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Schinus terebinthifolia

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Schinus terebinthifolia
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Anacardiaceae
Genus: Schinus
Species:
S. terebinthifolia
Binomial name
Schinus terebinthifolia

Schinus terebinthifolia is a species of flowering plant in the cashew family, Anacardiaceae, that is native to subtropical and tropical South America (southeastern Brazil, northern Argentina, and Paraguay). It is found in these states of Brazil: Alagoas, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Paraná, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, São Paulo, and Sergipe. Common names include Brazilian peppertree,[2] aroeira, rose pepper, broadleaved pepper tree,[3] wilelaiki (or wililaiki),[4] Christmasberry tree[5] and Florida holly.[6] The species name has been very commonly misspelled as "terebinthifolius", due to considerable historic confusion as to the correct gender of the genus name; as of 2015 this has been resolved with the determination that the correct gender of Schinus is feminine (rather than masculine), and adjectival names within the genus must be spelled accordingly.[7]

Description

Brazilian peppertree is a sprawling shrub or small tree, with a shallow root system, reaching a height of 7–10 m. The branches can be upright, reclining, or nearly vine-like, all on the same plant. Its plastic morphology allows it to thrive in all kinds of ecosystems: from dunes to swamps, where it grows as a semi-aquatic plant.[8] The leaves are alternate, 10–22 cm long, pinnately compound with (3–) 5–15 leaflets; the leaflets are roughly oval (lanceolate to elliptical), 3–6 cm long and 2–3.5 cm broad, and have finely toothed margins, an acute to rounded apex and yellowish veins. The leaf rachis between the leaflets is usually (but not invariably) slightly winged. The plant is dioecious, with small white flowers borne profusely in axillary clusters. The fruit is a drupe 4–5 mm diameter, carried in dense clusters of hundreds.

The two varieties are:

  • S. terebinthifolia var. acutifolia, leaves to 22 cm, with 7–15 leaflets, fruit pink
  • S. terebinthifolia var. terebinthifolia, leaves to 17 cm, with 5–13 leaflets, fruit red
  • Leaves
    Leaves
  • Flowers
    Flowers
  • Stem
    Stem
  • Dried berries
    Dried berries

Cultivation and uses

Brazilian pepper is widely grown as an ornamental plant in frost-free regions of South America for its foliage and fruit. It is considered as a melliferous flower[8] and is the main source of food for the bee Tetragonisca angustula, which is an important honey producer.[9]

Although it is not a true pepper (Piper), its dried drupes are often sold as pink peppercorns, as are the fruits from the related species Schinus molle (Peruvian peppertree). The seeds can be used as a spice, adding a pepper-like taste to food. They are usually sold in a dry state and have a bright pink color. They are less often sold pickled in brine, where they have a dull, almost green hue.

In the United States, it has been introduced to California, Texas, Hawaii, Arizona, Nevada, Louisiana[10] and Florida. Planted originally as an ornamental outside of its native range, Brazilian pepper has become widespread and is considered an invasive species in many subtropical regions with moderate to high rainfall, including parts or all of Australia, the Bahamas, Bermuda, southern China, Cuba, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Puerto Rico, Réunion, South Africa and the United States. In drier areas, such as Israel and southern California, it is also grown, but has not generally proved invasive. In California, it is considered invasive in coastal regions by the California Invasive Plant Council.[11]

Brazilian pepper is hard to control because it produces basal shoots if the trunk is cut. Trees also produce abundant seeds that are dispersed by birds and ants. This same hardiness makes the tree highly useful for reforestation in its native environment, but enables it to become invasive outside of its natural range.[8]

Toxicity

Like many other species in the family Anacardiaceae, Brazilian pepper has an aromatic sap that can cause skin reactions (similar to poison ivy burns) in some sensitive people – although the reaction is usually weaker than that induced by touch of the closely related Lithraea molleoides, known in Brazil as "wild" aroeira (aroeira brava). Conversely, Schinus terebinthifolia is commonly known as "tame" aroeira (aroeira mansa).

In a paper on triterpenes, the ingested fruits are noted to have a “paralyzing effect” on birds.[12] The narcotic and toxic effects on birds and other wildlife has also been noted by others, e.g., Bureau of Aquatic Plant Management. The AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants reports that the triterpenes found in the fruits can result in irritation of the throat, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, and vomiting[13] Like most other members of the Anacardiaceae, Brazilian pepper contains active alkenyl phenols, e.g., urushiol, cardol, which can cause contact dermatitis and inflammation in sensitive individuals.[14][15] Contact with the “sap” from a cut or bruised tree can result in rash, lesions, oozing sores, severe itching, welts and reddening and swelling (especially of the eyes).[16]

The burning of plant matter releases many airborne irritants, so it is not an effective means of control. It is said to have a "mace-like" effect upon nearby people and is highly advised against.

History

Also known as "Florida holly", Schinus terebinthifolia was introduced to Florida by at latest 1891, probably earlier,[17] where it has spread rapidly since about 1940,[18] replacing native plants, like mangroves, with thousands of acres occupied. It is especially adept at colonizing disturbed sites and can grow in both wet and dry conditions. Its growth habit allows it to climb over understory trees and invade mature canopies, forming thickets that choke out most other plants.

As an invasive pest

The species, including the seed, is legally prohibited from sale, transport, or planting in Florida, according to the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Noxious Weed List.[19] It is classified as a Category I pest by The Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (FL EPPC).[20] To keep the plant from spreading into native plant communities and displacing them, local regulations and environmental guidelines require eradication of Brazilian pepper wherever possible. The plant and all parts are also illegal for sale or transfer in Texas.[21] As one of the two species sold as pink peppercorn, the other being Schinus molle, it lacks generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status with the FDA.[22]

It is a declared weed in several states of Australia.[23][24][25] In South Africa, it is classified as a category 1 invader in KwaZulu-Natal province, where any plants are to be removed and destroyed, and a category 3 invader in all other provinces, meaning it may no longer be planted.[26]

Control

Two herbicides are approved for use in the United States to exterminate Brazilian pepper: Triclopyr, using the basal bark method; and glyphosate. Picloram can be used if the stump has been freshly cut, but this is neither the preferred nor most effective means of eradication.

Medicinal uses

Peppertree is the subject of extensive folk medicinal lore where it is indigenous. Virtually all parts of this tropical tree, including its leaves, bark, fruit, seeds, resin and oleoresin (or balsam) have been used medicinally by indigenous peoples throughout the tropics. The plant has a very long history of use and appears in ancient religious artifacts and on idols among some of the ancient Chilean Amerindians.[citation needed]

Throughout South and Central America, Brazilian peppertree is reported to be an astringent, antibacterial, diuretic, digestive stimulant, tonic, antiviral and wound healer. In Peru, the sap is used as a mild laxative and a diuretic and the entire plant is used externally for fractures and as a topical antiseptic. The oleoresin is used externally as a wound healer, to stop bleeding and for toothaches and it is taken internally for rheumatism and as a purgative. In South Africa, a leaf tea is used to treat colds and a leaf decoction is inhaled for colds, hypertension, depression and irregular heartbeat. In the Brazilian Amazon, a bark tea is used as a laxative and a bark-and-leaf tea is used as a stimulant and antidepressant. In Argentina, a decoction is made with the dried leaves and is taken for menstrual disorders and is also used for respiratory and urinary tract infections and disorders.[citation needed]

Brazilian peppertree is still employed in herbal medicine today in many countries. It is used for many conditions in the tropics, including menstrual disorders, bronchitis, gingivitis, gonorrhea, gout, eye infections, rheumatism, sores, swellings, tuberculosis, ulcers, urethritis, urogenital disorders, venereal diseases, warts and wounds. In Brazilian herbal medicine today, the dried bark and/or leaves are employed for heart problems (hypertension and irregular heart beat), infections of all sorts, menstrual disorders with excessive bleeding, tumors and general inflammation. A liquid extract or tincture prepared with the bark is used internally as a stimulant, tonic and astringent and externally for rheumatism, gout and syphilis.[27]

Recently, the fruit of the plant has been studied and shows promise as a treatment for MRSA. A chemical in the berry appears to stop bacteria from producing a toxin which breaks down tissue. It also appears to suppress the way the bacteria communicate.[28][29]

References

  1. ^ "Schinus terebinthifolia". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2009-12-30.
  2. ^ NRCS. "Schinus terebinthifolius". PLANTS Database. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 6 November 2015.
  3. ^ "Broadleaved pepper tree (Schinus terebinthifolius)". www.daf.qld.gov.au. Retrieved 2015-07-19.
  4. ^ "Christmas-berry" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-10. Retrieved 2016-12-04.
  5. ^ (in Portuguese) Schinus terebinthifolius at Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos Florestais
  6. ^ "Brazilian-pepper tree, Christmasberry tree, Florida Holly". Floridagardener.com. Retrieved 2017-10-06.
  7. ^ Zona, S. (2015). The correct gender of Schinus (Anacardiaceae). Phytotaxa, 222(1), 75–77. doi:https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.222.1.9
  8. ^ a b c Paulo Backes & Bruno Irgang, Mata Atlântica: as árvores e a paisagem, Porto Alegre, Paisagem do Sul, 2004, page 102
  9. ^ Braga, JA; Sales, EO; Soares Neto, J; Conde, MM; Barth, OM; Maria, CL (December 2012). "Floral sources to Tetragonisca angustula (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and their pollen morphology in a Southeastern Brazilian Atlantic Forest". Revista de Biología Tropical. 60 (#4): 1491–501. doi:10.15517/rbt.v60i4.2067. PMID 23342504.
  10. ^ "Schinus terebinthifolius; Element stewardship abstract" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 21, 2007.
  11. ^ http://www.cal-ipc.org
  12. ^ Campello, J.P. and A.J. Marsaioli. 1974. Triterpenes of Schinus terebinthifolius. Phytochemistry 13: 659-660
  13. ^ Lampe, K.F. and M.A. McCann. 1985. AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants. American Medical Association, Chicago.
  14. ^ Lampe, K.F. and R. Fagerstrom. 1968. Plant Toxicity and Dermatitis. Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore
  15. ^ Tomlinson, P.B. 1980. The Biology of Trees Native to Tropical Florida. Harvard University Printing Office, Allston.
  16. ^ Morton, J.F. 1978. Brazilian pepper - Its impact on people, animals and the environment. Econ. Bot.32: 353-359.
  17. ^ Gogue, G. J.; Hurst, C. J.; Bancroft, L. (1974). "Growth inhibition by Schinus terebinthifolius". HortScience. 9 (#3): 301.
  18. ^ Ewel, J. J. 1986. Invasibility: Lessons from south Florida. in H. A. Mooney and J. A. Drake, eds. Ecology of biological invasions of North America and Hawaii, pp. 214–230. Springer-Verlag, New York.
  19. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-01-15. Retrieved 2009-07-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  20. ^ "Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council Invasive Plant Lists". Fleppc.org. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  21. ^ "Texas Invasives". Info.sos.state.tx.us. Archived from the original on 2012-10-24. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  22. ^ Singh, Ram J.; Lebeda, Ales; Tucker, Arthur O. (2011). "2. Medicinal Plants—Nature's Pharmacy". In Singh, Ram J. (ed.). Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement: Medicinal Plants. Vol. 6. CRC Press (published 15 September 2011). p. 17. ISBN 978-1420073843.
  23. ^ "Broadleaved pepper tree Schinus terebinthifolius Declared Class 3" (PDF). Daff.qld.gov.au. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-31. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  24. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-09-02. Retrieved 2012-08-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  25. ^ "Swan Weeds — List of Weeds". Florabase.dec.wa.gov.au. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  26. ^ "Invasive Alien Plants - CARA List". South African Nursery Association. Archived from the original on 2013-03-13. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
  27. ^ "Tropical Plant Database File for - Brazilian Peppertree - Schinus molle". Rain-tree.com. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  28. ^ "Common weed could help fight deadly superbug, study finds". Washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  29. ^ Muhs, Amelia; Lyles, James T.; Parlet, Corey P.; Nelson, Kate; Kavanaugh, Jeffery S.; Horswill, Alexander R.; Quave, Cassandra L. (2017). "Virulence Inhibitors from Brazilian Peppertree Block Quorum Sensing and Abate Dermonecrosis in Skin Infection Models". Scientific Reports. 7 (#1): 42275. Bibcode:2017NatSR...742275M. doi:10.1038/srep42275. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5301492. PMID 28186134. pdf
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