History of Sino–Korean relations: Difference between revisions

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Rescuing orphaned refs ("Shim 276" from Jizi; "Larsen 2008 36" from Joseon; "LittleChina" from Little China (ideology); "Shim 275" from Jizi)
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According to his commentary to the ''Shiji'', [[Du Yu]] (first half of the 3rd century) states that the tomb of Jizi was located in Meng Prefecture of the State of Liang (modern-day Henan). This suggests that the story of Jizi's association with Joseon was not necessarily prevailing although the narrative seen in the ''[[Hanshu]]'' later became common.{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}}
According to his commentary to the ''Shiji'', [[Du Yu]] (first half of the 3rd century) states that the tomb of Jizi was located in Meng Prefecture of the State of Liang (modern-day Henan). This suggests that the story of Jizi's association with Joseon was not necessarily prevailing although the narrative seen in the ''[[Hanshu]]'' later became common.{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}}


As historian Jae-hoon Shim concludes, only during the Han dynasty (206 BC &ndash; 220 AD) did Jizi begin to be associated with Joseon, and only after the Han were his descendants identified as the Joseon royal family.<ref name="Shim 275"/> Jizi remains a controversial figure, due in part to the difficulty of verifying his existence. Only in the thirteenth century did Korean texts start to integrate Gija more fully into Korean history. The ''[[Samguk Yusa]]'' (1281) explained that after being enfeoffed by [[King Wu of Zhou]], Gija replaced [[Dangun]]'s descendants as the ruler of [[Gojoseon|Joseon]], whereas ''[[Jewang Ungi]]'' (1287) identified Dangun and Gija as the first rulers of former and latter Joseon respectively.<ref name="Shim 276"/> Most premodern Korean historians after that accepted that Jizi had replaced another indigenous power (represented by Dangun) in [[Gojoseon|Old Joseon]].<ref name="Shim 276"/> Nonetheless, the Jizi Mythology plays a defining role in explaining the pre-modern relationship between Korea and China.
As historian Jae-hoon Shim concludes, only during the Han dynasty (206 BC &ndash; 220 AD) did Jizi begin to be associated with Joseon, and only after the Han were his descendants identified as the Joseon royal family.<ref name="Shim 275">{{harvnb|Shim|2002|p=275}}.</ref> Jizi remains a controversial figure, due in part to the difficulty of verifying his existence. Only in the thirteenth century did Korean texts start to integrate Gija more fully into Korean history. The ''[[Samguk Yusa]]'' (1281) explained that after being enfeoffed by [[King Wu of Zhou]], Gija replaced [[Dangun]]'s descendants as the ruler of [[Gojoseon|Joseon]], whereas ''[[Jewang Ungi]]'' (1287) identified Dangun and Gija as the first rulers of former and latter Joseon respectively.<ref name="Shim 276">{{harvnb|Shim|2002|p=276}}.</ref> Most premodern Korean historians after that accepted that Jizi had replaced another indigenous power (represented by Dangun) in [[Gojoseon|Old Joseon]].<ref name="Shim 276"/> Nonetheless, the Jizi Mythology plays a defining role in explaining the pre-modern relationship between Korea and China.


In 194 BC, [[Wi Man of Gojoseon|Wei Man]], a Chinese general from [[Yan (state)|Yan state]], sought refugee along with Yan immigrants in Gojoseon, and he was given a duty to guard borders in the [[Liaodong Peninsula]]. Wei Man eventually became a leader of new immigrants and indigenous population, which led him to usurp the throne of [[King Jun]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0041138|title=위만조선|website=Encyclopedia of Korean Culture|language=ko|trans-title=Wiman Joseon|access-date=10 February 2019}}</ref> The expanding military might of Wiman Joseon soon threatened Han China, and the diplomatic relationship between the two countries deteriorated quickly. The [[Han conquest of Gojoseon|Gojoseon–Han War]] occurred in 109 BC, resulting in the defeat of Gojoseon and the establishment of the [[Four Commanderies of Han]]. Chinese control over its northeast frontier and northern Korea provoked unity among the local tribes and indigenous population, resulting in the establishment of [[Goguryeo]] on the Korea Peninsula, which took advantage of Chinese conflict with the [[Xiongnu]] to expand into Liaodong.<ref name="Simons75">{{harvnb|Simons|1999|pp=75–78}}</ref> Goguryeo eventually reconquered the former territories of Gojoseon and kept expanding in all directions.
In 194 BC, [[Wi Man of Gojoseon|Wei Man]], a Chinese general from [[Yan (state)|Yan state]], sought refugee along with Yan immigrants in Gojoseon, and he was given a duty to guard borders in the [[Liaodong Peninsula]]. Wei Man eventually became a leader of new immigrants and indigenous population, which led him to usurp the throne of [[King Jun]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0041138|title=위만조선|website=Encyclopedia of Korean Culture|language=ko|trans-title=Wiman Joseon|access-date=10 February 2019}}</ref> The expanding military might of Wiman Joseon soon threatened Han China, and the diplomatic relationship between the two countries deteriorated quickly. The [[Han conquest of Gojoseon|Gojoseon–Han War]] occurred in 109 BC, resulting in the defeat of Gojoseon and the establishment of the [[Four Commanderies of Han]]. Chinese control over its northeast frontier and northern Korea provoked unity among the local tribes and indigenous population, resulting in the establishment of [[Goguryeo]] on the Korea Peninsula, which took advantage of Chinese conflict with the [[Xiongnu]] to expand into Liaodong.<ref name="Simons75">{{harvnb|Simons|1999|pp=75–78}}</ref> Goguryeo eventually reconquered the former territories of Gojoseon and kept expanding in all directions.
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Joseon Korea, in an effort to repay the Ming Chinese assistance during [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]'s [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|invasion of Korea]]'s sent 13,000 soldiers to aid the Ming against the [[Later Jin]] at the [[Battle of Sarhū]] where nearly two-thirds of the Joseon Expeditionary Force was killed. {{sfn|Swope|2014|p=23}} Furthermore, Joseon Korea was invaded twice during the [[Ming-Qing Transition]] due to its loyalty to the Ming Government in Beijing.
Joseon Korea, in an effort to repay the Ming Chinese assistance during [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]'s [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|invasion of Korea]]'s sent 13,000 soldiers to aid the Ming against the [[Later Jin]] at the [[Battle of Sarhū]] where nearly two-thirds of the Joseon Expeditionary Force was killed. {{sfn|Swope|2014|p=23}} Furthermore, Joseon Korea was invaded twice during the [[Ming-Qing Transition]] due to its loyalty to the Ming Government in Beijing.


As a result of Joseon's subjugation and Ming's destruction, Joseon created the [[Little China (ideology)|Little China ideology]], known as sojunghwa.<ref name="google books1"/> According to Youngmin Kim, " it held that the Joseon embodied Chineseness authentically while other neighboring countries failed to do so in the face of the barbarian domination of the center of the civilized world."<ref name="google books1"/> A set of standardized rites and unifying symbols were developed in Late Joseon Korea in order to maintain that sense of cultural identity.<ref name="google books1"/> Joseon dynasty believed that the Qing dynasty was unworthy of succeeding the politico-cultural orthodoxy of "China". Instead, the [[Confucianism|Confucianist]] Joseon dynasty asserted itself as the legitimate heir to the Chinese civilization and termed itself "Little China".<ref name="LittleChina"/> In 2010, scholar [[Brian Reynolds Myers]] stated in reference to the move that:
As a result of Joseon's subjugation and Ming's destruction, Joseon created the [[Little China (ideology)|Little China ideology]], known as sojunghwa.<ref name="google books1"/> According to Youngmin Kim, " it held that the Joseon embodied Chineseness authentically while other neighboring countries failed to do so in the face of the barbarian domination of the center of the civilized world."<ref name="google books1"/> A set of standardized rites and unifying symbols were developed in Late Joseon Korea in order to maintain that sense of cultural identity.<ref name="google books1"/> Joseon dynasty believed that the Qing dynasty was unworthy of succeeding the politico-cultural orthodoxy of "China". Instead, the [[Confucianism|Confucianist]] Joseon dynasty asserted itself as the legitimate heir to the Chinese civilization and termed itself "Little China".<ref name="LittleChina">{{cite book|last1=Chan|first1=Robert Kong|title=Korea-China Relations in History and Contemporary Implications|year=2017|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_XIzDwAAQBAJ&dq=sojunghwa+little+china&pg=PA10|page=10|isbn=9783319622651}}</ref> In 2010, scholar [[Brian Reynolds Myers]] stated in reference to the move that:
{{Quote|[T]he national identities of literate Koreans and Chinese [were] mutually indistinguishable. Believing their civilization to have been founded by a Chinese sage in China's image, educated Koreans subscribed to a Confucian worldview that posited their country in a position of permanent subservience to the Middle Kingdom. Even when Korea isolated itself from the mainland in the seventeenth century, it did so in the conviction that it was guarding Chinese tradition better than the Chinese themselves.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Myers|first=Brian Reynolds|authorlink=Brian Reynolds Myers|title=The Cleanest Race|date=2010|pages=25–26}}</ref>}} Long after submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Ming [[Chinese era name|reign periods]], as when a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year of [[Chongzhen Emperor|Chongzhen]]."<ref>{{harvnb|Kim Haboush|2005|p=132}}.</ref>
{{Quote|[T]he national identities of literate Koreans and Chinese [were] mutually indistinguishable. Believing their civilization to have been founded by a Chinese sage in China's image, educated Koreans subscribed to a Confucian worldview that posited their country in a position of permanent subservience to the Middle Kingdom. Even when Korea isolated itself from the mainland in the seventeenth century, it did so in the conviction that it was guarding Chinese tradition better than the Chinese themselves.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Myers|first=Brian Reynolds|authorlink=Brian Reynolds Myers|title=The Cleanest Race|date=2010|pages=25–26}}</ref>}} Long after submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Ming [[Chinese era name|reign periods]], as when a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year of [[Chongzhen Emperor|Chongzhen]]."<ref>{{harvnb|Kim Haboush|2005|p=132}}.</ref>


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Under [[Hong Taiji]], the [[Later Jin (1616–1636)|Later Jin dynasty]] and its successor [[Qing dynasty]] invaded Joseon twice, in [[Later Jin invasion of Joseon|1627]] and [[Qing invasion of Joseon|1636]]. Following the 1636 invasion, the Qing claimed victory and forced [[Injo of Joseon]] into submission.[[Hong Taiji]] set up a platform in [[Samjeondo Monument|Samjeondo]] in the upper reach of the [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]].<ref name="O2009">{{cite book|author=Hong-s?k O|title=Traditional Korean Villages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0vsyEHGkPoC&pg=PA109|year=2009|publisher=Ewha Womans University Press|isbn=978-89-7300-784-4|pages=109–}}</ref> At the top of the platform he accepted [[Injo of Joseon|King Injo]]'s submission. King Injo [[kowtow]]ed to [[Hong Taiji]], who allegedly forced Injo to repeat the humiliating ritual many times.<ref name="Kang2006">{{cite book|author=Jae-eun Kang|title=The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XB4UYXNQK1wC&pg=PA328|year=2006|publisher=Homa & Sekey Books|isbn=978-1-931907-30-9|pages=328–}}</ref> A [[Samjeondo Monument|monument]] in honor of the so-called ''excellent virtues of the Manchu Emperor'' was erected at Samjeondo, where the ceremony of submission had been conducted.
Under [[Hong Taiji]], the [[Later Jin (1616–1636)|Later Jin dynasty]] and its successor [[Qing dynasty]] invaded Joseon twice, in [[Later Jin invasion of Joseon|1627]] and [[Qing invasion of Joseon|1636]]. Following the 1636 invasion, the Qing claimed victory and forced [[Injo of Joseon]] into submission.[[Hong Taiji]] set up a platform in [[Samjeondo Monument|Samjeondo]] in the upper reach of the [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]].<ref name="O2009">{{cite book|author=Hong-s?k O|title=Traditional Korean Villages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0vsyEHGkPoC&pg=PA109|year=2009|publisher=Ewha Womans University Press|isbn=978-89-7300-784-4|pages=109–}}</ref> At the top of the platform he accepted [[Injo of Joseon|King Injo]]'s submission. King Injo [[kowtow]]ed to [[Hong Taiji]], who allegedly forced Injo to repeat the humiliating ritual many times.<ref name="Kang2006">{{cite book|author=Jae-eun Kang|title=The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XB4UYXNQK1wC&pg=PA328|year=2006|publisher=Homa & Sekey Books|isbn=978-1-931907-30-9|pages=328–}}</ref> A [[Samjeondo Monument|monument]] in honor of the so-called ''excellent virtues of the Manchu Emperor'' was erected at Samjeondo, where the ceremony of submission had been conducted.


After securing Injo's submission, the Qing forced Joseon to sever its relations with the collapsing Ming dynasty, which eventually fell in 1644. Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering the [[Tributary system of China|imperial Chinese tributary system]], Joseon leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians, and <ref name="Larsen 2008 36"/> regarded the Ming Dynasty as the center of the civilized world.<ref name="google books1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoFSDwAAQBAJ&dq=little+china+ideology+sojunghwa&pg=PA220|title=A History of Chinese Political Thought|isbn=9781509523160|last1=Kim|first1=Youngmin|page=219-223|date=16 March 2018}}</ref> Injo's successor, [[Hyojong of Joseon]], after rising to the throne, began to reform and expand the [[Military history of Korea|military of Korea]] to avenge the fallen Ming Dynasty; first he removed [[Kim Ja-jeom]], who had corrupted politics and had greater power than the king himself. Then, he called [[Song Si-yeol]] ([[Hangul]]: 송시열 [[Hanja]] :宋時烈) and [[Kim Sang-heon]] to his court, who supported war against the Qing Dynasty. His military expansion was massive, and he also built several border fortresses along [[Yalu River]] where Joseon and Qing shared a border. When a band of Dutch sailors including [[Hendrick Hamel]] drifted on [[Jeju Island]], Hyojong ordered them to build muskets for the army, providing muskets to the Koreans for the first time after the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Seven Year War]].
After securing Injo's submission, the Qing forced Joseon to sever its relations with the collapsing Ming dynasty, which eventually fell in 1644. Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering the [[Tributary system of China|imperial Chinese tributary system]], Joseon leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians, and <ref name="Larsen 2008 36">{{harvnb|Larsen|2008|p=36}}.</ref> regarded the Ming Dynasty as the center of the civilized world.<ref name="google books1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoFSDwAAQBAJ&dq=little+china+ideology+sojunghwa&pg=PA220|title=A History of Chinese Political Thought|isbn=9781509523160|last1=Kim|first1=Youngmin|page=219-223|date=16 March 2018}}</ref> Injo's successor, [[Hyojong of Joseon]], after rising to the throne, began to reform and expand the [[Military history of Korea|military of Korea]] to avenge the fallen Ming Dynasty; first he removed [[Kim Ja-jeom]], who had corrupted politics and had greater power than the king himself. Then, he called [[Song Si-yeol]] ([[Hangul]]: 송시열 [[Hanja]] :宋時烈) and [[Kim Sang-heon]] to his court, who supported war against the Qing Dynasty. His military expansion was massive, and he also built several border fortresses along [[Yalu River]] where Joseon and Qing shared a border. When a band of Dutch sailors including [[Hendrick Hamel]] drifted on [[Jeju Island]], Hyojong ordered them to build muskets for the army, providing muskets to the Koreans for the first time after the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Seven Year War]].


However, the Qing dynasty continued to thrive, expanding quickly into the west after successfully conquering the Ming in 1644. The campaign was unable to be put in action, since the Qing dynasty assimilated the massive [[Han Chinese|Han]] army into their own. The Joseon military, although reformed and expanded, was no match against the combined Manchu and Han forces. Also, the Qing dynasty began to treat Joseon as its friend and closest ally.
However, the Qing dynasty continued to thrive, expanding quickly into the west after successfully conquering the Ming in 1644. The campaign was unable to be put in action, since the Qing dynasty assimilated the massive [[Han Chinese|Han]] army into their own. The Joseon military, although reformed and expanded, was no match against the combined Manchu and Han forces. Also, the Qing dynasty began to treat Joseon as its friend and closest ally.

Revision as of 04:19, 2 August 2022

The Qing ambassador Akdun being greeted by King Gyeongjong near the Yeongeunmun Gate.

The history of Sino-Korean relations dates back to prehistoric times.

Han and Gojoseon

According to Samguk yusa, Dangun Joseon was the first state that represented Korean cultural identity.[1] Although controversial, a legend tells that in around 1100 BC a Chinese sage named Jizi (Gija) and his intellectuals fled from the Shang dynasty to avoid political turmoil and sought asylum in Gojoseon, and active cultural trades ensued after. The "Monograph on Geography" (Dili zhi 地理志) of the Book of Han (1st century AD) claims that Jizi had taught the people of Joseon agriculture, sericulture, and weaving, as well as proper ceremony.[2] Jae-hoon Shim interprets the following sentence in that section of the Hanshu as claiming that Jizi also introduced the law of "Eight Prohibitions" (犯禁八條) in Joseon.[3] The Records of Three Kingdoms (first published in the early fifth century) claims that the descendants of Jizi reigned as kings of Joseon for forty generations until they were overthrown by Wei Man, a man from the state of Yan, in 194 BC.[4]

According to his commentary to the Shiji, Du Yu (first half of the 3rd century) states that the tomb of Jizi was located in Meng Prefecture of the State of Liang (modern-day Henan). This suggests that the story of Jizi's association with Joseon was not necessarily prevailing although the narrative seen in the Hanshu later became common.[citation needed]

As historian Jae-hoon Shim concludes, only during the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) did Jizi begin to be associated with Joseon, and only after the Han were his descendants identified as the Joseon royal family.[5] Jizi remains a controversial figure, due in part to the difficulty of verifying his existence. Only in the thirteenth century did Korean texts start to integrate Gija more fully into Korean history. The Samguk Yusa (1281) explained that after being enfeoffed by King Wu of Zhou, Gija replaced Dangun's descendants as the ruler of Joseon, whereas Jewang Ungi (1287) identified Dangun and Gija as the first rulers of former and latter Joseon respectively.[6] Most premodern Korean historians after that accepted that Jizi had replaced another indigenous power (represented by Dangun) in Old Joseon.[6] Nonetheless, the Jizi Mythology plays a defining role in explaining the pre-modern relationship between Korea and China.

In 194 BC, Wei Man, a Chinese general from Yan state, sought refugee along with Yan immigrants in Gojoseon, and he was given a duty to guard borders in the Liaodong Peninsula. Wei Man eventually became a leader of new immigrants and indigenous population, which led him to usurp the throne of King Jun.[7] The expanding military might of Wiman Joseon soon threatened Han China, and the diplomatic relationship between the two countries deteriorated quickly. The Gojoseon–Han War occurred in 109 BC, resulting in the defeat of Gojoseon and the establishment of the Four Commanderies of Han. Chinese control over its northeast frontier and northern Korea provoked unity among the local tribes and indigenous population, resulting in the establishment of Goguryeo on the Korea Peninsula, which took advantage of Chinese conflict with the Xiongnu to expand into Liaodong.[8] Goguryeo eventually reconquered the former territories of Gojoseon and kept expanding in all directions.

Cao Wei and Goguryeo

In 238, Sima Yi of Cao Wei led a successful campaign against his rival Gongsun Yuan, with the aid of Goguryeo. This led to the Chinese recapture of Liaodong as well as establishing great contacts with Korean kingdoms. By 242, the alliance between Cao Wei and Goguryeo broke down when Dongcheon of Goguryeo initiated a raid into Wei territory. In response, the Goguryeo–Wei War erupted in 244, ending with the sacking of the Goguryeo capital and resettlement of many of its inhabitants. According to the Korean source 15 years later Goguryeo defeated Wei at Yangmaenggok.[9]

The Xianbei-ruled Former Yan dynasty sacked the Goguryeo capital and made the king pay tribute. However, Goguryeo triumphed over the Xianbei decades later when Gwanggaeto the Great defeated Later Yan and conquered Liaodong and most of Manchuria.[8]

Sui, Tang, Goguryeo and Balhae

Sui dynasty launched four unsuccessful campaigns to subdue Goguryeo. The Emperor Yang of Sui wanted to establish a Sui-led order in East Asia after unifying China proper. Goguryeo opposed this and started to prepare for defense against Sui dynasty.[10] A series of invasions from Sui took place in year 598, 612, 613, and 614. In the Battle of Salsu River, Goguryeo general Eulji Mundeok and his army inflicted tremendous damage on the army of Sui, where only 2,700 survived out of 300,000 men.[11] Sui, out of exhaustion, disintegrated soon after.[11]

Goguryeo also engaged in many wars with the Tang dynasty, but it eventually lost as Silla took side with the Tang in the Goguryeo–Tang War. Later, Tang China considered Balhae as a tributary state, whereas Balhae strongly opposed such view. As the Emperor of China saw himself as the emperor of the entire civilized world, it was not possible for such an emperor to have equal diplomatic relations with any other regional powers, and as such all diplomatic relations in the region were construed by the Chinese as tributary regardless of the intention of those regions.

Liao, Jin, Song and Goryeo

See also: Goryeo–Khitan Wars and Korean–Jurchen border conflicts

During this time North China was ruled by the Khitan-led Liao dynasty followed by the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty. Although Liao initially attempted to maintain friendly relations with Goryeo, the Liao's destruction of Goryeo's predecessor, Balhae, let to lingering resentments within the Korean court in Kaesong. As descendants of Goguryeo, the Balhae people and the Goryeo dynasties were related.[12] Taejo of Goryeo, Goryeo's first King, felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae, calling it his "relative country" and "married country",[13] and protected the Balhae refugees following the Liao Conquest of Balhae.[14] This was in stark contrast to Later Silla, which had endured a hostile relationship with Balhae.[15] Taejo displayed strong animosity toward the Khitans who had destroyed Balhae. The Liao dynasty sent 30 envoys with 50 camels as a gift in 942, but Taejo exiled the envoys to an island and starved the camels under a bridge, in what is known as the "Manbu Bridge Incident".[16][17] Taejo proposed to Gaozu of Later Jin that they attack the Khitans in retribution for Balhae, according to the Zizhi Tongjian.[13] Furthermore, in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants, he stated that the Khitans are "savage beasts" and should be guarded against.[16][18] Khitan conquest of Balhae resulted in Goryeo's prolonged hostility towards the Khitan Empire.[19]

As a result of the hostile relationship, the Liao invaded Goryeo and waged a series of wars from 993 to 1019. Goryeo triumphed over the Liao dynasty in early 11th century and gained parts of the northern Korean penninsula from Liao in exchange for submitting tribute. Following the Goryeo–Khitan War, a balance of power was established in East Asia between Goryeo, Liao, and Song.[20][21] With its victory over Liao, Goryeo was confident in its military ability and no longer worried about a Khitan military threat.[22] Fu Bi, a grand councilor of the Song dynasty, had a high estimate of Goryeo's military ability and said that Liao was afraid of Goryeo.[23][24] Furthermore, regarding the attitude of the Koreans, he said: "Among the many tribes and peoples which, depending on their power of resistance, have been either assimilated or made tributary to the Khitan, the Koreans alone do not bow their heads."[25] Song regarded Goryeo as a potential military ally and maintained friendly relations as equal partners.[26] Meanwhile, Liao sought to build closer ties with Goryeo and prevent a Song–Goryeo military alliance by appealing to Goryeo's infatuation with Buddhism, and offered Liao Buddhist knowledge and artifacts to Goryeo.[27] During the 11th century, Goryeo was viewed as "the state that could give either the Song or Liao military ascendancy".[24] When imperial envoys, who represented the emperors of Liao and Song, went to Goryeo, they were received as peers, not suzerains.[28][29] Goryeo's international reputation was greatly enhanced.[26][30] Beginning in 1034, merchants from Song and envoys from various Jurchen tribes and the Tamna kingdom attended the annual Palgwanhoe in Kaesong, the largest national celebration in Goryeo;[30] the Song merchants attended as representatives of China while the Jurchen and Tamna envoys attended as members of Goryeo's tianxia.[31]

Goryeo had a complex relationship with the Jurchens, who would later go on to form the Jin Dynasty (1115-1234). Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Wang Geon, who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times, taking advantage of the tension between the two nations; posing a potential threat to Goryeo's border security, the Jurchens offered tribute to the Goryeo court, expecting lavish gifts in return.[32]

General Yun Gwan (1040–1111) and his army.

The Jurchens north of Goryeo had traditionally rendered tribute to the Goryeo monarchs and called Goryeo their "parent country" considering past ties between Goguryeo and its Mohe subjects,[33][34][35] but thanks to the defeat of Liao to the Koreans in 1019, the Wanyan tribe of the Heishui Mohe unified the Jurchen tribes and gained in might, taking advantage of the power vacuum.[citation needed]

At the peak of its power, Goryeo contested with the rising Wanyan tribes of which Goryeo considered them as barbaric vassals descending from the Mohe people that served their Goguryeo ancestors,[36][37] in the state of total war over former territories of Goguryeo and Balhae. This was in sharp contrast with the more positive perceptions the Jurchens had of Goryeo. For example, the annals of King Yejong (r. 1105–1122) in the History of Goryeo report that Wanyan Wugunai's son Yingge (盈歌; 1053-1103) considered Goryeo as his "parent country" (父母之邦) because his clan's ancestor Hanpu had come from Goryeo.[38] Although this could have been because of the Jurchens' desire for Goryeo aid against their rivals, as historians are unsure if Hanpu, the progenitor of the Jurchen Jin Dynasty's royal family who was from Goryeo, was ethnically Silla, Goryeo, Balhae or Jurchen.

As the geopolitical situation began to shift in turbulence by the start of the 12th century, Goryeo unleashed two major military campaigns from 1104 to 1109 spearheaded by the ambitious King Yejong with vows of reclaiming former Goguryeo territories held by Jurchen tribes united under the progenitors of the Jin Dynasty, Wanyan Wuyashu and Aguda, with the aims of also preventing potential aggressions from the Jurchen tribes. Led by prominent generals such as Yun Gwan and Cheok Jun-gyeong, the well-trained Byeolmuban (別武班; "Special Warfare Army") of approximately 250,000[39][40] men initially succeeded in ravaging Jurchen territories and building the strategic "Nine Fortresses" (동북 9성, 東北九城) of which exact locations are still topics of debate. Following the invasion, numerous Jurchen tribes surrendered to the invading Korean forces but many stayed vigilant and resumed fierce resistance led by the Wanyan tribe, complicating the phase of the war. Despite the Koreans of Goryeo having proceeded to utilizing scorched earth tactics, the Jurchen tribes under the leadership of Wanyan Wuyashu achieved a pyrrhic victory as Goryeo considered securing the Nine Fortresses too costly albeit having the upper hand in the war. Contacted by the Jurchens of the Wanyan tribe that have tasted the bitterness as well of facing Korean forces in their homes for peace, Goryeo would eventually move on to reluctantly signing a peace agreement with the Wanyan tribe and later on cede the Nine Fortresses to Wuyashu, in return for tributes sent by the Jurchens, the full repatriation of Korean settlers, and the guarantee of nonaggression.[41] Though the objective of reclaiming former ancestral lands failed, Goryeo managed to maintain peaceful relations with the Jin Dynasty which progress in conquering the Liao and Northern Song dynasty respectively.[42]

During the reign of Jurchen leader Wuyashu in 1103–1113, the border between the two nations was stabilized and Korean forces withdrew from Jurchen territories, acknowledging Jurchen control over the contested region.[43][44]

In 1115 the Jurchen founded the Jin dynasty, and in 1125 Jin annihilated Liao, which was Goryeo's suzerain,[citation needed] and started invasion of Song. In response to the circumstantial changes, Goryeo declared itself to be a tributary state of Jin in 1126.[45][46] After that, peace was maintained and Jin never actually did invade Goryeo. As a result, Goryeo paid tribute to the Jin to maintain friendly relations and trade.

Yuan and Goryeo

During the 13th century, the Mongol Empire invaded China and defeated the Jin and Song dynasties. In 1271, Kublai Khan proclaimed the Yuan dynasty of China in the traditional Chinese style.[47] During the period of 1231–1259, the Yuan dynasty invaded Korea. Goryeo endured six devastating invasions at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout the Korean Peninsula, and numerous cultural artifacts such as the Tripitaka Koreana and the Hwangnyongsa. The hardships endured by the Goryeo people and the destruction of the country in the face of the invasions ultimately resulting in the capitulation of Goryeo and becoming a tributary state of the Yuan dynasty for 86 years until achieving its independence in 1356. As a stipulation of the peace treaty, the Mongols annexed the northern areas of Korean Peninsula after the invasions and incorporated them into their empire as Ssangseong Prefectures and Dongnyeong Prefectures.[48] Once the treaty was concluded and vassaldom established, intermarriage between the Koreans and Mongols was encouraged by the Mongol Empire.[49] After the death of Wonjong in 1274, his successor Chungnyeol of Goryeo received Kublai's daughter Qutlugh-Kelmish as a wife, and his reign began a wholesale Mongolization of the Korean court that continued until the middle of the 14th century. On paper, the official protocol for Korea was that of a subordinate principality, and Korean rulers made lengthy stays at the Mongol Yuan court, both before and after their coronation.[50] In addition, their Mongol wives, and even concubines, exerted great influence over Goryeo politics. For instance, Bayankhutag, Princess Gyeonghwa selected officials for posts within the Goryeo government.[51] The Mongols and the Kingdom of Goryeo became linked via marriage and Goryeo became a quda (marriage alliance) state of the Yuan dynasty; monarchs of Goryeo during this period were effectively imperial sons in-law (khuregen). The effects of intermarriage on Mongol-Goryeo relations worked both ways: during the reign of Kublai Khan, King Chungnyeol of Goryeo married one of Kublai's daughters; later, a court lady from Korea called the Empress Gi became an empress through her marriage with Ukhaantu Khan, and her son, Biligtü Khan of the Northern Yuan dynasty, became a Mongol Khan. Furthermore, the kings of Goryeo held an important status within the Mongol imperial hierarchy, much like other important families of conquered or client states of the Mongol Empire (e.g. the Uyghurs, the Oirats, and Khongirad).[52]

King Gongmin (1330–1374) and Queen Noguk assisted in the peaceful succession of Gegeen Khan.

The Mongols extracted tribute from throughout their empire.[53] From Goryeo, they received gold, silver, cloth, grain, ginseng, and falcons.[54][55] The tribute payments were a burden on Goryeo and subjugated polities in the empire.[54][55][56] As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo provided palace women, eunuchs, Buddhist monks, and other personnel to the Mongols.[57] Korean concubines were procured by the Khan.[58] One of them was Empress Gi, who, through her political command and incorporation of Korean females and eunuchs in the court, spread Korean clothing, food, and lifestyle in the capital.[59] It became prestigious to marry Korean women among members of the Yuan elite.[60] The entry of Korean women into the Mongol court was reciprocated by the entry of Mongol princesses into the Korean court, beginning with the marriage of Chungnyeol of Goryeo and a daughter of Kublai Khan; in total, 9 princesses of the Yuan court married into the Goryeo royal family.[61]

During Yuan rule, Korea was effectively forced to serve as a Mongol military base. Mongol ambitions on Japan resulted in two invasions of Japan. In both efforts, the Mongols directed Korean shipbuilding and militarization towards the amphibious assault of the Japanese coasts and pressed a large proportion of Korean naval and infantry forces into the service of Mongol military objectives. Korea supplied 770 fully manned ships and 5,000 soldiers in 1274 and 900 ships and 10,000 soldiers in 1281.[50] Yuan officials and envoys took concubines and wives in Korea while they were stationed in Korea for the invasion of Japan.[62] For a variety of reasons, both invasions failed.

As Yuan rule began to destabilize in China, King Gongmin of Goryeo seized the opportunity to rebel and declared Goryeo's independence after decades of Mongol rule. Furthermore, Gongmin regained Goryeo's northern territories and Goryeo would even briefly invade Liaodong after it regained its independence. The Yuan dynasty eventually fell in 1368.

Ming and Joseon

Following the emergence of the Ming dynasty in 1368, when it overthrew the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions, one supporting the Ming and the other standing by the Yuan. In 1388, a Ming messenger came to Goryeo to demand that territories of the former Ssangseong Prefectures be handed over to Ming China. The tract of land was taken by Mongol forces during the invasion of Korea, but had been reclaimed by Goryeo in 1356 as the Yuan dynasty weakened. The act caused an uproar among the Goryeo court, and General Choe Yeong seized the chance to argue for an invasion of the Ming-controlled Liaodong Peninsula.

General Yi Seong-gye was chosen to lead the attack; he revolted, swept back to the capital Gaegyeong (present-day Kaesong) and initiated a coup d'état, overthrowing King U in favor of his son, Chang of Goryeo (1388). He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Wang Yo on the throne (he became King Gongyang of Goryeo). In 1392, Yi eliminated Jeong Mong-ju, highly respected leader of a group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him to Wonju, and he ascended the throne himself. The Goryeo kingdom had come to an end after 474 years of rule.

In the beginning of his reign, Yi Seong-gye, now ruler of Korea, intended to continue to use of the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining the façade of continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. After numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo and to the now-demoted Wang clan, the consensus in the reformed court was that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change. In naming the new kingdom, Taejo contemplated two possibilities – "Hwaryeong" (his place of birth) and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as well as endorsement by the neighboring Ming dynasty's emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state of Gojoseon.[63] He also moved the capital to Hanseong (modern Seoul) from Gaegyeong (modern Kaesong).

Ming dynasty of China shared a close trade and diplomatic relationship with the Joseon dynasty of Korea. Both dynasties shared Confucian ideals in society. Joseon had been a member of the Ming's sinocentric East Asian regional order. Joseon was historically one of the most pro-China Korean dynasties, and the Ming Court traditionally treated Korea alongside Vietnam and Thailand as its most favored tributaries.

Ming China assisted Joseon Korea during Toyotomi Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea, in which the Wanli Emperor sent a total of 221,500 troops. For this, the Chinese Emperor of that time, the Wanli Emperor is remembered fondly by most Koreans of the modern era.

Joseon Korea, in an effort to repay the Ming Chinese assistance during Toyotomi Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea's sent 13,000 soldiers to aid the Ming against the Later Jin at the Battle of Sarhū where nearly two-thirds of the Joseon Expeditionary Force was killed. [64] Furthermore, Joseon Korea was invaded twice during the Ming-Qing Transition due to its loyalty to the Ming Government in Beijing.

As a result of Joseon's subjugation and Ming's destruction, Joseon created the Little China ideology, known as sojunghwa.[65] According to Youngmin Kim, " it held that the Joseon embodied Chineseness authentically while other neighboring countries failed to do so in the face of the barbarian domination of the center of the civilized world."[65] A set of standardized rites and unifying symbols were developed in Late Joseon Korea in order to maintain that sense of cultural identity.[65] Joseon dynasty believed that the Qing dynasty was unworthy of succeeding the politico-cultural orthodoxy of "China". Instead, the Confucianist Joseon dynasty asserted itself as the legitimate heir to the Chinese civilization and termed itself "Little China".[66] In 2010, scholar Brian Reynolds Myers stated in reference to the move that:

[T]he national identities of literate Koreans and Chinese [were] mutually indistinguishable. Believing their civilization to have been founded by a Chinese sage in China's image, educated Koreans subscribed to a Confucian worldview that posited their country in a position of permanent subservience to the Middle Kingdom. Even when Korea isolated itself from the mainland in the seventeenth century, it did so in the conviction that it was guarding Chinese tradition better than the Chinese themselves.[67]

Long after submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Ming reign periods, as when a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year of Chongzhen."[68]

Qing, Joseon and Korean Empire

Under Hong Taiji, the Later Jin dynasty and its successor Qing dynasty invaded Joseon twice, in 1627 and 1636. Following the 1636 invasion, the Qing claimed victory and forced Injo of Joseon into submission.Hong Taiji set up a platform in Samjeondo in the upper reach of the Han River.[69] At the top of the platform he accepted King Injo's submission. King Injo kowtowed to Hong Taiji, who allegedly forced Injo to repeat the humiliating ritual many times.[70] A monument in honor of the so-called excellent virtues of the Manchu Emperor was erected at Samjeondo, where the ceremony of submission had been conducted.

After securing Injo's submission, the Qing forced Joseon to sever its relations with the collapsing Ming dynasty, which eventually fell in 1644. Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering the imperial Chinese tributary system, Joseon leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians, and [71] regarded the Ming Dynasty as the center of the civilized world.[65] Injo's successor, Hyojong of Joseon, after rising to the throne, began to reform and expand the military of Korea to avenge the fallen Ming Dynasty; first he removed Kim Ja-jeom, who had corrupted politics and had greater power than the king himself. Then, he called Song Si-yeol (Hangul: 송시열 Hanja :宋時烈) and Kim Sang-heon to his court, who supported war against the Qing Dynasty. His military expansion was massive, and he also built several border fortresses along Yalu River where Joseon and Qing shared a border. When a band of Dutch sailors including Hendrick Hamel drifted on Jeju Island, Hyojong ordered them to build muskets for the army, providing muskets to the Koreans for the first time after the Seven Year War.

However, the Qing dynasty continued to thrive, expanding quickly into the west after successfully conquering the Ming in 1644. The campaign was unable to be put in action, since the Qing dynasty assimilated the massive Han army into their own. The Joseon military, although reformed and expanded, was no match against the combined Manchu and Han forces. Also, the Qing dynasty began to treat Joseon as its friend and closest ally.

The expanded military was first put into action in 1654, when the Qing dynasty called for help to fight against invading Russians. 150 Joseon musketeers, along with 3,000 Manchus, met the Russian army at the Battle of Hutong (Hangul : 호통 Hanja : 好通), present-day Yilan, which was won by the Qing–Joseon allied forces. Four years later, in 1658, Hyojong sent troops once again to help Qing dynasty against Russia; 260 Joseon musketeers and cannoneers led by Shin Ryu joined the forces of Ninguta Military Governor Sarhuda, the joint force sailed down the Hurka and Sungari Rivers and met the Russian forces under command of an Amur Cossack, Onufrij Stepanov near the fall of the Sungari River into the Amur, killing 270 Russians and driving them out of Qing territory. The battles against Russia proved that Hyojong's reform had stabilized the Joseon army, although they were never put into action again. Despite the campaigns, Russia and Joseon remained on good terms. The Northern campaign is known as Naseon Jeongbeol (Hangul: 나선정벌 Hanja : 羅禪征伐), or "Suppression of the Russians").

After enjoying two centuries of peace, Joseon Korea and Qing China were confronted with the rising European powers. Qing China's national strength gradually declined after its defeat in the First and Second Opium Wars. As such, China was forced to sign a series of concessions and "unequal treaties" with the Western powers. At the same time, the Meiji Restoration occurred in Japan and led to the rise of the Empire of Japan, which gradually expanded its military power. The Donghak Peasant Revolution of Korea in 1894 became a catalyst for the First Sino-Japanese War, which saw the defeat of the Qing military. As part of the terms in the post-war Treaty of Shimonoseki, China recognized the independence of Korea and ceased its tributary relations as well as Japan annexing the island of Taiwan. The Korean Empire established modern diplomatic relationship with Qing, but Korea was eventually annexed, against their will, by Japan under the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910.

Republic of China and Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea

The anti-Japanese March 1st Movement protests erupted in Korea in 1919. Shortly after, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established as a government in exile, based in Shanghai, with Syngman Rhee serving as its first president with its subsequent recognition[citation needed] by the Republic of China. They coordinated the armed resistance against the Japanese imperial army during the 1920s and 1930s, including the Battle of Qingshanli in October 1920 and Yoon Bong-Gil's assassination of Japanese officers in Shanghai in April 1932. The Provisional Government received modest recognition by the Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang regime in China.

Following the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the fall of Shanghai, the Korean Provisional Government relocated to Chongqing, where it formed the Korean Liberation Army (KLA) in 1941. The hundreds-strong KLA engaged in guerrilla warfare actions against the Japanese throughout the Asian theater of war until Japanese surrender in 1945.

The Republic of China was one of the participants of the Cairo Conference, which resulted in the Cairo Declaration. One of the main purposes of the Cairo Declaration was to create an independent Korea, free from Japanese Colonial Rule and restoration of Formosa and Manchuria to China.[citation needed]

Cultural relations

Further information: Chinese influence on Korean culture

The Chinese character system, known as Hanja in Korean, was introduced into Korea through the spread of Buddhism during the Tang dynasty. Hanja was used as the sole means of writing Korean until Sejong the Great promoted the invention of Hangul during the 15th century.

Confucianism also became a fundamental part of Korean society, rising into prominence under the Goryeo dynasty and prospered under the Joseon dynasty. Examples included civil service examinations, known as gwageo, and educational institutions (Gukjagam and Sungkyunkwan), promoting the studies of Chinese classical texts.

The imperial examination system implemented by China was introduced into Korea, which was not only inseparable from the close exchanges and deepening commercial relations between the two countries, but also had an important relationship with the ruling class of Korea at that time. The reason why the imperial examination system became popular in Korea was because of the strong support and advocacy of the Korean government at the time. The imperial examination system is in line with the idea of the ruling class to manage the country, incorporates the idea of self-development in Korea, encourages more Korean scholars and intellectuals to safeguard the interests of the Korean ruling government, and has caused the pursuit of equality in Korean culture and academic excellence of booming thought.

The thought process made people, even generals, like to write something to express their ideas. That is why in that period, at beginning, the sijo is only to be written by yangban, who went through a long and difficult process of education, but in the later period, there were many anonymous sijos to come out. Instead of using Chinese words, they used their own language and made it with more mordane[check spelling] but with a deep heart-touched sijo. The adoption of the civil service examination system is first helpful for the emperor to regulate the country and pick up the talented people, but then it transits into the path that made people’s minds free. No more could they only obey rules, but try to battle the constriction of a hard language, be creative, active, and likely to express themselves.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "단군조선" [Dangun Joseon]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Retrieved 10 February 2019.
  2. ^ Shim 2002, p. 275. Original text: 殷道衰，箕子去之朝鮮，教其民以禮義，田蠶織作 (Hanshu 漢書 [Book of Han], chapter 28.2, p. 1658 of the standard Zhonghua shuju edition).
  3. ^ Shim 2002, p. 275. Original text: 樂浪朝鮮民犯禁八條：相殺以當時償殺；相傷以穀償；相盜者男沒入為其家奴，女子為婢，欲自贖者，人五十萬 (Hanshu 漢書 [Book of Han], chapter 28.2, p. 1658 of the standard Zhonghua shuju edition). The Records of Three Kingdoms (late 3rd century AD) and other later documents interpret these "Eight Prohibitions" as Jizi's teachings, but it is also possible that the Hanshu was describing the early phase of Lelang Commandery, and not Jizi's initiatives.
  4. ^ Shim 2002, p. 275. Record of Three Kingdoms (chapter 30, p. 848): 昔箕子既適朝鮮，作八條之教以教之，無門戶之閉而民不為盜。其後四十餘世，朝鮮侯準僭號稱王. The overthrowing of the kings of Joseon by Wei Man is also recorded in the Brief History of Wei (third century), which is cited in Sanguozhi, chapter 30, p. 850.
  5. ^ Shim 2002, p. 275.
  6. ^ a b Shim 2002, p. 276.
  7. ^ "위만조선" [Wiman Joseon]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Retrieved 10 February 2019.
  8. ^ a b Simons 1999, pp. 75–78
  9. ^ Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (2014-12-15). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107098466.
  10. ^ "고구려·수 전쟁" [Goguryeo - Sui War]. National Institute of Korean History (in Korean). Retrieved 10 February 2019.
  11. ^ a b Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A new history of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 47. ISBN 9780674615762.
  12. ^ Rossabi 1983, p. 154.
  13. ^ a b 박종기 (2015). "신화와 전설에 담긴 고려 왕실의 역사". 고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다 (in Korean). 휴머니스트. ISBN 9788958629023. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
  14. ^ Rossabi 1983, p. 323.
  15. ^ "Parhae | historical state, China and Korea". Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
  16. ^ a b 이기환 (22 June 2015). "[여적]태조 왕건이 낙타를 굶겨죽인 까닭". 경향신문 (in Korean). The Kyunghyang Shinmun. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
  17. ^ "거란의 고려침입". 한국사 연대기 (in Korean). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved 22 April 2019.
  18. ^ Lee 2010, p. 264.
  19. ^ Lee Ki Hwan (2015). 태조 왕건이 낙타를 굶겨죽인 까닭 [Why King Taiso wasted camels]. Khan.co (in Korean).
  20. ^ Kim 2012, pp. 143–144.
  21. ^ Rossabi 1983, p. 158.
  22. ^ Breuker 2010, p. 245.
  23. ^ Rogers 1959, pp. 20–21.
  24. ^ a b Breuker 2010, p. 247.
  25. ^ Rogers 1959, p. 19.
  26. ^ a b Kim 2012, p. 144.
  27. ^ Breuker 2003, p. 78.
  28. ^ Breuker 2003, p. 60.
  29. ^ Breuker 2003, p. 79.
  30. ^ a b "외국과의 무역 활동". 우리역사넷 (in Korean). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  31. ^ 강호선. "연등회와 팔관회". 우리역사넷 (in Korean). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
  32. ^ Breuker 2010, pp. 220-221. "The Jurchen settlements in the Amnok River region had been tributaries of Koryŏ since the establishment of the dynasty, when T'aejo Wang Kŏn heavily relied on a large segment of Jurchen cavalry to defeat the armies of Later Paekche. The position and status of these Jurchen is hard to determine using the framework of the Koryŏ and Liao states as reference, since the Jurchen leaders generally took care to steer a middle course between Koryŏ and Liao, changing sides or absconding whenever that was deemed the best course. As mentioned above, Koryŏ and Liao competed quite fiercely to obtain the allegiance of the Jurchen settlers who in the absence of large armies effectively controlled much of the frontier area outside the Koryŏ and Liao fortifications. These Jurchen communities were expert in handling the tension between Liao and Koryŏ, playing out divide-and-rule policies backed up by threats of border violence. It seems that the relationship between the semi-nomadic Jurchen and their peninsular neighbours bore much resemblance to the relationship between Chinese states and their nomad neighbours, as described by Thomas Barfield."
  33. ^ Breuker 2010, p. 137.
  34. ^ Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 126. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 30 July 2016.
  35. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012-11-20). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 207. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 30 July 2016.
  36. ^ History of Goryeo, 고려사(高麗史) 윤관(尹瓘) 열전(列傳) 中 King Yejong's Declaration of War Against the Northern Barbarians (Jurchens): "女眞, 本勾高麗之部落, 聚居于盖馬山東, 世脩貢職, 被我祖宗恩澤深矣. 一日背畔無道, 先考深憤焉. 嘗聞古人之稱大孝者, 善繼其志耳. 朕今幸終達制, 肇覽國事, 盍擧義旗, 伐無道, 一洒先君之恥." English Translation: "The Jurchens, villagers (vassals) of Old Goryeo (Goguryeo) in origin, have lived east to the Gaema Mountains (Gaema Plateau). Throughout generations, they have paid tribute through offerings and thus received titles embedded with our blessings. And yet, they turn their backs on us in the brink of a day and have become atrocious in nature, enraging my father (Sukjong of Goryeo) who have passed on. My father have long said that true filial piety lies upon the succession of will. And now in gladness, I have finished the ancestral rites and assumed governance in good time today. I hereby declare that there shall be punishment for the atrocious, fulfilment of righteousness, and the resolution of his (Sukjong of Goryeo) deep sorrow in life!"
  37. ^ Gravestone of Yun Eon-i (Korean: 윤언이묘지명, Hanja: 尹彦頤墓誌銘), "不敢愛其死女眞本我朝人子孫故爲臣僕相次朝天" English Translation: "How can it be so that we bend our waists in turn to those who have descended from our line and have been long registered as vassals of our nation?"
  38. ^ History of Goryeo, fascicle 13, under the 6th month of Yejong's 4th year of reign (i.e., 1108). Cited in Wang 2010, p. 251, note 3.
  39. ^ "고려 예종 2년, 정해년(丁亥年), 1107년". terms.naver.com (in Korean). Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  40. ^ "고려 예종 4년, 기축년(己丑年), 1109년". terms.naver.com (in Korean). Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  41. ^ "여진정벌(女眞征伐) ㅡ Jurchen Campaigns".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  42. ^ "고려 예종 12년, 정유년(丁酉年), 1117년". terms.naver.com (in Korean). Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  43. ^ Tillman, Hoyt Cleveland; West, Stephen H (1995). China Under Jurchen Rule. ISBN 9780791422731. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  44. ^ Twitchett, Fairbank & Franke 1994, p. 221.
  45. ^ Twitchett, Fairbank & Franke 1994, p. 229: "the king of Koryŏ declared himself a vassal of Chin in the summer of 1126."
  46. ^ Ebrey & Walthall 2014, [1], p. 171, at Google Books: "In the case of the Jurchen Jin, the [Goryeo] court decided to transfer its tributary relationship from the Liao to Jin before serious violence broke out." Also p.172: "Koryŏ enrolled as a Jin tributary".
  47. ^ Mote, Frederick W. (1994). "Chinese society under Mongol rule, 1215–1368". The Cambridge History of China. pp. 616–664. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521243315.011. ISBN 978-1-139-05474-4.
  48. ^ Hatada, Smith Jr & Hazard 1969, p.53.
  49. ^ Djun Kil Kim, 《The History of Korea: 2nd edition》, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1610695828, p.78
  50. ^ a b Korea and the Mongol Empire
  51. ^ Jeong In-ji (1451). 高麗史 [History of Goryeo] (in Simplified Chinese). Vol. 36.
  52. ^ Ed. Morris Rossabi - China among equals: the Middle Kingdom and its neighbors, 10th-14th centuries, p.244
  53. ^ Allsen, Thomas T. (1997). Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles. Cambridge University Press. pp. 28–29. ISBN 9780521583015. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  54. ^ a b Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 172. ISBN 9780253000248. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  55. ^ a b Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 157. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  56. ^ Robinson, David M. (2009). Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols. Harvard University Press. p. 49. ISBN 9780674036086. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  57. ^ Robinson, David M. (2009). Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols. Harvard University Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780674036086. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  58. ^ Rossabi, Morris (2013). Eurasian Influences on Yuan China. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 200. ISBN 9789814459723. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  59. ^ Hwang 2016, p. 49.
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  61. ^ Zhao, George Qingzhi (2008). Marriage as Political Strategy and Cultural Expression: Mongolian Royal Marriages from World Empire to Yuan Dynasty. Peter Lang. p. 204. ISBN 9781433102752. Retrieved 18 June 2019.
  62. ^ Peter Lee, ed. (2010). Sourcebook of Korean Civilization: Volume One: From Early Times to the 16th Century. Columbia University Press. p. 361. ISBN 978-0231515290.
  63. ^ Kang, Jae-eun (2006). The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism. Homa & Sekey Books. p. 177. ISBN 9781931907309. Retrieved 7 August 2015. "Yi Seong-gye issued a royal edict to proclaim the name of the new kingdom to "Joseon" and issued amnesty to all criminals who opposed the transition. The statement by Taizu about "only the name of Joseon is beautiful and old" naturally refers to Gija Joseon."
  64. ^ Swope 2014, p. 23.
  65. ^ a b c d Kim, Youngmin (16 March 2018). A History of Chinese Political Thought. p. 219-223. ISBN 9781509523160.
  66. ^ Chan, Robert Kong (2017). Korea-China Relations in History and Contemporary Implications. p. 10. ISBN 9783319622651.
  67. ^ Myers, Brian Reynolds (2010). The Cleanest Race. pp. 25–26.
  68. ^ Kim Haboush 2005, p. 132.
  69. ^ Hong-s?k O (2009). Traditional Korean Villages. Ewha Womans University Press. pp. 109–. ISBN 978-89-7300-784-4.
  70. ^ Jae-eun Kang (2006). The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism. Homa & Sekey Books. pp. 328–. ISBN 978-1-931907-30-9.
  71. ^ Larsen 2008, p. 36.

References

  • Simons, G. L. (1999), Korea: The Search for Sovereignty, Palgrave MacMillan

Further reading

  • Alston, Dane (2008). "Emperor and Emissary: The Hongwu Emperor, Kwŏn Kŭn, and the Poetry of Late Fourteenth Century Diplomacy". Korean Studies. 32: 104–147. doi:10.1353/ks.0.0019. JSTOR 23718933. S2CID 159467464.
  • Becker-Weinberg, Vasco (21 December 2020). "South Korea Boundary Disputes in the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea". Asia-Pacific Journal of Ocean Law and Policy. 5 (2): 303–329. doi:10.1163/24519391-05020004. S2CID 234413170.
  • Buczek, Lech (8 October 2020). "Human Rights in Asia: The Case of China, Japan and North and South Korea". Roczniki Humanistyczne. 68 (9): 47–66. doi:10.18290/rh20689-3. S2CID 224831512.
  • Chung, Jae Ho (2012). "Korean Views of Korea-China Relations: Evolving Perceptions and Upcoming Challenges". Asian Perspective. 36 (2): 219–236. doi:10.1353/apr.2012.0008. S2CID 140590108. Project MUSE 713929.
  • Craig, J. Marshall. China, Korea & Japan at War, 1592–1598: Eyewitness Accounts (Routledge, 2020).
  • Fedorovsky, A.; Shvydko, V. (2020). "Republic of Korea and Japan Interplay with China: Opportunities, Risks and Prospects". World Economy and International Relations. 64 (6): 123–132. doi:10.20542/0131-2227-2020-64-6-123-132. S2CID 226621721.
  • Freeman, Carla P, ed. (2015). China and North Korea. doi:10.1057/9781137455666. ISBN 978-1-137-45565-9.
  • Hagiwara, Masaki (2020). "Comprehensive Research of Interaction with Other Literary Persons in Japan, China and Korea in the Meiji and Taisho Eras". Journal of the Asia-Japan Research Institute of Ritsumeikan University. 2: 190–198. doi:10.34389/asiajapan.2.0_190.
  • Hannas, William C., and Huey-Meei Chang. "Japan and South Korea." in China's Quest for Foreign Technology: Beyond Espionage ed by William C. Hannas and Didi Kirsten Tatlow | (2020). pp 149–166. ISBN 0367473593
  • Jones, Catherine, and Sarah Teitt, eds/ China-north Korea Relations: Between Development and Security (Edward Elgar, 2020) ISBN 1788979699
  • Kye, Seung B. (2010). "Huddling under the Imperial Umbrella: A Korean Approach to Ming China in the Early 1500s". The Journal of Korean Studies. 15 (1): 41–66. doi:10.1215/07311613-15-1-41. JSTOR 41490257. S2CID 146437892.
  • Mastro, Oriana Skylar (2018). "Why China Won't Rescue North Korea: What to Expect If Things Fall Apart". Foreign Affairs. 97 (1): 58–66. JSTOR 44822014.
  • Robinson, David M. (2004). "Disturbing Images: Rebellion, Usurpation, and Rulership in Early Sixteenth-Century East Asia—Korean Writings on Emperor Wuzong". The Journal of Korean Studies. 9 (1): 97–127. doi:10.1353/jks.2004.0008. JSTOR 41485331. S2CID 144773693.
  • Robinson, Kenneth R. (1992). "From Raiders to Traders: Border Security and Border Control in Early Chosŏn, 1392—1450". Korean Studies. 16: 94–115. doi:10.1353/ks.1992.0011. JSTOR 23720024. S2CID 154539241.
  • Rogers, Michael C. (1959). "Factionalism and Koryŏ Policy under the Northern Sung". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 79 (1): 16–25. doi:10.2307/596304. JSTOR 596304.
  • Rogers, Michael C. (1961). "Some Kings of Koryo as Registered in Chinese Works". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 81 (4): 415–422. doi:10.2307/595688. JSTOR 595688.
  • "An Assessment of the Korea-China Free Trade Agreement". PIIE. 2 March 2016.
  • Snyder, Scott; Byun, See-Won (1 May 2016). "New Sanctions, Old Dilemmas". Comparative Connections. 18 (1): 91–104.
  • Xu, Beina, and Jayshree Bajoria. "The China-North Korea Relationship." Council on foreign relations 22 (2014). online


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