan and Co. p. 58. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  10. ^ Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Apostles of the Bible. Zondervan. p. 260. ISBN 0310280117. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  11. ^ J. F. Healey, H. J. W. Drijvers, The Old Syriac Inscriptions of Edessa and Osrhoene: Texts, Translations, and Commentary, BRILL Publishers, 1999, ISBN 9004112847, pp.35-36
  12. ^ M. A. R. College, The Parthians, 1967 (see p.58)
  13. ^ C. Anthon, A System of Ancient and Medieval Geography for the Use of Schools and Colleges, Harper Publishers, 1850, Digitized 2007, p.681
  14. ^ H. I. MacAdam, N. J. Munday, Cicero's Reference to Bostra (AD Q. FRAT. 2. 11. 3), Classical Philology, pp.131-136, 1983.
  15. ^ Pliny vol. 85; vi. 25, 117, 129
  16. ^ Osroene, 1911 Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica
  17. ^ Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, Book V, p.3 [4]
  18. ^ Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, Book V, p.9 [5]
  19. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History,Book 40, Chapter 20, p.126, Project Gutenberg [6]
  20. ^ S. Beck, Ethics of Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires
  21. ^ A. T. Olmstead, The Mid-Third Century of the Christian Era. II, Classical Philology, pp.398-420, 1942. (see p.399)
  22. ^ E. Gibbon, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Vol. I, Chapter XXIV [7].
  23. ^ L.W. Barnard, The Origins and Emergence of the Church in Edessa during the First Two Centuries A.D., Vigiliae Christianae, pp.161-175, 1968 (see pp.162,165,167,169).
  24. ^ The Kingdom of Osroene, at www.cavemanart.com
  25. ^ C. Anthon, A System of Ancient and Medieval Geography for the Use of Schools and Colleges, Harper Publishers, 1850, Digitized 2007, p.681

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