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Battle of Crete

Coordinates: 35°13′N 24°55′E / 35.217°N 24.917°E / 35.217; 24.917
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Battle of Crete
Part of the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II

German paratroopers (Fallschirmjäger) landing on Crete, May 1941
Date20 May – 1 June 1941 (13 days)
Location
Crete, Greece
Result Axis victory[1][2][3]
Belligerents
 United Kingdom
 Greece
 Australia
 New Zealand		  Germany
 Italy
Commanders and leaders
New Zealand Bernard C. Freyberg Nazi Germany Kurt Student
Strength
United Kingdom:
15,000
Greece:
11,451[4]
Australia:
7,100
New Zealand:
6,700
Total:
40,000–61,800[5] (10,000 without fighting capacity)[6]		 Germany:
14,000[citation needed] paratroopers
15,000[citation needed] mountain troopers (together 29,000 in Greece, but only 22,040 could be transported to the island)
280 bombers
150 dive bombers
180 fighters
500 transports
80 troop gliders
Italy:
2,700
Casualties and losses

4,123 dead
unknown wounded
17,479 captured.

4 cruisers and 6 destroyers sunk.
1 aircraft carrier, 2 battleships, 4 cruisers, 2 destroyers, 1 submarine damaged.		 1,915 dead
1,759 missing
2,000 wounded[7]
284 Luftwaffe aircraft destroyed or written off and several hundred damaged.[8]
1 Italian destroyer damaged
1 Italian torpedo boat damaged
Over 500 Greek civilians executed by Axis soldiers

The Battle of Crete (Template:Lang-de, Template:Lang-el, also Unternehmen Merkur, Operation Mercury) was fought during World War II on the Greek island of Crete. It began on the morning of 20 May 1941, when Nazi Germany began an airborne invasion of Crete. Greek forces and other Allied forces, along with Cretan civilians, defended the island.[9] After one day of fighting, the Germans had suffered heavy casualties and the Allied troops were confident that they would defeat the invasion. The next day, through communication failures, Allied tactical hesitation and German offensive operations, Maleme airfield in western Crete fell, enabling the Germans to land reinforcements and overwhelm the defensive positions on the north of the island. Allied forces withdrew to the south coast. Over half were evacuated by the British Royal Navy; the remainder surrendered or joined the Cretan resistance.

The Battle of Crete was the first occasion where Fallschirmjäger (German paratroops) were used en masse, the first mainly airborne invasion in military history, the first time the Allies made significant use of intelligence from the decrypted German messages from the Enigma machine and the first time German troops encountered mass resistance from a civilian population.[10] Due to the number of casualties and the belief that airborne forces no longer had the advantage of surprise Adolf Hitler became reluctant to authorise large airborne operations, preferring instead to employ paratroopers as ground troops.[11][12] In contrast, the Allies were impressed by the potential of paratroopers and started to form airborne-assault and airfield-defence regiments.

Background

Main article: Battle of Greece

British forces had initially garrisoned Crete when the Italians attacked Greece on 28 October 1940,[13] enabling the Greek government to employ the Fifth Cretan Division in the mainland campaign.[14] This arrangement suited the British: Crete could provide the Royal Navy with excellent harbours in the eastern Mediterranean, from which it could threaten the Axis south-eastern flank,[15] and the Ploieşti oil fields in Romania would be within range of British bombers based on the island.

The Italians were repulsed, but the subsequent German invasion of April 1941 (Operation Marita), succeeded in overrunning mainland Greece. At the end of the month 57,000 Allied troops were evacuated by the Royal Navy. Some were sent to Crete to bolster its garrison until fresh forces could be organised, although most had lost their heavy equipment.[16] Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, sent a telegram to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), General Sir John Dill: "To lose Crete because we had not sufficient bulk of forces there would be a crime."[17]

Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH, German army high command) was preoccupied with Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union and was largely opposed to a German attack on Crete.[18] However, Hitler remained concerned about attacks in other theatres, in particular on his Romanian fuel supply,[14] and Luftwaffe commanders were enthusiastic about the idea of seizing Crete by a daring airborne attack.[19] The desire to regain prestige after their defeat by the Royal Air Force (RAF) in the Battle of Britain the year before, may also have played a role in their thinking, especially before the advent of the much more important invasion of Russia.[20] Hitler was won over by the audacious proposal and in Directive 31 he asserted that "Crete... will be the operational base from which to carry on the air war in the Eastern Mediterranean, in co-ordination with the situation in North Africa."[21] The directive also stated that the operation was to be in May[20] and must not be allowed to interfere with the planned campaign against the Soviet Union.[20] Before the invasion, the Germans conducted a bombing campaign to establish air superiority and forced the RAF to move its remaining aeroplanes to Alexandria.[22]

Prelude

Order of battle

See also: Battle of Crete order of battle

Allied forces

No RAF units were based permanently at Crete until April 1941 but airfield construction had begun, radar sites built and stores delivered. Equipment was scarce in the Mediterranean and in the backwater of Crete, the British forces had seven commanders in seven months. In early April, airfields at Maleme and Heraklion and the landing strip at Retimo on the north coast were ready and another strip at Pediada-Kastelli was nearly finished. After the German invasion of Greece, the role of the Crete garrison changed from the defence of a naval anchorage to preparing to repel an invasion. On 17 April, Group Captain George Beamish was appointed Senior Air Officer, Crete, taking over from a Flight-Lieutenant whose duties and instructions had been only vaguely defined. Beamish was ordered to prepare the reception of the Blenheim bombers of 30 Squadron and 203 Squadron from Egypt and the remaining fighter aircraft from Greece, to cover the evacuation of W Force, which enabled the transfer of 25,000 British and Dominion troops to the island, preparatory to their relief by fresh troops from Egypt.[23]

The navy tried to deliver 27,000 long tons (27,000 t) of supplies from 1–20 May 1941, but the Luftwaffe attacks forced most ships to turn back, and only 2,700 long tons (2,700 t) of stores were delivered. Only about 3,500 trained British and Greek soldiers were on the island, and the defence devolved to the shaken and poorly-equipped troops from Greece, assisted by the last fighters of 33, 80 and 112 squadrons and a squadron of the Fleet Air Arm, once the Blenheims were ordered back to Egypt. In mid-May, the four squadrons had about 24 aircraft, of which about twelve were serviceable, due to a lack of tools and spares. The unfinished ground at Pediada-Kastelli was blocked with trenches and heaps of soil and all but narrow flight paths were blocked at Heraklion and Retimo by barrels full of earth. At Maleme, blast pens were built for the aircraft, and barrels full of petrol were kept ready to be ignited by machine-gun fire. Around each ground, a few field guns, anti-aircraft guns, two infantry tanks and two or three light tanks were sited. The three areas were made into independent sectors, but there were only eight QF 3-inch and twenty Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns.[24]

Major-General Freyberg (right), Allied Commander at the Battle of Crete

On 30 April 1941, Major-General Bernard Freyberg VC a New Zealand Army officer, was appointed commander of the Allied forces on Crete (Creforce).[25] By May, the Greek forces consisted of approximately 9,000 troops, three battalions of the 5th Greek Division, which had been left behind when the rest of the unit had been transferred to the mainland against the German invasion, the Cretan Gendarmerie (a battalion-sized force), the Heraklion Garrison Battalion, a defence unit made up mostly of transport and supply personnel and remnants of the 12th and 20th Greek divisions, which had also escaped from the mainland to Crete and were organised under British command. Cadets from the Gendarmerie academy and recruits from Greek training centres in the Peloponnese had been transferred to Crete, to replace the trained soldiers sent to fight on the mainland. These troops were already organised into numbered recruit training regiments, and it was decided to use this structure to organise the Greek troops, supplementing them with experienced men arriving from the mainland.

The British Commonwealth contingent consisted of the original 14,000-man British garrison and another 25,000 British and Commonwealth troops evacuated from the mainland. The evacuees were typical, intact units, composite units improvised locally, stragglers from every type of army unit and deserters; most lacking heavy equipment. The main formed units were the 2nd New Zealand Division, less the 6th Brigade and division headquarters; the 19th Australian Brigade Group; and the 14th Infantry Brigade of the British 6th Division. There were about 15,000 front-line Commonwealth infantry, augmented by about 5,000 non-infantry personnel equipped as infantry and a composite Australian artillery battery.[26] On 4 May, Freyberg sent a message to the British commander in the Middle East, General Archibald Wavell, requesting the evacuation of about 10,000 personnel who did not have weapons and had "little or no employment other than getting into trouble with the civil population" but few of these men had left Crete by the time the battle started.[26]

Axis forces

A Fallschirmjäger and a DFS 230 glider in Crete

On 25 April, Hitler signed Directive 28, ordering the invasion of Crete. The Royal Navy retained control of the waters around Crete so an amphibious assault would be a risky proposition and with German air superiority assured, an airborne invasion was chosen. This was to be the first big airborne invasion, although the Germans had made smaller parachute and glider-borne assaults in the invasions of Denmark and Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, France and mainland Greece. In Greece [Fallschirmjäger] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) had been dispatched to capture the bridge over the Corinth Canal, which was being readied for demolition by the Royal Engineers. German engineers landed near the bridge in gliders, while parachute infantry attacked the perimeter defence. The bridge was damaged in the fighting, which slowed the German advance and gave the Allies time to evacuate 18,000 troops to Crete and 23,000 to Egypt, albeit with the loss of most of their heavy equipment.[27]

In May, Fliegerkorps XI moved from Germany to the Athens area but the destruction wrought during the invasion of Greece forced a postponement of the attack to 20 May. New airfields were built, and 280 long-range bombers, 150 dive-bombers, 90 Bf 109s, 90 Bf 110s and 40 reconnaissance aircraft of Fliegerkorps VIII were assembled, along with 530 Ju 52 transport aircraft and 100 gliders. The Bf 109s and Stuka dive-bombers were based on forward airfields at Mulaoi, Melos and Scarpanto, with Corinth and Argos as base airfields. The Bf 110s were based at airfields near Athens, Argos and Corinth, all within 200 mi (320 km) of Crete, and the bomber or reconnaissance machines were accommodated at Athens, Salonica and a detachment on Rhodes, along with bases in Bulgaria at Sofia and Plovdiv, ten of the airfields being all-weather and 200–250 miles (320–400 km) from Crete. The transport aircraft flew from bases near Athens and southern Greece, including Eleusis, Tatoi, Megara and Corinth. British night bombers attacked the areas in the last few nights before the invasion, and Luftwaffe aircraft eliminated the British aircraft on Crete.[28]

Mountain troops prior to their transfer to Crete.

The Germans planned to use [Fallschirmjäger] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) to capture important points on the island, including airfields that could then be used to fly in supplies and reinforcements. Fliegerkorps XI was to co-ordinate the attack by the 7th Flieger Division, which would land by parachute and glider, followed by the 22nd Air Landing Division, once the airfields were secure. The operation was scheduled for 16 May 1941 but was postponed to 20 May, with the 5th Mountain Division replacing the 22nd Air Landing Division. To support the German attack on Crete, eleven Italian submarines took post off Crete or the British bases of Sollum and Alexandria in Egypt.[29][a]

Intelligence

British

It had only been in March 1941, that Student added an attack on Crete to Operation Marita; supply difficulties retarded the assembly of Fliegerkorps XI and its 500 Ju 52s, then more delays forced a postponement until 20 May 1941. The War Cabinet in Britain had expected the Germans to use paratroops in the Balkans, and on 25 March, British decrypts of Luftwaffe Enigma wireless traffic revealed that Fliegerkorps XI was assembling Ju 52s for glider-towing, and British Military Intelligence reported that 250 aircraft were already in the Balkans. On 30 March, Detachment Süssmann, part of the 7th Fliegerdivision was identified at Plovdiv. Notice of the target of these units did not arrive, but on 18 April it was found that 250 Ju 52s had been withdrawn from routine operations, and on 24 April it became known that Göring had reserved them for a special operation. The operation turned out to be a descent on the Corinth Canal on 26 April, but then a second operation was discovered and that supplies (particularly of fuel), had to be delivered to Fliegerkorps XI by 5 May; a Luftwaffe message referred to Crete for the first time was decrypted on 26 April.[30]

The British Chiefs of Staff were apprehensive that the target could be changed to Cyprus or Syria as a route into Iraq during the Anglo-Iraqi War (2–31 May 1941) and suspected that references to Crete were a deception, despite having no grounds for this, and on 3 May Churchill thought that the attack might be a decoy. The command in Crete had been informed on 18 April, despite the doubts, and Crete was added to a link from the GC & CS to Cairo, while on 16 and 21 April, intelligence that airborne operations were being prepared in Bulgaria was passed on. On 22 April, the HQ in Crete was ordered to burn all material received through the Ultra link, but Churchill ruled that the information must still be provided. When Freyberg took over on 30 April, the information was disguised as information from a spy in Athens. Remaining doubts about an attack on Crete were removed on 1 May, when the Luftwaffe was ordered to stop bombing airfields on the island and mining Souda Bay and to photograph all of the island. By 5 May it was clear that the attack was not imminent and next day, 17 May was revealed as the expected day for the completion of preparations, along with the operation orders for the plan from the D-day landings in the vicinity of Maleme and Chania, Heraklion and Rethymno.[30]

German

Alexander Löhr and Wolfram von Richthofen (1942)

Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, chief of the Abwehr, originally reported 5,000 British troops on Crete and no Greek forces. It is not clear whether Canaris, who had an extensive intelligence network at his disposal, was misinformed or was attempting to sabotage Hitler's plans (Canaris was killed much later in the war for supposedly participating in the 20 July Plot). Abwehr also predicted the Cretan population would welcome the Germans as liberators, due to their strong republican and anti-monarchist feelings and would want to receive the "... favourable terms which had been arranged on the mainland ..."[31] The late republican prime minister of Greece, Eleftherios Venizelos, had been a Cretan and support for his ideas was strong on the island, the Germans seriously underestimated Cretan loyalty. King George and his entourage escaped from Greece via Crete, with the help of Greek and Commonwealth soldiers, Cretan civilians and even a band of prisoners who had been released from captivity by the Germans. 12th Army Intelligence painted a less optimistic picture but also underestimated the number of British Commonwealth forces and the number of Greek troops who had been evacuated from the mainland. General Alexander Löhr, the theatre commander, was convinced the island could be taken with two divisions but decided to keep 6th Mountain Division in Athens as a reserve.

Weapons and equipment

German

Further information: Fallschirmjäger (World War II)
Wehrmacht cuff title (German: Ärmelband) for the Crete campaign

The Germans used the new 7.5 cm Leichtgeschütz 40 light gun (a recoilless rifle). At 320 lb (150 kg), it weighed 1⁄10 of a standard German 75 mm field gun, yet had 2⁄3 of its range. It fired a 13 lb (5.9 kg) shell over 3 mi (4.8 km). A quarter of the German paratroops jumped with a MP 40 submachine gun, often carried with a bolt-action Karabiner 98k rifle and most German squads had an MG 34 machine gun.[32] The Germans used colour-coded parachutes to distinguish the canisters carrying rifles, ammunition, crew-served weapons and other supplies. Heavy equipment like the Leichtgeschütz 40 were dropped with a special triple-parachute harness to bear the extra weight.

The troops also carried special strips of cloth to unfurl in patterns to signal to low-flying fighters, to coordinate air support and for supply drops. The German procedure was for individual weapons to be dropped in canisters, due to their practice of exiting the aircraft at low altitude. This was a flaw that left the paratroopers armed only with knives, pistols and grenades in the first few minutes after landing. Poor design of German parachutes compounded the problem, the standard German harness had only one riser to the canopy and could not be steered. Even the 25 percent of paratroops armed with sub-machine guns were at a disadvantage, given the weapon's limited range. Many Fallschirmjäger were shot before they reached weapons canisters.

Greek

Greek troops were armed with Mannlicher–Schönauer 6.5 mm mountain carbines or ex-Austrian 8x56R Steyr-Mannlicher M1895 rifles, the latter a part of post-World War I reparations; about 1,000 Greeks carried antique Fusil Gras mle 1874 rifles. The garrison had been stripped of its best crew-served weapons, which were sent to the mainland, there were twelve obsolescent St. Étienne Mle 1907 light machine-guns and forty miscellaneous LMGs. Many Greek soldiers had fewer than thirty rounds of ammunition but could not be supplied by the British, who had no stocks in the correct calibres. Those with insufficient ammunition were posted to the eastern sector of Crete, where the Germans were not expected in force. The 8th Greek Regiment was under-strength and many soldiers were poorly-trained and poorly equipped. The unit was attached to 10th New Zealand Infantry Brigade (Brigadier-General Howard Kippenberger), who placed it in a defensive position around the village of Alikianos, where with local civilian volunteers, they held out against the German 7th Engineer Battalion.

Though Kippenberger had referred to them as "...nothing more than malaria ridden little chaps...with only four weeks of service," the Greek troops repulsed German attacks until they ran out of ammunition, whereupon they began charging with fixed bayonets, overrunning German positions and capturing rifles and ammunition. The engineers had to be reinforced by two battalions of German paratroops, yet the 8th Regiment hold on until 27 May, when the Germans made a combined arms assault by Luftwaffe aircraft and mountain troops. The Greek stand helped to protect the retreat of the Commonwealth forces who were evacuated at Sfakia. Beevor and McDougal Stewart write that the defence of Alikianos gained at least 24 more hours for the completion of the final leg of the evacuation behind Layforce. The troops who were protected as they withdrew had begun the battle with more and better equipment than the 8th Greek Regiment.[citation needed]

British Commonwealth

British and Commonwealth troops used the standard Lee–Enfield rifle, Bren light machine gun and Vickers medium machine gun. The British had about 85 artillery pieces of various calibres, many of them captured Italian weapons without sights.[33] Anti-aircraft defences consisted of one light anti-aircraft battery equipped with 20 mm automatic cannon, split between the two airfields. The guns were camouflaged, often in nearby olive groves and some were ordered to hold their fire during the initial assault to mask their positions from German fighters and dive-bombers. The British had nine Matilda IIA infantry tanks of "B" Squadron, 7th Royal Tank Regiment (7th RTR) and sixteen Light Tanks Mark VIB from "C" Squadron, 4th Queen's Own Hussars (4th QOH).[34]

The Matildas had 40 mm Ordnance QF 2 pounder guns, which fired armour piercing rounds only which were not effective anti-personnel weapons (high explosive rounds in such a small calibre were considered impractical).[34] The tanks were in poor mechanical condition, the engines were worn and could not be overhauled on Crete. Most tanks were used as mobile pillboxes to be brought up and dug-in at strategic points. One Matilda had a damaged turret crank that allowed it to turn clockwise only. Many British tanks broke down in the rough terrain, not in combat. The British and their allies did not possess sufficient Universal Carriers or trucks, which would have provided mobility and firepower needed for rapid counter-attacks before the invaders could consolidate.[34]

Strategy and tactics

Operation Mercury

Map of the German assault on Crete

Hitler authorised Unternehmen Merkur (named after the swift Roman god Mercury) with Directive 28; the forces used were to come from airborne and air units already in the area and units intended for Unternehmen Barbarossa were to conclude operations before the end of May, Barbarossa was not to be delayed by the attack on Crete, which had to begin soon or would be cancelled. Planning was rushed and much of Unternehmen Merkur was improvised, including the use of troops who were not trained for airborne assaults.[35] The Germans planned to capture Maleme, but there was debate over the concentration of forces there and the number to be deployed against other objectives, like the smaller airfields at Heraklion and Rethymno. The Luftwaffe commander, Colonel General Alexander Löhr and the Kriegsmarine commander, Admiral Karl-Georg Schuster, wanted more emphasis on Maleme, to achieve overwhelming superiority of force.[36] Major-General Kurt von Student wanted to disperse the paratroops more, to maximise the effect of surprise.[36] As the primary objective, Maleme offered several advantages: it was the largest airfield and big enough for heavy transport aircraft, it was close enough to the mainland for air cover from land-based Bf 109 fighters and it was near the north coast, so seaborne reinforcements could be brought up quickly. A compromise plan by Hermann Göring was agreed, and in the final draft, Maleme was to be captured first, while not ignoring the other objectives.[37]

The invasion force was divided into Kampfgruppen (battlegroups), Centre, West and East, each with a code name following the classical theme established by Mercury; 750 glider-borne troops, 10,000 paratroops, 5,000 airlifted mountain soldiers and 7,000 seaborne troops were allocated to the invasion. The largest proportion of the forces were in Group West. German airborne theory was based on parachuting a small force onto enemy airfields. The force would capture the perimeter and local anti-aircraft guns, allowing a much larger force to land by glider.[38] Freyberg knew this, after studying German operations and decided to make the airfields unusable for landing but was countermanded by the Middle East Command in Alexandria.[39] The staff felt the invasion was doomed now that it had been compromised and may have wanted the airfields intact for the RAF once the invasion was defeated.[39] (The Germans were able to land reinforcements without fully operational airfields. One transport pilot crash-landed on a beach, others landed in fields, discharged their cargo and took off again. With the Germans willing to sacrifice some transport aircraft to win the battle, it is not clear whether a decision to destroy the airfields would have made any difference, particularly given the number of troops delivered by expendable gliders.)[39]

Operation Mercury battle groups[36]
Group name Mythical codename Commander Target
Gruppe Mitte (Group Centre) Mars Major General Wilhelm Süssmann Prison Valley, Chania Souda, Rethymno
Gruppe West (Group West) Comet Major General Eugen Meindl Maleme
Gruppe Ost (Group East) Orion Colonel Bruno Bräuer Heraklion

Battle

20 May

Maleme–Chania sector

Captured German paratroopers under British guard

At 08:00 on 20 May 1941, German paratroopers, jumping out of dozens of Junkers Ju 52 aircraft, landed near Maleme airfield and the town of Chania. The 21st, 22nd and 23rd New Zealand battalions held Maleme airfield and the vicinity. The Germans suffered many casualties in the first hours of the invasion, a company of III Battalion, 1st Assault Regiment lost 112 killed out of 126 men and 400 of 600 men in III Battalion were killed on the first day.[40] Most of the parachutists were engaged by New Zealanders defending the airfield and Greek forces near Chania. Many gliders following the paratroops were hit by mortar fire seconds after landing and the glider troops who landed safely were almost annihilated by the New Zealand and Greek defenders.[40]

Some paratroopers and gliders missed their objectives near both airfields and set up defensive positions to the west of Maleme airfield and in "Prison Valley" near Chania. Both forces were contained and failed to take the airfields but the defenders had to deploy to face them.[41] Towards the evening of 20 May, the Germans slowly pushed the New Zealanders back from Hill 107, which overlooked the airfield. Greek police and cadets took part, with the 1st Greek Regiment (Provisional) combining with armed civilians to rout a detachment of German paratroopers dropped at Kastelli. The 8th Greek Regiment and elements of the Cretan forces severely hampered movement by the 95th Reconnaissance Battalion on Kolimbari and Paleochora, where Allied reinforcements from North Africa could be landed.

Rethymno–Heraklion sector

Main article: Battle of Rethymno
More German paratroops landing on Crete from Junkers 52 transports, 20 May 1941.

A second wave of German transports supported by Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica attack aircraft, arrived in the afternoon, dropping more paratroopers and gliders containing assault troops.[42] One group attacked at Rethymno at 16:15 and another attacked at Heraklion at 17:30, where the defenders were waiting and inflicted many casualties. Heraklion was defended by the 14th Infantry Brigade, the 2/4th Australian Infantry Battalion and the Greek 3rd, 7th and "Garrison" (ex-5th Crete Division) battalions. The Greeks lacked equipment and supplies, particularly the Garrison Battalion. The Germans pierced the defensive cordon around Heraklion on the first day, seizing the Greek barracks on the west edge of the town and capturing the docks; the Greeks counter-attacked and recaptured both points. The Germans dropped leaflets threatening dire consequences if the Allies did not surrender immediately. The next day, Heraklion was heavily bombed and the depleted Greek units were relieved and assumed a defensive position on the road to Knossos.[citation needed]

As night fell, none of the German objectives had been secured. Of 493 German transport aircraft used during the airdrop, seven were lost to anti-aircraft fire. The bold plan to attack in four places to maximize surprise, rather than concentrating on one, seemed to have failed, although the reasons were unknown to the Germans at the time. (Among the paratroopers who landed on the first day was former world heavyweight champion boxer Max Schmeling, who held the rank of Gefreiter at the time. Schmeling survived the battle and the war.)

21 May

Overnight, the 22nd New Zealand Infantry Battalion withdrew from Hill 107, leaving Maleme airfield undefended. During the previous day, the Germans had cut communications between the two westernmost companies of the battalion and the battalion commander, Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Andrew VC, who was on the eastern side of the airfield. The lack of communication was assumed to mean that the battalion had been overrun in the west. With the weakened state of the eastern elements of the battalion and believing the western elements to have been overrun, Andrew requested reinforcement by the 23rd Battalion.[43] Brigadier James Hargest denied the request on the mistaken grounds that the 23rd Battalion was busy repulsing parachutists in its sector. After a failed counter-attack late in the day on 20 May, with the eastern elements of his battalion, Andrew withdrew under cover of darkness to regroup, with the consent of Hargest.[44] Captain Campbell, commanding the western-most company of the 22nd Battalion, out of contact with Andrew, did not learn of the withdrawal of the 22nd Battalion until early in the morning, at which point he also withdrew from the west of the airfield.[45] This misunderstanding, representative of the failings of communication and coordination in the defence of Crete, cost the Allies the airfield and allowed the Germans to reinforce their invasion force unopposed.[46] In Athens, Von Student decided to concentrate on Maleme on 21 May, as this was the area where the most progress had been made and because an early morning reconnaissance flight over Maleme airfield was unopposed.[44][47] The Germans quickly exploited the withdrawal from Hill 107 to take control of Maleme airfield, just as a sea landing took place nearby. The Allies continued to bombard the area as Ju 52s flew in units of the 5th Mountain Division at night.[45]

Maleme airfield counter-attack

Attacking Fallschirmjäger

In the afternoon of 21 May 1941, Freyberg ordered a counter-attack to retake Maleme airfield during the night of 21/22 May. The 2/7th Battalion was to move 18 miles (29 km) north to relieve the 20th Battalion, which would participate in the attack. The 2/7th Battalion had no transport, and vehicles for the battalion were delayed by German aircraft. By the time the battalion moved north to relieve 20th Battalion for the counter-attack, it was 23:30, and the 20th Battalion took three hours to reach the staging area, with its first elements arriving around 02:45.[45] The counter-attack began at 03:30 but failed because of German daylight air support.[44] (Brigadier George Alan Vasey and Lieutenant-Colonel William Cremor have criticized Freyberg for not properly defending Maleme airfield.)[5] Hargest also blamed Freyberg for the loss of the airfield.[48]

Axis landing attempt, 21/22 May

An Axis convoy of around 20 caïque's, escorted by the Italian torpedo boat Lupo, tried to land German reinforcements near Maleme. Force D under Rear-Admiral Irvine Glennie, with three light cruisers and four destroyers, intercepted the convoy before midnight; the convoy turned back and despite being covered by Lupo, lost more than half of its ships.[49] The attacking British ships suffered only slight damage caused by friendly fire.[50] About 2⁄3 of the German force of over 2,000 men was saved by the Italian naval commander, Francesco Mimbelli, against an overwhelmingly superior Allied naval force. A total of 297 German soldiers, two Italian seamen[51] and two British sailors on HMS Orion were killed.[52] Only one caique and one cutter from the convoy reached Crete. The caique landed 3 officers and 110 German soldiers near Cape Spatha, while the cutter arrived safely in Akrotiri, where her crew was engaged by a British Army patrol[53] and took heavy casualties. Of the German soldiers who landed at Akrotriri, only one managed to get through the British lines and join the German paratroopers already fighting for Chania.[54]

22 May

Maleme

The defending force organised for a night counter-attack on Maleme by two New Zealand battalions, the 20th Battalion of the 4th Brigade and the 28th Maori Battalion of the 5th Brigade. A New Zealand officer present at the battle, claimed a long delay ordering the planned counter-attack turned a night attack into a day attack, which led to its failure.[47] Fears of a sea landing meant that a number of units that could have taken part in the attack were left in place, although this possibility was removed by the Royal Navy which arrived too late for the plans to be changed. The delayed counter-attack on the airfield came in daylight on 22 May, when the troops faced Stuka dive bombers, dug-in paratroops and mountain troops. The attack slowly petered out and failed to retake the airfield, which forced the defenders into withdrawals to the eastern end of the island, to avoid being out-flanked.[47]

Axis landing attempt, 22/23 May

Italian torpedo boat Sagittario

Admiral Andrew Cunningham, sent Force C (three cruisers and four destroyers, commanded by Admiral King) into the Aegean Sea through the Kasos Strait, to attack a second flotilla of transports, escorted by the Italian torpedo boat Sagittario. The force sank an isolated caïque at 08:30, saving itself from an air attack that struck the cruiser HMS Naiad as the German pilots tried to avoid killing their troops in the water. The British squadron was under constant air attack and short of anti-aircraft ammunition, steamed on toward Milos, sighting Sagittario at 10:00. King made the "difficult" decision not to press the attack, despite his overpowering advantage, because of the shortage of ammunition and the severity of the air attacks.[55] The transports were defended by a torpedo charge by Sagittario, which also laid a smoke screen and fired upon the British force. King, however, had succeeded in forcing the Germans to abort the operation. During the search and withdrawal from the area, Force C suffered many losses to German bombers. Naiad was damaged by near misses and the cruiser HMS Carlisle was hit. Cunningham later criticised King, saying that the safest place during the air attack was amongst the flotilla of caiques.[56][57]

Force C rendezvoused with Force A1 (Rear Admiral Rawling) at the Kythera Channel, where air attacks inflicted damage on both forces. A bomb struck HMS Warspite and the destroyer Greyhound was sunk. King sent HMS Kandahar and Kingston to pick up survivors, while the cruisers Gloucester and Fiji provided anti-aircraft support. Their commander did not know of the shortage of anti-aircraft ammunition in Gloucester and Fiji, which were down to 18 and 30 percent, respectively, four hours before they were detached to support the destroyers.[58] Gloucester was hit by several bombs at 15:50 and had to be left behind due to the air attacks; the ship was sunk and 22 officers and 700 ratings were killed.[59] The air attacks on Force A1 and Force C continued, two bombs hit the battleship HMS Valiant and another hit Fiji disabling it at 18:45. A Junkers 88 flown by Lieutenant Gerhard Brenner dropped three bombs on Fiji, sinking it at 20:15.[60] Five hundred survivors were rescued by Kandahar and Kingston that night. The Royal Navy had lost two cruisers and a destroyer but had managed to force the invasion fleet to turn round.[61] Royal Navy AA gunners shot down five Ju-87s and five Ju-88s and damaged 16 more, some of which crash-landed upon their return to base on the night of 21/22 May.[62]

23–27 May

Aftermath of a German air attack on Souda Bay

Fighting against fresh German troops, the Allies retreated southward; the 5th Destroyer Flotilla, consisting of HMS Kelly, Kipling, Kelvin, Jackal and Kashmir, (Captain Lord Louis Mountbatten), was ordered to leave Malta on 21 May, to join the fleet off Crete and arrived after Gloucester and Fiji were sunk. They were sent to pick up survivors and then diverted to attack a German convoy of about fifty ships and caïques off Cape Spatha on Rodopou peninsula, western Crete on the night of 22/23 May and then shell the Germans at Maleme. Kelvin and Jackal were diverted to another search while Mountbatten, with Kelly, Kashmir and Kipling were to go to Alexandria.[63]

While the three ships were rounding the western side of Crete, they were attacked by 24 Stuka dive bombers. Kashmir was hit and sank in two minutes, Kelly was hit and turned turtle soon after and later sank. Kelly shot down a Stuka immediately and another was badly damaged and crashed upon returning to base.[64] Kipling survived 83 bombs, while 279 survivors were rescued from the ships. (The Noël Coward film In Which We Serve was based on this action.)[65] The Royal Navy had suffered so many losses from air attacks that on 23 May, Admiral Cunningham signalled his superiors that daylight operations could no longer continue but the Chiefs of Staff demurred.[66] German search-and-rescue aircraft and Italian motor torpedo boats, spotted and rescued the 262 survivors from the German light convoy sunk off Cape Spatha.

After air attacks on Allied positions in Kastelli on 24 May, the 95th Gebirgs Pioneer Battalion advanced on the town.[67] These air attacks enabled the escape of German paratroopers captured on 20 May; the escapers killed or captured several New Zealand officers assigned to lead the 1st Greek Regiment. The Greeks put up determined resistance but with only 600 rifles and a few thousand rounds of ammunition available for 1,000 ill-trained men, they were unable to repel the German advance.[68] Fighting with the remnants of the 1st Greek Regiment continued in the Kastelli area until 26 May, hampering German efforts to land reinforcements.

Despite the dangers posed by British naval forces, the Kriegsmarine made another attempt to supply the invasion by sea. On 24 May, Oberleutnant-zur-See Österlin, who had led the Maleme Flotilla, was given the task of transporting two Panzer II light tanks over to Kastelli Kisamou. Österlin commandeered a small wooden lighter at Piraeus and arranged for the tanks to be lowered onto it. At dusk the next day, the lighter, towed by the small harbour tug Kentauros, left Piraeus and headed south towards Crete. Reports of British naval units operating nearby, convinced Admiral Schuster to delay the operation and he ordered Österlin to make for a small harbour on the German-occupied island of Kithira.[69][70] At a meeting in Athens on 27 May, Luftwaffe Generals Richthofen, Jeschonnek and Löhr pressed Schuster to get the tanks delivered somehow before "... the Englander claws himself erect again".[71] One of Richthofen's liaison officers had returned from the island on 26 May; the paratroopers were in poor condition, lacking in discipline and "at loose ends". He stressed the "absolute and immediate need" for "reinforcement by sea shipment of heavy weaponry if the operation is to get ahead at all."[71]

Awful news from Crete. We are scuppered there, and I'm afraid the morale and material effects will be serious. Certainly the Germans are past-masters in the art of war—and great warriors. If we beat them, we shall have worked a miracle.
Alexander Cadogan, Diary, 27 May 1941[72]

Schuster issued Österlin new orders to sail for the Gulf of Kisamos, where a landing beach had already been selected and marked out. Upon nearing the shore on 28 May, the lighter was positioned ahead of the tug and firmly beached. A party of engineers then blew the lighter's bow off using demolition charges and the two tanks rolled ashore. They were soon assigned to Advance Detachment Wittman, which had assembled near Prison Valley reservoir the day before. This ad-hoc group was composed of a motorcycle battalion, the Reconnaissance Battalion, an anti-tank unit, a motorized artillery troop and some engineers. General Ringel gave orders for Wittmann to "strike out from Platanos at 03:00 on 28 May in pursuit of the British 'main' via the coastal highway to Rethymno" and thence towards Heraklion.[69] Although they did not play a decisive role, the panzers were useful in helping round up British troops in the Kisamos area, before speeding eastward in support of the German pursuit column.[69]

On the night of 26/27 May, a detachment of some 800 men from No. 7 and No. 8 Commandos, as part of Layforce, landed at Souda Bay (Colonel Robert Laycock).[73] Laycock had tried to land the force on 25 May, but had turned back due to bad weather.[73] Although armed mainly with only rifles and a small number of machine guns, they were to carry out rearguard actions in order to buy the garrison enough time to carry out an evacuation.[73]

Troops of the German 141st Mountain Regiment blocked a section of the road between Souda and Chania. On the morning of 27 May, the New Zealand 28th (Māori) Battalion, the Australian 2/7th Battalion and the Australian 2/8th Battalion cleared the road by a bayonet charge (the "Battle of 42nd Street").[74] Command in London decided the cause was hopeless after General Wavell informed the Prime Minister at 0842, 27 May, that the battle was lost, and ordered an evacuation.[75] Freyberg concurrently ordered his troops to withdraw to the south coast to be evacuated.

Italian landing at Sitia

An Italian marines' machine gun team takes position after landing at Sitia.

On 26 May, in the face of the stalled German advance, senior Wehrmacht officers requested Mussolini to send Italian Army units to Crete in order to help the German forces fighting there.[76] On the afternoon of 27 May, an Italian convoy departed from Rhodes with the intention of landing a brigade from the 50th Infantry Division Regina, supported by 13 L3/35 light tanks.[77] The escort was made up of the destroyer Crispi, the torpedo-boats Lira, Lince, and Libra, two MAS torpedo-launches, while the amphibious force comprised four fishing vessels, two steamships, one river boat, two reefer ships, three tugs and three tankers. The Italian commander in the Dodecanese had volunteered the services of his men as early as 21 May, but the request had to pass through German channels to Hermann Göring, who finally authorised the move when it became clear that the German effort was not moving ahead as quickly as planned.

At 13:30 on 28 May, the Italians believed that three cruisers and six destroyers of the Royal Navy were steaming up towards the northern coast of Crete, in support of Allied troops but the Royal Navy was fully occupied evacuating the Crete garrison.[75][77] The Italians assumed the Royal Navy force would be off Sitia, the planned landing site, by 17:00 and the commander decided that the slowest ship of the convoy would be taken in tow by Lince to increase speed and Crispi was detached to shell the lighthouse at Cape Sideros. The 3,000 men of the division and their equipment were on shore by 17:20 and advanced west unopposed, rendezvousing with the Germans at Ierapetra. The Italian troops later moved their headquarters from Sitia to Agios Nikolaos.[77][78]

Retreat

British wounded evacuated to Alexandria

The Germans pushed the British, Commonwealth and Greek forces steadily southward, using aerial and artillery bombardment, followed by waves of motorcycle and mountain troops (the rocky terrain making it difficult to employ tanks). The garrisons at Souda and Beritania gradually fell back along the road to Vitsilokoumos, north of Sfakia. About halfway there, near the village of Askyfou lay a large crater nicknamed "The Saucer", the only place wide and flat enough for a large parachute drop. Troops were stationed about its perimeter, to prevent a landing to block the retreat. Near Souda, the 5th New Zealand Brigade and the 2/7th Australian Battalion, held off the 141st Mountain Regiment, which had begun a flanking manoeuvre and on 28 May, at the village of Stylos, the 5th New Zealand Brigade fought a rearguard action. The Luftwaffe was over Rethymno and Heraklion and they were able to retreat down the road.[79]

The retreat of the brigade was covered by two companies of the Māori Battalion under Captain Rangi Royal who overran the I Battalion, 141st Gebirgsjäger Regiment and halted the German advance. When the main unit was safely to the rear, the Māori retreated 24 miles (39 km), losing only two killed and eight wounded, all of whom were recovered. Layforce was the only big unit in this area to be cut off. Layforce had been sent to Crete by way of Sfakia when it was still hoped that reinforcements could be brought from Egypt to turn the tide of the battle.[73] The battalion-sized force was split up, with a 200-man detachment under Laycock at Souda to cover the retreat of the heavier units. Layforce and three British tanks, were joined by the men of the 20th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Battery, who had been assigned to guard Souda docks and refused to believe that an evacuation had been ordered. After a day of battle, Laycock ordered a night retreat Beritiana where he was joined by Royal and the Māoris, who managed to fight their way out but Layforce was cut off near the village of Babali Khani (Agioi Pandes). Laycock and his brigade major, Evelyn Waugh, were able to escape in a tank. Most of the other men of the detachment and the 20th HAA Battery were killed or captured. (By the end of the operation about 600 of the 800 commandos sent to Crete were listed as killed, wounded or missing, only 179 men got off the island.)[80]

Evacuation, 28 May – 1 June

From 28 May – 1 June, troops were embarked for Egypt, most being lifted from Sfakia on the south coast, where about 6,000 troops were rescued on the night of 29/30 May but the force was attacked by Luftwaffe dive bombers on the voyage back and suffered many losses. About 4,000 men were withdrawn from Heraklion on the night of 28/29 May, on the next night 1,500 soldiers were taken away by four destroyers and during the night of 31 May /1 June another 4,000 men were lifted. About 18,600 men of the 32,000 British troops on the island were evacuated; 12,000 British and Dominion troops and thousands of Greeks were still on Crete, when the island came under German control on 1 June.[81]

Surrender

Colonel Campbell, the commander at Heraklion, was forced to surrender his contingent. Rethymno fell and on the night of 30 May, German motorcycle troops linked up with the Italian troops who had landed on Sitia. On 1 June, the remaining 5,000 defenders at Sfakia surrendered.[82] By the end of December, about 500 Commonwealth troops remained at large on the island. While scattered and disorganized, these men and the partisans harassed German troops for long after the withdrawal.

Civilian resistance

Cretan civilians joined the battle with whatever weapons were at hand.[83] Civilians went into action armed only with what they could gather from their kitchens or barns and several German parachutists were knifed or clubbed to death in olive groves. An elderly Cretan man clubbed a parachutist to death with his walking cane, before the German could disentangle himself from his parachute.[84] A priest and his son broke into a village museum and took two rifles from the era of the Balkan Wars and sniped at German paratroops at landing zones. The Cretans used captured German small arms and civilians joined in the Greek counter-attacks at Kastelli Hill and Paleochora; the British and New Zealand advisors at these locations were hard pressed to prevent massacres. Civilians also checked the Germans to the north and west of Heraklion and in the town centre.[85]

Massacres of Greek civilians

See also: Razing of Kandanos, Massacre of Kondomari, Alikianos executions, Viannos massacres, and Holocaust of Kedros
Massacre of Cretan civilians at Kondomari, Crete, 1941

The Battle of Crete was the first occasion where the German troops encountered widespread resistance from a civilian population, which initially surprised and later outraged them. As most Cretan partisans wore no uniforms or insignia such as armbands or headbands, the Germans felt free of all of the constraints of the Hague Conventions and killed armed and unarmed civilians indiscriminately.[86][b] Immediately after Crete fell, a series of collective punishments against civilians begun. Between June 2 and August 1, 195 persons from the village of Alikianos and its vicinity were killed in mass shootings known as the Alikianos executions.[88] On June 2, male citizens from Kondomari were executed by a firing squad, with the shootings being captured on film by a German army war correspondent. On June 3, the village of Kandanos was razed to the ground and about 180 of its inhabitants killed. After the war, Student, who ordered the shootings, avoided prosecution for war crimes, despite Greek efforts to extradite him.[89]

Throughout the German occupation in the years that followed, reprisals in retaliation for the involvement of the local population in the Cretan resistance continued. On several occasions, villages were rounded up and their citizens summarily executed. In one of the worst incidents, around 20 villages east of Viannos and west of the Ierapetra provinces were looted and burnt in September 1943, with over 500 of their inhabitants being massacred.[90] These massacres were of the deadliest during the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II. In August 1944, over 940 houses in Anogeia were looted and then dynamited. The same month, nine villages in the Amari valley were destroyed and 165 people killed in what is now known as the Holocaust of Kedros.[91] All these reprisals were ordered by Generalleutnant Friedrich-Wilhelm Müller, who was nicknamed "The Butcher of Crete". After the war, Müller was tried by a Greek military court and executed.[92]

Aftermath

Analysis

Map of occupied Greece showing the German and Italian occupation zones on Crete

Although the conquest of Crete was considered a grandiose victory of the airborne corps,[93] the German leadership focused on the heavy losses incurred. The German Air Ministry was shocked by the amount of transport aircraft lost, and Student, reflecting on the casualties suffered by the paratroopers, concluded after the war that Crete was the death of the airborne force. Hitler, believing airborne forces to be a weapon of surprise which had now lost that advantage, concluded that the days of the airborne corps were over and directed that paratroopers should be employed as ground-based troops in subsequent operations in the Soviet Union.[11][12]

The German casualty rate was hidden from Allied planners, who rushed to create airborne formations.[citation needed] Allied airborne planners like Colonel James M. Gavin realised from the German experience on Crete, that airborne troops should jump with heavy weapons. The lack of such equipment contributed greatly to German losses during the invasion.[citation needed]

The battle for Crete did not delay Operation Barbarossa.[94] The start date for Barbarossa (22 June 1941) had been set several weeks before the Crete operation was considered and the directive by Hitler for Operation Mercury made it plain that preparations for Merkur must not interfere with Barbarossa.[95] Units assigned to Merkur intended for Barbarossa were to be redeployed to Poland and Romania by the end of May and the movement of units from Greece was not delayed. The transfer of Fliegerkorps VIII north, ready for Barbarossa, eased the Royal Navy evacuation of the defenders. The delay of Operation Barbarossa was caused by the late spring and floods in Poland.[96]

The sinking of the Bismarck distracted British public opinion but the loss of Crete, particularly as a result of the failure of the Allied land forces to recognise the strategic importance of the airfields, led the British government to make changes.[97][98] Only 6 days before the initial assault, the Vice Chief of Air Staff presciently wrote: "If the Army attach any importance to air superiority at the time of an invasion then they must take steps to protect our aerodromes with something more than men in their first or second childhood". Shocked and disappointed with the Army's inexplicable failure to recognise the importance of airfields in modern warfare, Churchill made the RAF responsible for the defence of its bases and the RAF Regiment was formed on 1 February 1942.[99] Allied commanders at first worried the Germans might use Crete as a springboard for further operations in the Mediterranean East Basin, possibly for an airborne attack on Cyprus or a seaborne invasion of Egypt, in support of Axis forces operating from Libya. Operation Barbarossa made it apparent that the occupation of Crete was a defensive measure to secure the Axis southern flank.[100]

Ultra

Enigma encryption machine, 1940

For a fortnight, Enigma intercepts described the arrival of Fliegerkorps XI around Athens, the collection of 27,000 registered tons of shipping and the effect of air attacks on Crete, which began on 14 May 1941. A postponement of the invasion was revealed on 15 May, and on 19 May, the probable date was given as the next day. The German objectives in Crete were similar to the areas already being prepared by the British, but foreknowledge increased the confidence of the local commanders in their dispositions. On 14 May, London warned that the attack could come any time after 17 May, which was passed on by Freyberg to the garrison. On 16 May, the British authorities expected an attack by 25,000–30,000 airborne troops, in 600 aircraft and 10,000 troops by sea. (The real figures were 15,750 airborne troops, in 520 aircraft and 7,000 by sea; late decrypts reduced uncertainty over the seaborne invasion.) The British mistakes were smaller than those of the Germans, who estimated the garrison to be only a third of the true figure. (The after-action report of Fliegerkorps XI contained a passage, that the operational area had been so well prepared, that it gave the impression that the garrison had known the time of the invasion.[101])

Antony Beevor in 1991 and P. D. Antill in 2005, wrote that Allied commanders knew of the invasion through Ultra intercepts. Freyberg had been informed of the air component of the German battle plan and started to prepare a defence near the airfields and along the north coast. He had been hampered by a lack of modern equipment and the lightly armed paratroopers had about the same firepower as the defenders, if not more. Ultra intelligence was detailed but was taken out of context and misinterpreted.[102] While emphasis was placed on the airborne assault, the German messages also mentioned seaborne operations and Freyberg, expecting an amphibious landing, garrisoned the coast which reduced the number of men available to defend the airfield at Maleme, the principal German objective.[103] In 1993, F. H. Hinsley, the official historian of British intelligence during the war, wrote that the Germans had more casualties in the conquest of Crete than in the rest of the Greek campaign and that the losses inflicted on the 7th Fliegerdivision were huge[vague]. It was the only unit of its kind and was not rebuilt.[104]

Hinsley wrote that it was difficult to measure the influence of intelligence gained during the battle, because although Ultra revealed German situation reports, reinforcement details and unit identifications and that more intelligence was gleaned from prisoners and captured documents, it was not known how swiftly the information reached Freyberg or how he used it. The German parachute warfare manual had been captured in 1940 and after the war, Student said that he would have changed tactics, had he known. Field signals intelligence was obtained, including bombing instructions and information from the Fliegerkorps XI tactical code. Lack of air cover prevented much British air reconnaissance north of Crete but on 21 May, signals intelligence enabled an aircraft to spot a convoy. After midnight, twelve ships were sunk by the navy and the rest scattered, which led to a second invasion convoy being called back. The second convoy was intercepted during the morning of 22 May, despite the cost to the navy of a daylight operation and no more seaborne attempts were made.[105]

Casualties

German soldiers pause before the graves of their fallen comrades
Souda Bay Allied War Cemetery
Memorial for Greek and Australian soldiers in the centre of Rethymno

Official German casualty figures are contradictory due to minor variations in documents produced by German commands on various dates. Davin estimated 6,698 losses, based upon an examination of various sources.[106] The total count excluded Fliegerkorps VIII and Kriegsmarine casualties. Davin wrote that his estimate might exclude several hundred lightly wounded soldiers.[107]

Reports of German casualties in British reports are in almost all cases exaggerated and are not accepted against the official contemporary German returns, prepared for normal purposes and not for propaganda.

— Davin[108]

In 1956, Playfair and the other British official historians, gave figures of 1,990 Germans killed, 2,131 wounded, 1,995 missing, a total of 6,116 men "compiled from what appear to be the most reliable German records".[109]

Exaggerated reports of German casualties began to appear after the battle had ended. The Press on 12 June 1941 reported that

The Germans lost at least 12,000 killed and wounded, and about 5,000 drowned.

— Taylor[110]

Churchill claimed that the Germans must have suffered well over 15,000 casualties, while Admiral Cunningham felt that the figure was more like 22,000.[35][dubious – discuss] Buckley, based on British intelligence assumptions of two enemies wounded for every one killed, gave an estimate of 16,800 casualties. The United States Army Center of Military History, citing a report of the Historical Branch of the British Cabinet Office, concluded that military historians accept estimates from 6,000–7,000 German casualties.[111] The Australian Graves Commission counted about 5,000 German graves in the Maleme–Souda Bay area, at Rethymno and at Heraklion, that would have included deaths during the German occupation due to sickness, accidents or fighting with partisan forces.[112]

The official historians recorded 147 Luftwaffe aircraft destroyed and 64 damaged by enemy action and 73 destroyed and 84 damaged by other causes and in 1987, Shores, Cull and Malizia recorded losses of 220 aircraft destroyed and 64 written off due to damage, a total of 284 aircraft, with several hundred damaged.[109][8] 311 Luftwaffe aircrew were listed as killed or missing and 127 were wounded.[8] In a 1948 RAF staff publication, Luftwaffe losses were given as about 4,500 parachute and glider troop casualties and about 170 Ju 52s lost or severely damaged; losses in fighter and bomber units were small due to the lack of air opposition.[113]

The British lost 1,742 killed, 1,737 wounded, 11,835 taken prisoner from a garrison of slightly more than 32,000 men and there were 1,828 dead and 183 wounded Royal Navy personnel.[109] Of a force of more than 10,000 men, 5,255 Greek troops were captured.[114] After the war, the Allied graves from the four burial grounds that had been established by the Germans, were moved to Souda Bay War Cemetery. A large number of civilians were killed in the crossfire or died fighting as partisans. Many Cretans were shot by the Germans in reprisal during the battle and in the occupation.[115] One Cretan source puts the number of Cretans killed by Germans at 6,593 men, 1,113 women and 869 children. German records put the number of Cretans executed by firing squad as 3,474 and at least 1,000 civilians were killed in massacres late in 1944.[116]

The Luftwaffe sank the cruisers HMS Gloucester, HMS Fiji and HMS Calcutta, the destroyers Kelly, Greyhound and Kashmir from 22 May – 1 June. Italian bombers from 41° Gruppo sank the destroyer HMS Juno on 21 May and damaged another destroyer HMS Imperial on 28 May beyond repair.[117][118][119] The British also lost the destroyer HMS Hereward on 29 May, when she was attacked by German Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka" dive-bombers and hit by one bomb just in front of her forward funnel. She turned towards the nearby coast of Crete but was sunk by further attacks.[120] Four officers and 72 crew were killed but the 89 survivors were rescued by Italian MAS torpedo boats and taken prisoner.[121]

Damage to the aircraft carrier HMS Formidable, the battleships HMS Warspite and HMS Barham, the cruisers HMS Ajax, HMS Dido, Orion and HMAS Perth, the submarine HMS Rover, the destroyers HMS Kelvin and HMS Nubian, kept them out of action for months. At anchor in Souda Bay, northern Crete, the heavy cruiser HMS York was badly damaged by Italian explosive motor boats and beached on 26 March and later wrecked by demolition charges when Crete was evacuated in May.[122] By 1 June, the eastern Mediterranean strength of the Royal Navy had been reduced to two battleships and three cruisers, against four battleships and eleven cruisers of the Italian Navy.[123]

Royal Navy shipborne anti-aircraft gun claims for the period of 15–27 May amounted to: "Twenty enemy aircraft ... shot down for certain, with 11 probables. At least 15 aircraft appeared to have been damaged ..."; from 28 May – 1 June, another two aircraft were claimed shot down and six more damaged, for a total of 22 claimed destroyed, 11 probably destroyed and 21 damaged.[124]

Crete Military Casualties Killed Missing
(presumed dead) 		Total Killed and Missing Wounded Captured Total
British Commonwealth 3,579[125] 3,579[126] 1,918[126] 12,254[127] 17,754[128]
German[106] 2,124 1,917 4,041 2,640 17 6,698
Greek[129] 426 118 544 5,225
Italian

Occupation

For the German occupation of Crete, see Fortress Crete.

See also

Resistance

[c]

Notes

  1. ^ (Italian submarines Nereide, Tricheco, Uarsciek, Fisalia, Topazio, Adua, Dessie, Malachite, Squalo, Smeraldo and Sirena.[29]
  2. ^ After the King had escaped to Crete on 22 April and issued a defiant memorandum to the Germans, Hitler responded by attacking him in a speech on 4 May. The British feared a propaganda coup if a sovereign monarch under their protection were to be captured and helped him to escape.[87]
  3. ^ Participants on the battle included David Coke • Roald Dahl • Roy Farran • Bernard Freyberg • Clive Hulme • Robert Laycock • Patrick Leigh Fermor • John Pendlebury • George Psychoundakis • Max Schmeling • Theodore Stephanides • Evelyn Waugh (battle portrayed in the novel Officers and Gentlemen, part of the Sword of Honour trilogy) • Lawrence Durrell • Charles Upham • Geoffrey Cox • Dan Davin (New Zealand Official Historian of the battle)

Footnotes

  1. ^ Stephen, Martin (1988), Sea Battles in Close Up World War 2, vol. 2, Naval Institute Press, p. 53, ISBN 1-55750-758-9, One way of dealing with Malta would have been an airborne invasion but Hitler would not countenance such a thing, especially after the pyrrhic casualties of the Crete victory.
  2. ^ Buell, Thomas; Greiss, Thomas (2002), The Second World War: Europe and the Mediterranean, Square One Publishers, p. 101, ISBN 0-7570-0160-2, The rank and file on both sides fought tenaciously on Crete, and in the end the Germans could claim only a pyrrhic victory.
  3. ^ Wright, Robert; Greenwood, John (2007), Airborne forces at war, Naval Institute Press, p. 9, ISBN 1-59114-028-5, The seizure of Crete was a strategic victory for Germany that was brought at the price of future German airborne operations.
  4. ^ (Greek) page 10, retrieved on 27.5.2010: 474 officers and 10,977 soldiers
  5. ^ a b Battle of Crete: Greece sacrificed much for the greater good
  6. ^ Long 1953, p. 210.
  7. ^ Hans-Otto Mühleisen: Kreta 1941 – Das Unternehmen „Merkur“, 20. Mai bis 1. Juni 1941, in: „Einzelschriften zur militärischen Geschichte des Zweiten Weltkrieges“, Band 3. 1968, Page 102
  8. ^ a b c Shores, Cull & Malizia 1987, p. 403
  9. ^ New Zealand History online
  10. ^ Maloney, Shane (July 2006). "Bogin, Hopit". The Monthly.
  11. ^ a b Kurowski, Frank, 'Jump into Hell: German Paratroopers in World War II', Stackpole Books, (2010), pp. 165-166
  12. ^ a b Beevor 1991, pp. 229–230 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help)
  13. ^ Long 1953, p. 203,
  14. ^ a b Beevor 1991, p. 11 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help)
  15. ^ Murfett 2008, p. 114
  16. ^ Long 1953, p. 205.
  17. ^ Churchill & Gilbert 1983, p. 898
  18. ^ Pack 1973, p. 21.
  19. ^ Spencer 1962, p. 95.
  20. ^ a b c Schreiber, Stegemann & Vogel 1995, pp. 530–531
  21. ^ Brown 2002, pp. 1–2 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBrown2002 (help)
  22. ^ Vick 1995, p. 27
  23. ^ Richards 1974, pp. 324–325.
  24. ^ Richards 1974, pp. 325–327.
  25. ^ Playfair et al. 1956, p. 126.
  26. ^ a b Long 1953, pp. 218–219.
  27. ^ Antill 2005, p. 13.
  28. ^ Air 2001, p. 124.
  29. ^ a b Bertke, Smith & Kindell 2012, p. 505
  30. ^ a b Hinsley 1994, pp. 81–82.
  31. ^ Buckley 1952, p. 163.
  32. ^ Antill 2005, p. 25.
  33. ^ MacDonald 1995, p. 153.
  34. ^ a b c Antill 2005, p. 24.
  35. ^ a b Carruthers 2012, p. 22
  36. ^ a b c Kavanaugh 2010, p. 38
  37. ^ Kavanaugh 2010, p. 39
  38. ^ Antill 2005, p. 32
  39. ^ a b c Vick 1995
  40. ^ a b Keegan 2011, p. 135
  41. ^ Keegan 2011, pp. 135–138
  42. ^ Germany and the Second World War, Volume 3, Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt, p. 546, Oxford University Press, 1995
  43. ^ Donald, Haddon; Hutching, Megan (2000). "Haddon Donald describes defending Maleme airfield, Crete". New Zealand History online.
  44. ^ a b c "The battle: days 1–3 – The Battle for Crete". New Zealand History online. 2011.
  45. ^ a b c Long 1953, pp. 221–255.
  46. ^ "The controversies – The Battle for Crete | NZHistory, New Zealand history online". www.nzhistory.net.nz. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
  47. ^ a b c Donoghue, Tim (2011). "Officer breaks rank over the Battle of Crete". stuff.co.nz.
  48. ^ The battle of Crete – who’s to blame for the loss?
  49. ^ Pack 1973, p. 32.
  50. ^ Roskill 1957, p. 441.
  51. ^ Greene & Massignani 1998, p. 170.
  52. ^ Bertke, Donald; Smith, Gordon; Kindell, Don. World War II Sea War, Volume 3: The Royal Navy is Bloodied in the Mediterranean. Lulu.com. ISBN 1937470016.
  53. ^ Beevor 1991, p. 164 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help)
  54. ^ Shores, Cull & Malizia 1987, pp. 357
  55. ^ Cunningham, A. B., The Battle for Crete, Despatch published in the London Gazette, 24 May 1948, Section 1, paragraph 5.
  56. ^ Greene & Massignani 1998, p. 172.
  57. ^ Beevor 1991, p. 167 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help)
  58. ^ Cunningham, A. B., The Battle for Crete, Despatch published in the London Gazette, 24 May 1948, Section 1, paragraph 8, and Section 2, paragraph 30.
  59. ^ Roskill 1957, p. 442.
  60. ^ Cunningham, Section 2, paragraph 38.
  61. ^ Beevor 1991, pp. 166–168 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help).
  62. ^ Shores, Cull & Malizia 1987, pp. 357–9
  63. ^ Roskill 1957, p. 443.
  64. ^ Shores, Cull & Malizia 1987, p. 358.
  65. ^ Beevor 1991, pp. 170–171 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help).
  66. ^ Roskill 1957, pp. 443–444.
  67. ^ Davin 1953, pp. 289–292.
  68. ^ Davin 1953, pp. 71–72
  69. ^ a b c Ansel 1972, pp. 401–402.
  70. ^ Schenk, p.25
  71. ^ a b Ansel 1972, pp. 401–402
  72. ^ Cadogan, Alexander (1972). The Diaries of Sir Alexander Cadogan 1938–1945: Edited by David Dilks, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. Page 381.
  73. ^ a b c d Saunders 1959, p. 55.
  74. ^ Davin 1953, pp. 377–379.
  75. ^ a b Forty, George, The Battle of Crete Ian Allen, London, 2001, P.129
  76. ^ Germany and the Second World War, Volume 3, Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt, p. 549, Oxford University Press, 1995
  77. ^ a b c Cocchia, Aldo (1980). The Hunters and the Hunted. Naval Institute Press, pp.59–69. ISBN 0-405-13030-9
  78. ^ Egeo in Guerra – Lo sbarco italiano a Creta del maggio 1941 Template:It icon
  79. ^ Playfair et al. 1956, p. 144.
  80. ^ Chappell 1996, p. 16.
  81. ^ Roskill 1957, pp. 444–446.
  82. ^ Playfair et al. 1956, pp. 142, 146.
  83. ^ Beevor 1991, pp. 116–117 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help)
  84. ^ MacDonald 1995, pp. 176–178.
  85. ^ MacDonald 1995, p. 195.
  86. ^ Beevor 1991, pp. 342, 235–248. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help)
  87. ^ Buckley 1952, p. 211
  88. ^ Kiriakopoulos 1995, pp. 32–34.
  89. ^ Beevor 1991, pp. 236, 342. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help)
  90. ^ Beevor 1991, pp. 292, 165. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help)
  91. ^ Beevor 1991, pp. 231. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help)
  92. ^ Stein, Stuart. "Noteworthy War Criminals". University of the West of England. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
  93. ^ Kurowski, Frank, 'Jump into Hell: German Paratroopers in World War II', Stackpole Books, (2010), p. 165
  94. ^ Willmott, H.P. (2008). The Great Crusade: a new complete history of the second world war (Revised ed.). Washington, DC: Potomac Books, Inc. pp. 128–129. ISBN 978-1-61234-387-7.
  95. ^ Schreiber, Stegemann & Vogel 1995, pp. 530–1
  96. ^ Germany and the Second World War, Volume IV, The Attack on the Soviet Union, Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt ed, (1995), see especially p.376; McDonald, C. (1995) The Lost Battle: Crete 1941, pp.63–84.
  97. ^ Pack 1973, p. 57
  98. ^ Vick 1995, p. 21
  99. ^ "A Brief History of the RAF Regiment". Ministry of Defence. 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
  100. ^ Playfair et al. 1956, pp. 148–149.
  101. ^ Hinsley 1994, pp. 82–84.
  102. ^ Beevor 1991, Appendix C harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBeevor1991 (help).
  103. ^ Antill 2005, p. 36.
  104. ^ Hinsley 1994, p. 84.
  105. ^ Hinsley 1994, pp. 84–85.
  106. ^ a b Davin 1953, pp. 486–488.
  107. ^ Davin 1953, p. 488.
  108. ^ Davin 1953, p. 486.
  109. ^ a b c Playfair et al. 1956, p. 147.
  110. ^ Taylor 1986, p. 299.
  111. ^ Anon 1952, pp. 139–141.
  112. ^ Davin 1953, pp. 486–487.
  113. ^ Air 2001, p. 125.
  114. ^ Long 1953, p. 316.
  115. ^ Οι ωμότητες των Γερμανών στην Κρήτη, Πατρίς onLine, 29 Μαΐου 2008
  116. ^ MacDonald 1995, p. 303.
  117. ^ Higham 2006, p. 166
  118. ^ Joseph 2011, p. 33
  119. ^ Cloutier 2013, p. 71
  120. ^ Shores, Cull and Malizi, p. 391
  121. ^ English, p. 107
  122. ^ Whitley 1999, p. 94.
  123. ^ Pack 1973, p. 91.
  124. ^ Cunningham, A. B., The Battle for Crete, Paragraph 78 and Paragraphs 1–54 of the last section, Despatch published in the London Gazette, 24 May 1948.
  125. ^ Davin, p. 486 and Playfair, p.147, for RN Casualties. This number includes those missing in action.
  126. ^ a b Davin, p. 486 and Playfair, p.147, for RN Casualties.
  127. ^ Davin, p. 486. The total number excludes several hundred RN PoWs.
  128. ^ Davin, p. 486 and Playfair, p.147, for RN Casualties. The total number excludes several hundred RN PoWs.
  129. ^ Αγώνες και νεκροί του Ελληνικου Στρατού κατά το Δεύτερο Παγκόσμιο Πόλεμο 1940–1945 (in Greek). Athens: Γενικό Επιτελειο Στρατού, Διεύθυνση Ιστορίας Στρατού [General Staff of the Army, Army History Directorate]. 1990. pp. 15–16. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)

References

Further reading

Books
  • Badsey, Stephen (2000). The Hutchinson Atlas of World War II Battle Plans: Before and After. London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-57958-265-6.
  • Barber, Laurie; Tonkin-Covell, John (1990). Freyberg: Churchill's Salamander. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 1-86941-052-1.
  • Beevor, Antony (1991). Crete: The Battle And The Resistance. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-016787-0.
  • Brown, David (2002). The Royal Navy and the Mediterranean: November 1940 – December 1941. Whitehall Histories. Vol. II. London: Whitehall History in association with Frank Cass. ISBN 0-7146-5205-9.
  • Chappell, Mike (1996). Army Commandos 1940–1945. Elite. London: Osprey. ISBN 1-85532-579-9.
  • Churchill, Winston Spencer (1985). The Second World War: The Grand Alliance. Vol. III. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-395-41057-6.
  • Clark, Alan (1989) [1962]. The Fall of Crete. London: Anthony Blond. ISBN 960-226-090-4.
  • Cody, J. F. (2004) [1956]. 28 Maori Battalion. The Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939–1945 (New Zealand Electronic Text Centre [online] ed.). Wellington: Historical Publications Branch. OCLC 173284168. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
  • Comeau, M. G. (2000). Operation Mercury: Airmen in the Battle of Crete. J & K. H. Publishing. ISBN 1-900511-79-7.
  • Elliot, Murray (1992) [1987]. Vasili: The Lion of Crete. London, Australia, South Africa (Greek pbk. Efstathiadis Group ed.). New Zealand: Century Hutchinson. ISBN 960-226-348-2.
  • Ewer, Peter (2008). Forgotten Anzacs: The Campaign in Greece, 1941. Carlton North, Vic.: Scribe. ISBN 978-1-921215-29-2. OCLC 457093199.
  • Guard, Julie (2007). Airborne: World War II Paratroopers in Combat. Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84603-196-0.
  • Hadjipateras, Costas; Fafalios, Maria (1989). Crete 1941, Eyewitnessed. Efstathiadis Group. ISBN 960-226-184-6.
  • Harokopos, George (1993). Spilios Menounos (ed.). The Fortress Crete 1941–1944 The Secret War 1941–1944: Espionage and Counter-Espionage in Occupied Crete. English translation: B. Giannikos (Greek paperback ed.). Seagull. ISBN 960-7296-35-4.
  • Hellenic Army General Staff (1997). An Abridged History of the Greek-Italian and Greek-German War, 1940–1941 (Land Operations). Athens: Army History Directorate Editions. ISBN 960-7897-01-3. OCLC 45409635.
  • Hill, Maria (2010). Diggers and Greeks. UNSW Press. ISBN 978-1-74223-014-6.
  • Keegan, John (2003). Intelligence in War: Knowledge of the Enemy from Napoleon to Al-Qaeda. ISBN 0-375-40053-2.
  • Kokonas M. D., N. A. (1993). Leigh Fermor, P. (ed.). The Cretan Resistance 1941–1945: The Official British Report of 1945 Together with Comments by British Officers who took part in the Resistance (Greek pbk ed.). London. ISBN 960-85329-0-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Kurowski, Frank (2010). Jump into Hell: German Paratroopers in World War II. Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-0582-0.
  • Lind, Lew (1991). Flowers of Rethymno: Escape from Crete. Kangaroo Press. ISBN 0-86417-394-6.
  • Mazower, Mark (1993). Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation 1941–44. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05804-7.
  • Moorehead, Alan (1941). Mediterranean Front. London: Hamish Hamilton. OCLC 21896524.
  • Stanley Moss, W. (1950). Ill Met By Moonlight: The Story of the Kidnapping of General Karl Kreipe, the German Divisional Commander in Crete. New York: MacMillan. OCLC 1027344.
  • Nasse, Jean-Yves (2002). Fallschirmjager in Crete, 1941: The Merkur Operation. Histoire & Collections. ISBN 2-913903-37-1.
  • Nigl, Alfred (2007). Silent Wings Savage Death: Saga of the 82nd Airborne's Glider Artillery in World War II. Santa Ana, CA: Graphic Publishers. ISBN 1-882824-31-8.
  • Psychoundakis, George (1991) [1955]. Patrick Leigh Fermor (ed.). The Cretan Runner: His History of the German Occupation (Greek pbk. ed.). London. ISBN 960-226-013-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Richter, Heinz A. (2011). Operation Merkur. Die Eroberung der Insel Kreta im Mai 1941 (in German). Rutzen. ISBN 978-3-447-06423-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  • Ross, A. (2004) [1959]. 23 Battalion. The Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939–1945 (New Zealand Electronic Text Centre [online] ed.). Wellington: Historical Publications Branch. OCLC 173284126. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
  • Sadler, John (2007). Op Mercury, The Fall of Crete 1941. Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 1-84415-383-5.
  • Saunders, Hilary St. George (1959) [1949]. The Green Beret: The Commandos at War. Four Square Books. London: Landsborough. OCLC 503725176.
  • Saunders, Tim (2007). Crete. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-84415-557-6.
  • Schenk, Peter (2000). Kampf um die Ägäis: die Kriegsmarine in den griechischen Gewässern 1941–1945 (in German). Mittler & Sohn. ISBN 978-3-8132-0699-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  • Spencer, John Hall (2008). Battle for Crete. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-84415-770-9.
  • Taylor, A. J. P. (1965). English history, 1914–1945. Oxford History of England. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821715-3.
  • Thomas, D. A. (1980) [1972]. Crete 1941: The Battle at Sea (Greek pbk edition (in English): Efstathiadis Group, Athens ed.). London: Andre Deutsch. OCLC 11023583.
  • Willingham, Matthew (2005). Perilous Commitments: The Battle for Greece and Crete 1940–1941. Spellmount. ISBN 1-86227-236-0.
Websites
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35°13′N 24°55′E / 35.217°N 24.917°E / 35.217; 24.917

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