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The golden age of video arcade games was a peak era of video arcade game popularity, innovation, and earnings. Although there is no consensus as to its exact time period, most sources place it around the early 1980s.

Overview

During the late 1970s, video arcade game technology had become sophisticated enough to offer good-quality graphics and sounds, but it was still fairly basic (realistic images and full motion video were not yet available, and only a few games used spoken voice) and so the success of a game had to rely on simple and fun gameplay. This emphasis on the gameplay is why many of these games continue to be enjoyed today despite their technology being vastly outdated by modern computing technology.

Relevant time period

Walter Day of Twin Galaxies places it as lasting from January 18, 1982 to January 5, 1986.^[1] Technology journalist Jason Whittaker, in The Cyberspace Handbook, places the beginning of the golden age in 1978, with the release of Space Invaders, which he credits for bringing an end to the video game crash of 1977, sparking a renaissance for the video game industry, and starting a video game revolution.^[2]

Video game journalist Steven L. Kent, in his book The Ultimate History of Video Games, places it at 1979 to 1983.^[3] The book pointed out that 1979 was the year that Space Invaders,^[4] which he credits for ushering in the golden age,^[5] was released in the United States,^[4] and the year that saw the advent of vector graphics technology, which in turn spawned many of the popular early arcade games. However, 1983 was the period that began "a fairly steady decline" in the coin-operated video game business and when many arcades started disappearing.^[3]

The History of Computing Project defines the Golden Age as 1971-1983, covering the “mainsteam appearance of video games as a consumer market” and “the rise of dedicated hardware systems and the origin of multi-game cartridge based systems”.^[6] 1971 was chosen as an earlier start date by the project for two reasons: the creator of Pong filed a pivotal patent regarding video game technology, and it was the release of the first arcade video game machine, Computer Space.^[7]

Other opinions place this period's beginning in the late 1970s, when color arcade games became more prevalent and video arcades themselves started appearing outside of their traditional bowling alley and bar locales, through to its ending in the mid-1980s.^[8]

Business

The golden age was a time of great technical and design creativity in arcade games. Games were designed in a wide variety of genres while developers had to work within strict limits of available processor power and memory. Prior to the golden age, the video game industry was flooded with Pong clones, which led to the video game crash of 1977. The crash eventually came to an end following the success of Taito's Space Invaders, which sparked a renaissance for the video game industry.^[2] The era saw the rapid spread of video arcades across North America, Europe, and Asia. The number of video game arcades in North America, for example, more than doubled between 1980 and 1982;^[9] reaching a peak of 13,000 video game arcades across the region (compared to 4,000 today).^[10]

Beginning with Space Invaders, video arcade games also started to appear in supermarkets, restaurants, liquor stores, gas stations and many other retail establishments looking for extra income.^[11] Video game arcades at the time became as common as convenience stores, while arcade games like Pac-Man and Space Invaders would appear in most locations across the United States, including even funeral homes.^[12] The sales of arcade video game machines increased significantly during this period, from $50 million in 1978 to $900 million in 1981,^[9] with 500,000 arcade machines sold in the United States at prices ranging as high as $3000 in 1982 alone.^[13]

In 1980, the arcade video game industry's revenue generated from quarters tripled to $2.8 billion.^[14] By 1981, the arcade video game industry in the United States was generating an annual revenue of over $5 billion^[2]^[15] (equivalent to $12.3 billion in 2011),^[16] with some estimates as high as $10.5 billion for all video games (arcade and home) in the US that year, which would be three times the amount spent on movie tickets in 1981,^[17] and equivalent to over $25.8 billion in 2011.^[16] The total revenue for the worldwide arcade video game industry in 1981 had estimates ranging between $7 billion and $35 billion,^[18] which would be between $17.2 and $86 billion in 2011.^[16] In 1982, the arcade video game industry's revenue in quarters was estimated between $8 billion^[19] and more than $9 billion^[20] (equivalent to between $18.5 billion and $21 billion in 2011),^[16] surpassing the annual gross revenue of both pop music ($4 billion) and Hollywood films ($3 billion) combined that year,^[19]^[21] as well as exceeding the revenues of all major sports combined at the time.^[21] This was also more than twice as much revenue as the $3.8 billion generated by the home video game industry (during the second generation of consoles) that same year;^[19] both the arcade and home markets combined added up to a total revenue between $11.8 billion and $12.8 billion for the video game industry in 1982, equivalent to between $27.3 billion and $30 billion in 2011.^[16] In the following years, the arcade video game industry would continue to generate an annual revenue of at least $5 billion in quarters through to 1985.^[22]

Prior to the golden age, the best selling arcade video game, Pong, had sold over 19,000 arcade cabinets,^[23] and generated a revenue of $14 million in 1974.^[24] In contrast, the best-selling arcade games of the golden age, Space Invaders and Pac-Man, had sold over 360,000^[25] and 350,000^[26] cabinets, respectively, with each machine costing between $2000 and $3000 (specifically $2400 in Pac-Man's case).^[27] In addition, Space Invaders had grossed $2 billion in quarters by 1982^[21] (equivalent to $4.6 billion in 2011),^[16] while Pac-Man had grossed over $1 billion within a year by 1981^[28] and $2.5 billion by the late 1990s^[29]^[30] (equivalent to over $3.4 billion in 2011).^[16] In 1982, Space Invaders was considered the highest-grossing entertainment product of its time, with comparisons made to the then highest-grossing film Star Wars,^[21]^[31] which had grossed $486 million,^[31] while Pac-Man is today considered the highest-grossing video game of all time.^[32] Many other arcade games during the golden age also had hardware unit sales at least in the tens of thousands, including Ms. Pac-Man with over 115,000 units, Asteroids with 70,000,^[12] Donkey Kong with over 60,000,^[33] Defender with 55,000,^[34] Galaxian with 40,000,^[35] Donkey Kong Junior with 35,000,^[33] Mr. Do! with 30,000,^[36] and Popeye with 20,000 units.^[33] A number of arcade games also generated revenues (from quarters) in the hundreds of millions, including Defender with more than $100 million^[37] and Donkey Kong with $280 million,^[38] in addition to many more with revenues in the tens of millions, including Dragon's Lair with $48 million and Space Ace with $13 million.^[39]

The most successful arcade game companies of this era included Taito (which ushered in the golden age with the shooter game Space Invaders^[5] and produced other successful arcade action games such as Gun Fight and Jungle King), Namco (the Japanese company that created Galaxian, Pac-Man, Pole Position and Dig Dug) and Atari (the company that introduced video games into arcades with Computer Space and Pong, and later produced Asteroids). These companies wrestled for the top slot in American arcades for several years. Other companies such as Sega (who later entered the home console market against its former arch rival, Nintendo), Nintendo (whose mascot, Mario, was introduced in 1981's Donkey Kong), Bally Midway Manufacturing Company (which was later purchased by Williams), Capcom, Cinematronics, Konami, Centuri, Williams and SNK also entered around this era.

Technology

Arcades catering to video games began to gain momentum in the late 1970s with games such as Space Invaders (1978), Gee Bee (1978) and Galaxian (1979) and became widespread in 1980 with Pac-Man, Missile Command, Defender, and others. The central processing unit in these games allowed for more complexity than earlier discrete circuitry games such as Atari's Pong (1972).

During this period, arcade video games began shifting away from single-screen titles towards scrolling games.^[40] Early examples were Sega's side-scrolling shooters Bomber (1977)^[41] and Secret Base (1978).^[42] Namco's Rally-X in 1980 introduced multi-directional scrolling,^[43] as well as a radar tracking the player position.^[44] Sega's Space Tactics that year was a space combat game allowing multi-directional scrolling from a first-person perspective.^[45] The following year, Namco's Bosconian allowed the player's ship to freely move across open space that scrolls in all directions.^[46] By the early 1980s, scrolling had become popular among arcade video games and would make its way to third-generation consoles, where it would prove nearly as pivotal as the move to 3D graphics on later fifth-generation consoles.^[40]

The Golden Age also saw developers experimenting with vector displays, which produced crisp lines that couldn't be duplicated by raster displays. An early example of vector graphics was Sega's 1978 release Space Ship, a multi-directional shooter space combat game.^[47] A few of these vector games became great hits, such as 1980's Battlezone and Tempest and 1983's Star Wars from Atari, as well as 1982's Star Trek from Sega. Another notable example was Sega's 1981 release Eliminator, the only four-player vector game ever created,^[48] and featuring color vector graphics as well as both cooperative and competitive multiplayer.^[49] Sega's Space Fury that year also featured colour vector graphics, in addition to speech synthesis.^[50] However, vector technology fell out of favor with arcade game companies due to the high cost of repairing vector displays.

This period also saw significant advances in digital audio technology. Space Invaders in 1978 was the first game to use a continuous background soundtrack, with four simple chromatic descending bass notes repeating in a loop, though it was dynamic and changed pace during stages.^[51] Rally-X in 1980 was the first game to feature continuous background music,^[52] which was generated using a dedicated sound chip, a Namco 3-channel PSG.^[53] That same year saw the introduction of speech synthesis, which was first used in Stratovox, released by Sun Electronics in 1980,^[52] followed soon after by Namco's King & Balloon, which was an early example of dual-core processing, using two Z80 microprocessors, the second to drive a DAC for speech.^[54]

Developers also experimented with laserdisc players for delivering full motion video based games with movie-quality animation. The first laserdisc video game to exploit this technology was 1983's Astron Belt from Sega,^[55]^[56] soon followed by Dragon's Lair from Cinematronics; the latter was a sensation when it was released (and, in fact, the laserdisc players in many machines broke due to overuse). While laserdisc games were usually either shooter games with full-motion video backdrops like Astron Belt or interactive movies like Dragon's Lair, Data East's 1983 game Bega's Battle introduced a new form of video game storytelling: using brief full-motion video cutscenes to develop a story between the game's shooting stages, which would years later become the standard approach to video game storytelling. By the mid-1980s, the genre dwindled in popularity, as laserdiscs were losing out to the VHS format and the laserdisc games themselves were losing their novelty,^[57] due to their linearity and, in many cases, depending less on reflexes than on memorizing sequences of moves.

New controls cropped up in a few games, though, arguably, joysticks and buttons remained the favorites for most manufacturers. A racing wheel was included in racing video games such as Road Race^[58] and Night Driver, Fonz introduced a motorcycle handlebar with vibrating force feedback technology,^[59] Atari introduced the trackball with 1978's Atari Football, Paperboy used a bicycle handlebar, and Hogan's Alley introduced tethered light guns to the arcade video game market. Other specialty controls, such as pedals in racing games, and a crossbow-shaped light gun in Crossbow, also debuted in this era.

Gameplay

*Galaga*, a successful game of the Golden Age, borrows its theme from *Galaxian* and adds twists of its own.

With the enormous success of the early games, dozens of developers jumped into the development and manufacturing of video arcade games. Some simply copied the "invading alien hordes" idea of Space Invaders and turned out successful imitators like Namco's Galaxian, Galaga, and Gaplus, though they took the shoot 'em up genre further with new gameplay mechanics, more complex enemy patterns, and richer graphics.^[60]^[61] Galaxian introduced levels and boss encounters, and was the first game to have all of its graphics in RGB colour,^[62] while Galaga was one of the first games with a bonus stage.^[63] Sega's Secret Base in 1978 introduced two-player cooperative gameplay,^[64] while their 1980 release Space Tactics was an early first-person space combat game with multi-directional scrolling as the player moved the cross-hairs on the screen.^[45]

Others tried new concepts and defined new genres. Rapidly evolving hardware allowed new kinds of games which allowed for different styles of gameplay. In 1980, Namco released Pac-Man, which established the maze chase genre, and Rally-X, the earliest multi-directional scrolling game^[43] with a radar tracking the player position on the map.^[44] Games such as the pioneering 1981 games Donkey Kong and Qix in 1981 introduced new types of games where skill and timing are more important than shooting as fast as possible, with Nintendo's Donkey Kong in particular setting the template for the platform game genre.^[65] Namco's Bosconian in 1981 introduced a free-roaming style of gameplay where the player's ship freely moves across open space, while also including a radar tracking player & enemy positions.^[46] Bega's Battle in 1983 introduced a new form of video game storytelling: using brief full-motion video cutscenes to develop a story between the game's shooting stages.^[57] Other examples of innovative games are Atari Games' Paperboy in 1984 where the goal is to successfully deliver newspapers to customers, and Namco's Phozon where the object is to duplicate a shape shown in the middle of the screen. The theme of Exidy's Venture is dungeon exploration and treasure-gathering. One innovative game, Q*Bert, played upon the user's sense of depth perception to deliver a novel experience.

Popular culture

Some games of this era were so popular that they entered the popular culture. The first to do so was Space Invaders. Following its release in 1978, the game caused a national shortage of 100 yen coins in Japan, leading to a production increase of coins to meet demand for the game.^[66]^[67] It would soon have a similar impact in North America, where it has appeared or is referenced in numerous facets of popular culture. The game that had the biggest impact on popular culture in North America was Pac-Man. Its release in 1980 caused such a sensation that it initiated what is now referred to as "Pac-Mania" (which later became the title of the last coin-operated game in the series, released in 1987). Released by Namco, the game featured a yellow, circle-shaped creature trying to eat dots through a maze while avoiding pursuing enemies. Though no one could agree what the "hero" or enemies represented (they were variously referred to as ghosts, goblins or monsters), the game was extremely popular; there are anecdotes to the effect that some game owners had to empty the game's coin bucket every hour in order to prevent the game's coin mechanism from jamming from having too many coins in the receptacle. The game spawned an animated television series, numerous clones, Pac-Man-branded foods, toys, and a hit pop song, Pac-Man Fever. The game's popularity was such that President Ronald Reagan congratulated a player for setting a record score in Pac-Man.^[68] Though many popular games quickly entered the lexicon of popular culture, most have since left, and Pac-Man is unusual in remaining a recognized term in pop culture, along with Space Invaders, Donkey Kong, Mario Bros., and Frogger.

Arcade games also had an impact on the music industry, revenues for which had declined by $400 million between 1978 and 1981 (from $4.1 billion to $3.7 billion), a decrease that was directly credited to the rise of arcade games at the time.^[20] In addition, music based on video games were successful, such as the "Pac-Man Fever" song reaching #9 on the Billboard Hot 100 and selling over a million singles in 1982,^[69] while the Pac-Man Fever album sold over a million records, with both receiving Gold certifications.^[70] The booming success of video games at the time led to music magazine Billboard listing the 15 top-selling video games alongside their record charts by 1982.^[71] Arcade games also had an impact on the film industry, as arcade video games, beginning with Space Invaders, began appearing at many movie theaters,^[12] while early films based on video games were also produced and gained moderate success, most notably Tron, which grossed over $33 million in 1982^[72] (equivalent to over $76 million in 2011),^[16] began the Tron franchise which included a video game adptation that grossed more than the film,^[73] and inspired the use of CGI by Hollywood film studios such as Pixar.^[74]^[75]

Strategy guides

The period saw the emergence of a gaming media, publications dedicated to video games, in the form of video game journalism and strategy guides.^[21] The enormous popularity of video arcade games led to the very first video game strategy guides;^[76] these guides (rare to find today) discussed in detail the patterns and strategies of each game, including variations, to a degree that few guides seen since can match. "Turning the machine over"—making the score counter overflow and reset to zero—was often the final challenge of a game for those who mastered it, and the last obstacle to getting the highest score.

Some of these strategy guides sold hundreds of thousands of copies at prices ranging from $1.95 to $3.95 in 1982^[76] (equivalent to between $4.52 and $9.15 in 2011).^[16] That year, Ken Uston's Mastering Pac-Man sold 750,000 copies, reaching #5 on B. Dalton's mass-market bestseller list, while Bantam's How To Master the Video Games sold 600,000 copies, appearing on the The New York Times mass-market paperback list.^[76]

List of most popular games

The games below are some of the most popular and/or influential games of the era.^[77]

**Legend**
Vector display
Raster display

Name	Year	Manufacturer	Notes
Space Invaders	1978	Taito (Japan) / Midway (U.S.)	Considered the game that revolutionized the video game industry.^[78] The first blockbuster video game,^[79] it established the shoot 'em up genre,^[80] and has influenced most shooter games since.^[81]
Asteroids	1979	Atari	Atari's most successful coin-operated game.
Galaxian	1979	Namco (Japan) / Midway (U.S.)	Created to compete with Space Invaders. Featured a color screen and had aliens attack in swooping formation. It also featured levels and boss encounters.^[62]
Lunar Lander	1979	Atari	First Atari game to use vector graphics
Battlezone	1980	Atari	Custom cabinet with novel dual-joystick controls, using two 2-way joysticks for movement, and periscope-like viewer.^[82]
Berzerk	1980	Stern Electronics	Early use of speech synthesis was also translated into other languages in Europe.
Centipede	1980	Atari	One of the first games to use trackball control, vertical monitor orientation.
Defender	1980	Williams Electronics	Was predicted to be outsold by Rally-X, but Defender trounced it, going on to sell 60,000 units
Missile Command	1980	Atari	One of the first games to use trackball control. Originally to have a localities-option that named the cities, but was determined too complicated.
Pac-Man	1980	Namco (Japan) / Midway (U.S.)	One of the most popular and influential games, it had the first gaming mascot, established maze chase genre, opened gaming to female audiences,^[83] and introduced power-ups^[84] and cutscenes.^[85]
Phoenix	1980	Amstar Electronics / Centuri (U.S.) / Taito (Japan)	Notable for its haunting melody accompaniment. Introduced the concept of a boss battle.
Rally-X	1980	Namco	First game to feature a "bonus" round, background music,^[86] multi-directional scrolling,^[43] and a radar.^[44] When released, was predicted to outsell two other new releases: Pac-Man and Defender.
Star Castle	1980	Cinematronics	The colors of the rings and screen are provided by a transparent plastic screen overlay
Tempest	1980	Atari	One of the first games to use a color vector display
Wizard of Wor	1980	Midway	Game featured maze-like dungeons infested with monsters.
Donkey Kong	1981	Nintendo	Laid foundations for platform game genre as well as visual storytelling in video games,^[65] and introduced Mario, the character who would become Nintendo's mascot.
Frogger	1981	Konami	Novel gameplay free of fighting and shooting
Scramble	1981	Konami / Stern (North America)	Horizontal scrolling shooter game
Galaga	1981	Namco (Japan) / Midway (North America)	Leapfrogged its predecessor, Galaxian, in popularity
Gorf	1981	Midway	Consisted of several levels, all clones of other popular games. Featured synthesized speech.
Ms. Pac-Man	1981	Midway (North America) / Namco	Created from a bootlegged hack of Pac-Man
Qix	1981	Taito	The objective is to fence off a supermajority of the play area
Vanguard	1981	SNK (Japan) / Centuri (US)	Early scrolling shooter that scrolls in multiple directions, and allows shooting in four directions,^[87]^[88] using four direction buttons, similar to dual-stick controls.^[89]
BurgerTime	1982	Data East (Japan) / Bally Midway (US)	Original title changed from Hamburger when brought to the U.S. from Japan
Dig Dug	1982	Namco (Japan) / Atari (North America)	Rated the sixth most popular coin-operated video game of all time^[90]
Donkey Kong Junior	1982	Nintendo	The last time Nintendo's mascot, Mario, was featured as an antagonist in a Nintendo game
Joust	1982	Williams Electronics	Contained a design flaw so popular it was intentionally touted by producers as a "hidden feature"
Jungle King	1982	Taito	An early horizontal and diagonal scrolling platformer, featuring vine-swinging mechanics, run & jump sequences, climbing hills, and swimming.^[91]
Moon Patrol	1982	Irem (Japan) / Williams Electronics (U.S.)	The first arcade game to feature parallax scrolling.^[92]
Pengo	1982	Sega	A maze game set in an environment full of ice blocks, which can be used by the player's penguin, who can slide them to attack enemies.^[93]
Pole Position	1982	Namco (Japan) / Atari (U.S.)	Popularized the "rear-view racer format" player perspective
Qbert*	1982	Gottlieb	Became one of the most merchandised arcade games behind Pac-Man and Donkey Kong.^[94]^[95]
Robotron 2084	1982	Williams Electronics	Featured novel dual joystick gameplay
Star Trek	1982	Sega	Space combat sim featuring five different controls, six different enemies, and 40 different simulation levels. One of the most elaborate vector games released.^[96]
Time Pilot	1982	Konami (Japan) / Centuri (U.S.)	Time travel themed aerial combat game with free-roaming gameplay in open air space that scrolls indefinitely in all directions, with player's plane always remaining centered.^[97]^[98]^[99]
Tron	1982	Bally Midway	Earned more than the film it was based on^[100]
Xevious	1982	Namco (Japan) / Atari (U.S.)	The first arcade video game to have a TV commercial^[101]
Zaxxon	1982	Sega	First game to employ isometric axonometric projection, which the game was named after
Dragon's Lair	1983	Cinematronics (U.S.) / Taito (Japan)	An early laserdisc video game, which allowed film-quality animation in the game
Elevator Action	1983	Taito	Protagonist must traverse the building's numerous levels via a series of elevators and escalators while acquiring documents
Gyruss	1983	Konami (Japan) / Centuri (U.S.)	Often remembered for its musical score that plays throughout the game, Bach's "Toccata and Fugue in D minor"^[102]
Mappy	1983	Namco (Japan) / Bally Midway (U.S.)	Featured early side-scrolling platforming action
Mario Bros.	1983	Nintendo	The first game featuring Nintendo's mascot, Mario, along with his brother, Luigi
Spy Hunter	1983	Bally Midway	Memorable for its music, "The Peter Gunn Theme", that plays throughout the game
Star Wars	1983	Atari	Features several digitized samples of actor's voices from the movie
Tapper	1983	Bally Midway	Originally aligned with American beer Budweiser, was revamped as Root Beer Tapper, so as not to be construed as attempting to peddle alcohol to minors
1942	1984	Capcom	Capcom's first hit game
Paperboy	1984	Atari	Novel controls and high resolution display
Punch-Out!!	1984	Nintendo	Digitized voice and dual monitors

The end of the era

The Golden Age cooled as copies of popular games began to saturate the arcades. Arcades remained commonplace through the early 1990s and there were still new genres being explored, but most new games were fighting games, shooters, maze games, and other variations on old familiar themes.

New generations of home computers and home video game consoles also sapped interest from arcades. Earlier consoles, such as the Atari 2600 and Mattel's Intellivision, were general-purpose and were meant to play a variety of games, and often could not measure up to video arcade game hardware, which was built for the singular purpose of providing a single game well. In fact, the glut of poor-quality home video game systems contributed in no small way to the video game crash of 1983.

But the debut of the Nintendo Entertainment System (1985) began to level the playing field by providing a reasonably good video arcade experience at home. In the early to mid 1990s, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and the Sega Mega Drive (Sega Genesis in North America) greatly improved home play and some of the technology was even integrated into a few video arcade machines. By the time of the PlayStation (1995) and the Nintendo 64 (1996), both of which boasted true 3D graphics, many video game arcades across the country had gone out of business.

The video arcade game industry still exists today, but in a greatly reduced form. Video arcade game hardware is often based on home game consoles to facilitate porting a video arcade game to a home system; there are video arcade versions of Dreamcast (NAOMI, Atomiswave), PlayStation 2 (System 246), Nintendo GameCube (Triforce), and Microsoft Xbox (Chihiro) home consoles. Some arcades have survived by expanding into ticket-based prize redemption and more physical games with no home console equivalent, such as skee ball and whack-a-mole. Some genres, such as dancing and rhythm games (such as Dance Dance Revolution) continue to be popular in arcades.

The relative simplicity yet solid gameplay of many of these early games has inspired a new generation of fans who can play them on mobile phones or with emulators such as MAME. Some classic arcade games are reappearing in commercial settings, such as Namco's Ms. Pac-Man 20 Year Reunion / Galaga Class of 1981 two-in-one game,^[103] or integrated directly into controller hardware (joysticks) with replaceable flash drives storing game ROMs.

Legacy

The Golden Age of Video Arcade Games spawned numerous cultural icons and even gave some companies their identity. Elements from games such as Space Invaders, Pac-Man, Donkey Kong, Frogger, and Centipede are still recognized in today's popular culture.

The success of these early video games has led many hobbyists who were teenagers during the Golden Age to collect some of these classic games. Since few have any commercial value any longer, they can be acquired for US$200 to US$750 (though fully restored games can cost much more).

Some fans of these games have companies devoted to restoring the classic games, and others, such as Arcade Renovations, which produces reproduction art for classic arcade games, focus solely on one facet of the restoration activity. Many of these restorers have set up websites full of tips and advice on restoring games to mint condition. There are also several newsgroups devoted to discussion around these games, and a few conventions, such as California Extreme,^[104] dedicated to classic arcade gaming.

References

^ Day, Walter (1998-02-08). "Chapter 01 - The Golden Age of Video Game Arcades". The Golden Age of Video Game Arcades. Twin Galaxies. Retrieved 2007-08-21.^{[dead link]}
^ ^a ^b ^c Jason Whittaker (2004), The cyberspace handbook, Routledge, p. 122, ISBN 041516835X
^ ^a ^b Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0761536434.
^ ^a ^b Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon. Three Rivers Press. p. 116. ISBN 0761536434.
^ ^a ^b Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon. Three Rivers Press. p. 500. ISBN 0761536434.
^ http://www.thocp.net/software/games/games.htm
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^ Day, Walter (1998-02-08). "Chapter 13 - The Golden Age Ends". The Golden Age of Video Game Arcades. Twin Galaxies. Retrieved 2007-08-21.
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^ Edge Staff (2007-08-13). "The 30 Defining Moments in Gaming". Edge. Future plc. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mark J. P. Wolf (2001), The medium of the video game, University of Texas Press, p. 44, ISBN 029279150X, retrieved 2011-04-09 {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
^ James A. Inciardi & Robert A. Rothman (1990), Sociology: principles and applications (2 ed.), Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, p. 540, ISBN 015582290X, retrieved 2011-04-20, To cash in on the Pac-Man video mania, game developers also introduced Asteroids, Frogger, Donkey Kong, Tron, and hundreds more. By 1982, arcade games had become a multi-billion dollar industry. In that year alone, almost 500,000 machines were sold at prices ranging as high as $3000 each.
^ "Electronic Education", Electronic Education, vol. 2, no. 5–8, Electronic Communications, p. 41, 1983, retrieved 2011-4-23, In 1980 alone, according to Time, $2.8 billion in quarters, triple the amount of the previous years, were fed into video games. {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
^ Mark J. P. Wolf, The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, ABC-CLIO, p. 103, ISBN 031333868X, retrieved 2011-04-19
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ "CPI Inflation Calculator". Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved 2011-03-22.
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^ Edward S. Roschild (21 Jun 1982), "Videodisks, microcomputers form integrated systems", InfoWorld, vol. 4, no. 24, InfoWorld Media Group, p. 16, ISSN 0199-6649
^ ^a ^b ^c Everett M. Rogers & Judith K. Larsen (1984), Silicon Valley fever: growth of high-technology culture, Basic Books, p. 263, ISBN 0465078214, retrieved 2011-04-23, Video game machines have an average weekly take of $109 per machine. The video arcade industry took in $8 billion in quarters in 1982, surpassing pop music (at $4 billion in sales per year) and Hollywood films ($3 billion). Those 32 billion arcade games played translate to 143 games for every man, woman, and child in America. A recent Atari survey showed that 86 percent of the US population from 13 to 20 has played some kind of video game and an estimated 8 million US homes have video games hooked up to the television set. Sales of home video games were $3.8 billion in 1982, approximately half that of video game arcades.
^ ^a ^b "Movie Studios Purchase Piece Of Video Game Action", The Durant Daily Democrat, p. 22, July 14, 1982, retrieved 2011-04-30
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Making millions, 25 cents at a time". The Fifth Estate. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. November 23, 1982. Retrieved 2011-04-30.
^ Ellen Goodman (1985), Keeping in touch, Summit Books, p. 38, ISBN 0671553763, retrieved 2011-04-23, There are 95,000 others like him spread across the country, getting fed a fat share of the $5 billion in videogame quarters every year.
^ Ashley S. Lipson & Robert D. Brain (2009), Computer and Video Game Law: Cases and Materials, Carolina Academic Press, p. 9, ISBN 1594604886, retrieved 2011-04-11, Atari eventually sold more than 19,000 Pong machines, giving rise to many imitations. Pong made its first appearance in 1972 at "Andy Capp's," a small bar in Sunnyvale, California, where the video game was literally "overplayed" as eager customers tried to cram quarters into an already heavily overloaded coin slot.
^ "Business 1974: Industry: Space Age Pinball, Atari's PONG", Time, retrieved 2011-04-21, Typical of the new games is Pong, a popular version of electronic table tennis manufactured by two-year-old Atari, Inc. (estimated fiscal 1974 revenue: $14 million) of Los Gatos, Calif. Atari sold some 8,500 games to U.S. amusement parlors and other businesses last year.
^ Jiji Gaho Sha, inc. (2003), Asia Pacific perspectives, Japan, vol. 1, University of Virginia, p. 57, retrieved 2011-04-09, At that time, a game for use in entertainment arcades was considered a hit if it sold 1000 units; sales of Space Invaders topped 300,000 units in Japan and 60,000 units overseas.
^ Kevin "Fragmaster" Bowen (2001). "Game of the Week: Pac-Man". GameSpy. Retrieved 2011-04-09. Released in 1980, Pac-Man was an immediate success. It sold over 350,000 units, and probably would of sold more if not for the numerous illegal pirate and bootleg machines that were also sold.
^ "Video arcades rival Broadway theatre and girlie shows in NY", InfoWorld, vol. 4, no. 14, p. 15, 12 April 1982, ISSN 0199-6649, retrieved 2011-05-01
^ Bill Loguidice & Matt Barton (2009), Vintage games: an insider look at the history of Grand Theft Auto, Super Mario, and the most influential games of all time, Focal Press, p. 181, ISBN 0240811461, retrieved 2011-04-23, The machines were well worth the investment; in total they raked in over a billion dollars worth of quarters in the first year alone.
^ Mark J. P. Wolf (2008), "Video Game Stars: Pac-Man", The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, ABC-CLIO, p. 73, ISBN 031333868X, retrieved 2011-04-10, It would go on to become arguably the most famous video game of all time, with the arcade game alone taking in more than a billion dollars, and one study estimated that it had been played more than 10 billion times during the twentieth century.
^ Chris Morris (May 10, 2005). "Pac Man turns 25: A pizza dinner yields a cultural phenomenon - and millions of dollars in quarters". CNN. Retrieved 2011-04-23. In the late 1990s, Twin Galaxies, which tracks video game world record scores, visited used game auctions and counted how many times the average Pac Man machine had been played. Based on those findings and the total number of machines that were manufactured, the organization said it believed the game had been played more than 10 billion times in the 20th century.
^ ^a ^b "Space Invaders vs. Star Wars", Executive, vol. 24, Southam Business Publications, p. 9, 1982, retrieved 2011-04-30, They compare this to the box office movie top blockbuster Star Wars, which has taken in only $486 million, for a net of $175 million.
^ Steve L. Kent (2001), The ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world, Prima, p. 143, ISBN 0761536434, retrieved 2011-05-01, Rumors emerged that the unknown creator of Pac-Man had left the industry when he received only a $3500 bonus for creating the highest-grossing video game of all time.
^ ^a ^b ^c Steven L. Kent (2001), The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story behind the Craze that Touched Our Lives and Changed the World, Prima, p. 352, retrieved 2011-04-09, With more than 60,000 units sold in the United States, Donkey Kong was Nintendo's biggest arcade hit. ... Nintendo released Donkey Kong Junior in 1982 and sold only 30,000 machines, 20,000 Popeye machines (also 1982), and a mere 5000 copies of Donkey J (1983).
^ Steven L. Kent (2001), The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story behind the Craze that Touched Our Lives and Changed the World, Prima, p. 147, retrieved 2011-04-09, Defender was Williams Electronics' biggest seller. More than 55,000 units were placed worldwide.
^ Bureau of National Affairs (1983), "United States Patents Quarterly, Volume 216", United States Patents Quarterly, vol. 216, Associated Industry Publications, retrieved 2011-04-09, Since February 1980, Midway has sold in excess of 40,000 Galaxian games
^ Steve L. Kent (2001), The ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world, Prima, p. 352, ISBN 0761536434, In 1982, Universal Sales made arcade history with a game called Mr Do! Instead of selling dedicated Mr Do! machines, Universal sold the game as a kit. The kit came with a customized control panel, a computer board with Mr Do! read-only memory (ROM) chips, stickers that could be placed on the side of stand-up arcade machines for art, and a plastic marquee. It was the first game ever sold as a conversion only. According to former Universal Sales western regional sales manager Joe Morici, the company sold approximately 30000 copies of the game in the United States alone.
^ Mark J. P. Wolf, The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, ABC-CLIO, p. 103, ISBN 031333868X, retrieved 2011-04-19
^ Jörg Ziesak (2009), Wii Innovate - How Nintendo Created a New Market Through Strategic Innovation, GRIN Verlag, p. 2029, ISBN 3640497740, retrieved 2011-04-09, Donkey Kong was Nintendo's first international smash hit and the main reason behind the company's breakthrough in the Northern American market. In the first year of its publication, it earned Nintendo 180 million US dollars, continuing with a return of 100 million dollars in the second year.
^ "Rick Dyer: Biography". Allgame. Retrieved 2011-04-10.
^ ^a ^b IGN Presents the History of SEGA: Coming Home, IGN
^ Bomber at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Template:Allgame
^ ^a ^b ^c Gaming's Most Important Evolutions (Page 3), GamesRadar
^ ^a ^b ^c Rally-X at the Killer List of Videogames
^ ^a ^b Space Tactics at the Killer List of Videogames
^ ^a ^b Template:Allgame
^ Space Ship at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Mark J. P. Wolf (2008), The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, ABC-CLIO, p. 69, ISBN 031333868X, retrieved 2011-03-28
^ Eliminator at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Space Fury at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Karen Collins (2008). From Pac-Man to pop music: interactive audio in games and new media. Ashgate. p. 2. ISBN 0754662004. Retrieved 2011-04-08.
^ ^a ^b "Gaming's Most Important Evolutions". GamesRadar. October 8, 2010. p. 2. Retrieved 2011-04-27.
^ Rally-X at the Killer List of Videogames
^ King & Balloon at the Killer List of Videogames
^ "ASTRON BELT". Atari HQ. Retrieved 2011-03-25.
^ Template:Allgame
^ ^a ^b Travis Fahs (March 3, 2008). "The Lives and Deaths of the Interactive Movie". IGN. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
^ Road Race at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Mark J. P. Wolf (2008), The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, p. 39, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 031333868X
^ Game Genres: Shmups, Professor Jim Whitehead, January 29, 2007, Accessed June 17, 2008
^ Buchanan, Levi, Galaxian Mini, IGN, April 21, 2003, Accessed June 17, 2008
^ ^a ^b Galaxian at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Galaga at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Secret Base at the Killer List of Videogames
^ ^a ^b "Gaming's most important evolutions". GamesRadar. Oct 8, 2010. p. 3. Retrieved 2011-04-11.
^ Craig Glenday, ed. (2008-03-11). "Record Breaking Games: Shooting Games Roundup". Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008. Guinness World Records. Guinness. pp. 106–107. ISBN 978-1-904994-21-3.
^ Richards, Giles (2005-07-24). "A life through video games". The Observer. Guardian Media Group. Retrieved 2008-05-22.
^ Ramsey, David. "The Perfect Man - How Billy Mitchell became a video-game superstar and achieved Pac-Man bliss." Oxford American, issue 53. Spring 2006.
^ "Popular Computing". McGraw-Hill. 1982: Volume 2. Retrieved August 14, 2010. Pac-Man Fever went gold almost instantly with 1 million records sold. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ RIAA Gold & Platinum Searchable Database - Pac-Man Fever. RIAA.com. Retrieved 2009-11-01.
^ "Cash In On the Video Game Craze", Black Enterprise, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 41–2, December 1982, ISSN 0006-4165, retrieved 2011-05-01
^ Tron (1982) at Box Office Mojo
^ Jack B. Rochester & John Gantz (1983), The naked computer: a layperson's almanac of computer lore, wizardry, personalities, memorabilia, world records, mind blowers, and tomfoolery, William Morrow and Company, p. 164, ISBN 0688024505, retrieved 2011-04-20, Although the Disney Studios expected to make over $400 million from this siliconic extravaganza, our source at Variety tells us that its North American rentals were $15 million and estimated total gross, $30 million. The arcade game Tron, made by Bally, grossed more.
^ Thompson, Anne (December 9, 2010). "What Will Tron: Legacy's 3D VFX Look Like in 30 Years?". Tron Legacy VFX Special Effects in Tron Legacy. Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 24 December 2010. {{cite web}}: C1 control character in |work= at position 17 (help)
^ Lyons, Mike (1998). "Toon Story: John Lasseter's Animated Life". Animation World Magazine. Retrieved 13 October 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c "Learn The Code Book And Beat Video Games". Ludington Daily News. March 1, 1982. p. 25. Retrieved 2011-04-30.
^ Top 100 Videogames list from Killer List of Videogames
^ Sayre, Carolyn (2007-07-19). "10 Questions for Shigeru Miyamoto". Time. Retrieved 2007-09-04. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
^ Chris Kohler (2005), Power-up: how Japanese video games gave the world an extra life, BradyGames, p. 18, ISBN 0744004241, retrieved 2011-03-27
^ "Essential 50: Space Invaders". 1UP.com. Retrieved 2011-03-26.
^ Edwards, Benj. "Ten Things Everyone Should Know About Space Invaders". 1UP.com. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
^ Battlezone at the Killer List of Videogames
^ The Essential 50 - Pac-Man, 1UP
^ Playing With Power: Great Ideas That Have Changed Gaming Forever, 1UP
^ Gaming's Most Important Evolutions, GamesRadar
^ Gaming's Most Important Evolutions (Page 2), GamesRadar
^ Vanguard at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Where Were They Then: The First Games of Nintendo, Konami, and More (SNK), 1UP
^ Matt Barton & Bill Loguidice, The History of Robotron: 2084 - Running Away While Defending Humanoids, Gamasutra
^ McLemore, Greg. "The Top Coin-Operated Videogames of All Time". Killer List of Videogames. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
^ Jungle King at the Killer List of Videogames
^ History of Computing: Video games - Golden Age
^ Pengo at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Sellers, John (2001). Arcade Fever: The Fan's Guide to The Golden Age of Video Games. Running Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 0762409371. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Wild, Kim (2008). "The Making of Q*bert". Retro Gamer (54). Imagine Publishing: 70–73. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ Mark J. P. Wolf (2008), The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, p. 70, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 031333868X
^ Template:Allgame
^ "Konami Classics Series: Arcade Hits - NDS - Review". GameZone. April 9, 2007. Retrieved 2011-04-08.
^ "Konami Arcade Classics: Well, at least it's classic". IGN. January 7, 2000. Retrieved 2011-04-08.
^ "Trivia for TRON" (Web). www.imdb.com. Retrieved 2007-09-15. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); External link in |publisher= (help)
^ Xevious at the Killer List of Videogames
^ Gyruss at the Killer List of Videogames
^ "Ms. Pac-Man/Galaga — Class Of 1981". KLOV. Retrieved 2006-09-10.
^ "California Extreme". California Extreme. Retrieved 2006-11-24.

The Official Price Guide to Classic Video Games by David Ellis (2004), ISBN 0-375-72038-3

External links

The KLOV Top Video Games Lists by Greg McLemore and friends
Reference to the term 'Golden Age'
The Dot Eaters, Videogame History 101

[1] Day, Walter (1998-02-08). "Chapter 01 - The Golden Age of Video Game Arcades". The Golden Age of Video Game Arcades. Twin Galaxies. Retrieved 2007-08-21.^{[dead link]}

[Whittaker-122-2] Jason Whittaker (2004), The cyberspace handbook, Routledge, p. 122, ISBN 041516835X

[UltimateHistory-3] Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0761536434.

[Kent-116-4] Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon. Three Rivers Press. p. 116. ISBN 0761536434.

[Kent-500-5] Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon. Three Rivers Press. p. 500. ISBN 0761536434.

[6] ttp://www.thocp.net/software/games/games.htm

[7] ttp://www.thocp.net/software/games/golden_age.htm#1971

[8] Day, Walter (1998-02-08). "Chapter 13 - The Golden Age Ends". The Golden Age of Video Game Arcades. Twin Galaxies. Retrieved 2007-08-21.

[Wolf-105-9] Mark J. P. Wolf, The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, ABC-CLIO, p. 105, ISBN 031333868X, retrieved 2011-04-19

[10] Mark Stephen Price (Atari Games Corporation) (1998), "Coin-Op: The Life (Arcade Videogames)" (PDF), Digital illusion: entertaining the future with high technology, ACM Press, p. 444, ISBN 0201847809, retrieved 2011-05-02 {{citation}}: |chapter= ignored (help)

[11] Edge Staff (2007-08-13). "The 30 Defining Moments in Gaming". Edge. Future plc. Retrieved 2008-09-18.

[Wolf-44-12] Mark J. P. Wolf (2001), The medium of the video game, University of Texas Press, p. 44, ISBN 029279150X, retrieved 2011-04-09 {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)

[13] James A. Inciardi & Robert A. Rothman (1990), Sociology: principles and applications (2 ed.), Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, p. 540, ISBN 015582290X, retrieved 2011-04-20, To cash in on the Pac-Man video mania, game developers also introduced Asteroids, Frogger, Donkey Kong, Tron, and hundreds more. By 1982, arcade games had become a multi-billion dollar industry. In that year alone, almost 500,000 machines were sold at prices ranging as high as $3000 each.

[14] "Electronic Education", Electronic Education, vol. 2, no. 5–8, Electronic Communications, p. 41, 1983, retrieved 2011-4-23, In 1980 alone, according to Time, $2.8 billion in quarters, triple the amount of the previous years, were fed into video games. {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

[15] Mark J. P. Wolf, The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, ABC-CLIO, p. 103, ISBN 031333868X, retrieved 2011-04-19

[Inflation-16] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ "CPI Inflation Calculator". Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved 2011-03-22.

[17] James W. Chesebro & Donald G. Bonsall (1989), Computer-mediated communication: human relationships in a computerized world, University of Alabama Press, p. 130, ISBN 0817304606, retrieved 2011-04-26, In 1981, $10.5 billion was spent on all features of video games, 3 times the amount spent on movie tickets that year (Surrey, 1982, p. 74).

[18] Edward S. Roschild (21 Jun 1982), "Videodisks, microcomputers form integrated systems", InfoWorld, vol. 4, no. 24, InfoWorld Media Group, p. 16, ISSN 0199-6649

[Rogers-Larsen-263-19] Everett M. Rogers & Judith K. Larsen (1984), Silicon Valley fever: growth of high-technology culture, Basic Books, p. 263, ISBN 0465078214, retrieved 2011-04-23, Video game machines have an average weekly take of $109 per machine. The video arcade industry took in $8 billion in quarters in 1982, surpassing pop music (at $4 billion in sales per year) and Hollywood films ($3 billion). Those 32 billion arcade games played translate to 143 games for every man, woman, and child in America. A recent Atari survey showed that 86 percent of the US population from 13 to 20 has played some kind of video game and an estimated 8 million US homes have video games hooked up to the television set. Sales of home video games were $3.8 billion in 1982, approximately half that of video game arcades.

[Durant-1982-20] "Movie Studios Purchase Piece Of Video Game Action", The Durant Daily Democrat, p. 22, July 14, 1982, retrieved 2011-04-30

[CBC-1982-21] "Making millions, 25 cents at a time". The Fifth Estate. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. November 23, 1982. Retrieved 2011-04-30.

[22] Ellen Goodman (1985), Keeping in touch, Summit Books, p. 38, ISBN 0671553763, retrieved 2011-04-23, There are 95,000 others like him spread across the country, getting fed a fat share of the $5 billion in videogame quarters every year.

[23] Ashley S. Lipson & Robert D. Brain (2009), Computer and Video Game Law: Cases and Materials, Carolina Academic Press, p. 9, ISBN 1594604886, retrieved 2011-04-11, Atari eventually sold more than 19,000 Pong machines, giving rise to many imitations. Pong made its first appearance in 1972 at "Andy Capp's," a small bar in Sunnyvale, California, where the video game was literally "overplayed" as eager customers tried to cram quarters into an already heavily overloaded coin slot.

[24] "Business 1974: Industry: Space Age Pinball, Atari's PONG", Time, retrieved 2011-04-21, Typical of the new games is Pong, a popular version of electronic table tennis manufactured by two-year-old Atari, Inc. (estimated fiscal 1974 revenue: $14 million) of Los Gatos, Calif. Atari sold some 8,500 games to U.S. amusement parlors and other businesses last year.

[25] Jiji Gaho Sha, inc. (2003), Asia Pacific perspectives, Japan, vol. 1, University of Virginia, p. 57, retrieved 2011-04-09, At that time, a game for use in entertainment arcades was considered a hit if it sold 1000 units; sales of Space Invaders topped 300,000 units in Japan and 60,000 units overseas.

[26] Kevin "Fragmaster" Bowen (2001). "Game of the Week: Pac-Man". GameSpy. Retrieved 2011-04-09. Released in 1980, Pac-Man was an immediate success. It sold over 350,000 units, and probably would of sold more if not for the numerous illegal pirate and bootleg machines that were also sold.

[27] "Video arcades rival Broadway theatre and girlie shows in NY", InfoWorld, vol. 4, no. 14, p. 15, 12 April 1982, ISSN 0199-6649, retrieved 2011-05-01

[Barton-181-28] Bill Loguidice & Matt Barton (2009), Vintage games: an insider look at the history of Grand Theft Auto, Super Mario, and the most influential games of all time, Focal Press, p. 181, ISBN 0240811461, retrieved 2011-04-23, The machines were well worth the investment; in total they raked in over a billion dollars worth of quarters in the first year alone.

[Wolf-73-29] Mark J. P. Wolf (2008), "Video Game Stars: Pac-Man", The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, ABC-CLIO, p. 73, ISBN 031333868X, retrieved 2011-04-10, It would go on to become arguably the most famous video game of all time, with the arcade game alone taking in more than a billion dollars, and one study estimated that it had been played more than 10 billion times during the twentieth century.

[30] Chris Morris (May 10, 2005). "Pac Man turns 25: A pizza dinner yields a cultural phenomenon - and millions of dollars in quarters". CNN. Retrieved 2011-04-23. In the late 1990s, Twin Galaxies, which tracks video game world record scores, visited used game auctions and counted how many times the average Pac Man machine had been played. Based on those findings and the total number of machines that were manufactured, the organization said it believed the game had been played more than 10 billion times in the 20th century.

[Executive-SW-31] "Space Invaders vs. Star Wars", Executive, vol. 24, Southam Business Publications, p. 9, 1982, retrieved 2011-04-30, They compare this to the box office movie top blockbuster Star Wars, which has taken in only $486 million, for a net of $175 million.

[32] Steve L. Kent (2001), The ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world, Prima, p. 143, ISBN 0761536434, retrieved 2011-05-01, Rumors emerged that the unknown creator of Pac-Man had left the industry when he received only a $3500 bonus for creating the highest-grossing video game of all time.

[Kent-352-33] Steven L. Kent (2001), The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story behind the Craze that Touched Our Lives and Changed the World, Prima, p. 352, retrieved 2011-04-09, With more than 60,000 units sold in the United States, Donkey Kong was Nintendo's biggest arcade hit. ... Nintendo released Donkey Kong Junior in 1982 and sold only 30,000 machines, 20,000 Popeye machines (also 1982), and a mere 5000 copies of Donkey J (1983).

[34] Steven L. Kent (2001), The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story behind the Craze that Touched Our Lives and Changed the World, Prima, p. 147, retrieved 2011-04-09, Defender was Williams Electronics' biggest seller. More than 55,000 units were placed worldwide.

[35] Bureau of National Affairs (1983), "United States Patents Quarterly, Volume 216", United States Patents Quarterly, vol. 216, Associated Industry Publications, retrieved 2011-04-09, Since February 1980, Midway has sold in excess of 40,000 Galaxian games

[36] Steve L. Kent (2001), The ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world, Prima, p. 352, ISBN 0761536434, In 1982, Universal Sales made arcade history with a game called Mr Do! Instead of selling dedicated Mr Do! machines, Universal sold the game as a kit. The kit came with a customized control panel, a computer board with Mr Do! read-only memory (ROM) chips, stickers that could be placed on the side of stand-up arcade machines for art, and a plastic marquee. It was the first game ever sold as a conversion only. According to former Universal Sales western regional sales manager Joe Morici, the company sold approximately 30000 copies of the game in the United States alone.

[37] Mark J. P. Wolf, The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, ABC-CLIO, p. 103, ISBN 031333868X, retrieved 2011-04-19

[38] Jörg Ziesak (2009), Wii Innovate - How Nintendo Created a New Market Through Strategic Innovation, GRIN Verlag, p. 2029, ISBN 3640497740, retrieved 2011-04-09, Donkey Kong was Nintendo's first international smash hit and the main reason behind the company's breakthrough in the Northern American market. In the first year of its publication, it earned Nintendo 180 million US dollars, continuing with a return of 100 million dollars in the second year.

[Allgame-Dyer-39] "Rick Dyer: Biography". Allgame. Retrieved 2011-04-10.

[IGN-Sega-40] IGN Presents the History of SEGA: Coming Home, IGN

[41] Bomber at the Killer List of Videogames

[42] Template:Allgame

[GRadar-Rally-43] Gaming's Most Important Evolutions (Page 3), GamesRadar

[KLOV-Rally-44] Rally-X at the Killer List of Videogames

[Space-Tactics-45] Space Tactics at the Killer List of Videogames

[Bosconian-46] Template:Allgame

[47] Space Ship at the Killer List of Videogames

[Wolf-69-48] Mark J. P. Wolf (2008), The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, ABC-CLIO, p. 69, ISBN 031333868X, retrieved 2011-03-28

[49] Eliminator at the Killer List of Videogames

[50] Space Fury at the Killer List of Videogames

[51] Karen Collins (2008). From Pac-Man to pop music: interactive audio in games and new media. Ashgate. p. 2. ISBN 0754662004. Retrieved 2011-04-08.

[GamesRadar-2-52] "Gaming's Most Important Evolutions". GamesRadar. October 8, 2010. p. 2. Retrieved 2011-04-27.

[53] Rally-X at the Killer List of Videogames

[54] King & Balloon at the Killer List of Videogames

[AtariHQ-55] "ASTRON BELT". Atari HQ. Retrieved 2011-03-25.

[Astron-Belt-56] Template:Allgame

[Fahs-57] Travis Fahs (March 3, 2008). "The Lives and Deaths of the Interactive Movie". IGN. Retrieved 2011-03-11.

[58] Road Race at the Killer List of Videogames

[59] Mark J. P. Wolf (2008), The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, p. 39, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 031333868X

[lecture-60] Game Genres: Shmups, Professor Jim Whitehead, January 29, 2007, Accessed June 17, 2008

[61] Buchanan, Levi, Galaxian Mini, IGN, April 21, 2003, Accessed June 17, 2008

[Galaxian-62] Galaxian at the Killer List of Videogames

[63] Galaga at the Killer List of Videogames

[64] Secret Base at the Killer List of Videogames

[GamesRadar-3-65] "Gaming's most important evolutions". GamesRadar. Oct 8, 2010. p. 3. Retrieved 2011-04-11.

[GWR08-2-66] Craig Glenday, ed. (2008-03-11). "Record Breaking Games: Shooting Games Roundup". Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008. Guinness World Records. Guinness. pp. 106–107. ISBN 978-1-904994-21-3.

[guardian-67] Richards, Giles (2005-07-24). "A life through video games". The Observer. Guardian Media Group. Retrieved 2008-05-22.

[mitchell-68] Ramsey, David. "The Perfect Man - How Billy Mitchell became a video-game superstar and achieved Pac-Man bliss." Oxford American, issue 53. Spring 2006.

[69] "Popular Computing". McGraw-Hill. 1982: Volume 2. Retrieved August 14, 2010. Pac-Man Fever went gold almost instantly with 1 million records sold. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[70] RIAA Gold & Platinum Searchable Database - Pac-Man Fever. RIAA.com. Retrieved 2009-11-01.

[Enterprise-1982-71] "Cash In On the Video Game Craze", Black Enterprise, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 41–2, December 1982, ISSN 0006-4165, retrieved 2011-05-01

[72] Tron (1982) at Box Office Mojo

[Gantz-164-73] Jack B. Rochester & John Gantz (1983), The naked computer: a layperson's almanac of computer lore, wizardry, personalities, memorabilia, world records, mind blowers, and tomfoolery, William Morrow and Company, p. 164, ISBN 0688024505, retrieved 2011-04-20, Although the Disney Studios expected to make over $400 million from this siliconic extravaganza, our source at Variety tells us that its North American rentals were $15 million and estimated total gross, $30 million. The arcade game Tron, made by Bally, grossed more.

[Thompson-74] Thompson, Anne (December 9, 2010). "What Will Tron: Legacy's 3D VFX Look Like in 30 Years?". Tron Legacy VFX Special Effects in Tron Legacy. Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 24 December 2010. {{cite web}}: C1 control character in |work= at position 17 (help)

[awm-lasseter-75] Lyons, Mike (1998). "Toon Story: John Lasseter's Animated Life". Animation World Magazine. Retrieved 13 October 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[Ludington-1982-76] "Learn The Code Book And Beat Video Games". Ludington Daily News. March 1, 1982. p. 25. Retrieved 2011-04-30.

[77] Top 100 Videogames list from Killer List of Videogames

[Shigeru-78] Sayre, Carolyn (2007-07-19). "10 Questions for Shigeru Miyamoto". Time. Retrieved 2007-09-04. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)

[79] Chris Kohler (2005), Power-up: how Japanese video games gave the world an extra life, BradyGames, p. 18, ISBN 0744004241, retrieved 2011-03-27

[1UP-50-80] "Essential 50: Space Invaders". 1UP.com. Retrieved 2011-03-26.

[1UP-10things-81] Edwards, Benj. "Ten Things Everyone Should Know About Space Invaders". 1UP.com. Retrieved 2008-07-11.

[82] Battlezone at the Killer List of Videogames

[83] The Essential 50 - Pac-Man, 1UP

[84] Playing With Power: Great Ideas That Have Changed Gaming Forever, 1UP

[85] Gaming's Most Important Evolutions, GamesRadar

[86] Gaming's Most Important Evolutions (Page 2), GamesRadar

[87] Vanguard at the Killer List of Videogames

[1UP-SNK-88] Where Were They Then: The First Games of Nintendo, Konami, and More (SNK), 1UP

[89] Matt Barton & Bill Loguidice, The History of Robotron: 2084 - Running Away While Defending Humanoids, Gamasutra

[90] McLemore, Greg. "The Top Coin-Operated Videogames of All Time". Killer List of Videogames. Retrieved 2007-07-17.

[91] Jungle King at the Killer List of Videogames

[parallax-92] History of Computing: Video games - Golden Age

[93] Pengo at the Killer List of Videogames

[94] Sellers, John (2001). Arcade Fever: The Fan's Guide to The Golden Age of Video Games. Running Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 0762409371. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[95] Wild, Kim (2008). "The Making of Q*bert". Retro Gamer (54). Imagine Publishing: 70–73. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[96] Mark J. P. Wolf (2008), The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond, p. 70, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 031333868X

[97] Template:Allgame

[98] "Konami Classics Series: Arcade Hits - NDS - Review". GameZone. April 9, 2007. Retrieved 2011-04-08.

[99] "Konami Arcade Classics: Well, at least it's classic". IGN. January 7, 2000. Retrieved 2011-04-08.

[imdb_trivia-100] "Trivia for TRON" (Web). www.imdb.com. Retrieved 2007-09-15. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); External link in |publisher= (help)

[101] Xevious at the Killer List of Videogames

[102] Gyruss at the Killer List of Videogames

[Ms._Pac-Man-103] "Ms. Pac-Man/Galaga — Class Of 1981". KLOV. Retrieved 2006-09-10.

[California_Extreme-104] "California Extreme". California Extreme. Retrieved 2006-11-24.

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 {{VG history|expandmenu=1}}
-The '''golden age of video arcade games''' was a [[Golden Age (metaphor)|peak era]] of [[arcade game|video arcade game]] popularity, innovation, and earnings. Although there is no consensus as to its exact time period, most sources place it around the early 1980s.
+The '''golden age of video arcade games''' was a [[Golden Age (metaphor)|peak era]] of [[Video game|video]] [[arcade game]] popularity, innovation, and earnings. Although there is no consensus as to its exact time period, most sources place it around the early 1980s.
 ==Overview==
@@ Line 21: / Line 21: @@
 {{see also|List of best-selling video games#Arcade|l1=List of best-selling arcade games}}
-The golden age was a time of great technical and design creativity in arcade games. Games were designed in a wide variety of [[Computer and video game genres|genres]] while developers had to work within strict limits of available processor power and memory. Prior to the golden age, the video game industry was flooded with ''Pong'' clones, which led to the [[video game crash of 1977]]. The crash eventually came to an end following the success of [[Taito Corporation|Taito]]'s ''[[Space Invaders]]'', which sparked a renaissance for the video game industry.<ref name="Whittaker-122"/>
+The golden age was a time of great technical and design creativity in arcade games. Games were designed in a wide variety of [[Computer and video game genres|genres]] while developers had to work within strict limits of available processor power and memory. Prior to the golden age, the video game industry was flooded with ''Pong'' clones, which led to the [[video game crash of 1977]]. The crash eventually came to an end following the success of [[Taito Corporation|Taito]]'s ''[[Space Invaders]]'', which sparked a renaissance for the video game industry.<ref name="Whittaker-122"/> The era saw the rapid spread of [[video arcade]]s across [[North America]], [[Europe]], and [[Asia]]. The number of video game arcades in North America, for example, more than doubled between 1980 and 1982;<ref name="Wolf-105">{{citation|title=The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond|author=Mark J. P. Wolf|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=031333868X|page=105|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XiM0ntMybNwC&pg=PA105|accessdate=2011-04-19}}</ref> reaching a peak of 13,000 video game arcades across the region (compared to 4,000 today).<ref>{{citation|work=Digital illusion: entertaining the future with high technology|chapter=30|title=Coin-Op: The Life (Arcade Videogames)|author=Mark Stephen Price (Atari Games Corporation)|publisher=[[ACM Press]]|year=1998|isbn=0201847809|url=http://www.communication.illinois.edu/csandvig/classes/Pierce.pdf|accessdate=2011-05-02|page=444}}</ref>
-The era saw the rapid spread of [[video arcade]]s across [[North America]], [[Europe]], and [[Asia]]; the number of video game arcades in North America, for example, doubled between 1980 and 1982, by which time there were some 10,000 video game arcades across the region.<ref name="Wolf-105">{{citation|title=The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond|author=Mark J. P. Wolf|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=031333868X|page=105|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XiM0ntMybNwC&pg=PA105|accessdate=2011-04-19}}</ref> Beginning with ''Space Invaders'', video arcade games also started to appear in [[supermarket]]s, [[restaurants]], [[liquor store]]s, [[gas station]]s and many other retail establishments looking for extra income.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.edge-online.com/features/the-30-defining-moments-in-gaming| title = The 30 Defining Moments in Gaming| publisher = [[Future plc]]| work = [[Edge (magazine)|Edge]]| author= Edge Staff| date = 2007-08-13| accessdate = 2008-09-18}}</ref> The sales of arcade video game machines increased significantly during this period, from $50 million in 1978 to $900 million in 1981,<ref name="Wolf-105"/> with 500,000 arcade machines sold in the United States at prices ranging as high as $3000 in 1982 alone.<ref>{{citation|title=Sociology: principles and applications|author=James A. Inciardi & Robert A. Rothman|edition=2|publisher=[[Harcourt Brace Jovanovich]]|year=1990|isbn=015582290X|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WtLZAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-20|page=540|quote=To cash in on the Pac-Man video mania, game developers also introduced Asteroids, Frogger, Donkey Kong, Tron, and hundreds more. By 1982, arcade games had become a multi-billion dollar industry. In that year alone, almost 500,000 machines were sold at prices ranging as high as $3000 each.}}</ref>
+Beginning with ''Space Invaders'', video arcade games also started to appear in [[supermarket]]s, [[restaurants]], [[liquor store]]s, [[gas station]]s and many other retail establishments looking for extra income.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.edge-online.com/features/the-30-defining-moments-in-gaming| title = The 30 Defining Moments in Gaming| publisher = [[Future plc]]| work = [[Edge (magazine)|Edge]]| author= Edge Staff| date = 2007-08-13| accessdate = 2008-09-18}}</ref> Video game arcades at the time became as common as [[convenience store]]s, while arcade games like ''Pac-Man'' and ''Space Invaders'' would appear in most locations across the United States, including even [[funeral home]]s.<ref name="Wolf-44"/> The sales of arcade video game machines increased significantly during this period, from $50&nbsp;million in 1978 to $900&nbsp;million in 1981,<ref name="Wolf-105"/> with 500,000 arcade machines sold in the United States at prices ranging as high as $3000 in 1982 alone.<ref>{{citation|title=Sociology: principles and applications|author=James A. Inciardi & Robert A. Rothman|edition=2|publisher=[[Harcourt Brace Jovanovich]]|year=1990|isbn=015582290X|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WtLZAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-20|page=540|quote=To cash in on the Pac-Man video mania, game developers also introduced Asteroids, Frogger, Donkey Kong, Tron, and hundreds more. By 1982, arcade games had become a multi-billion dollar industry. In that year alone, almost 500,000 machines were sold at prices ranging as high as $3000 each.}}</ref>
-In 1980, the arcade video game industry's revenue generated from [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarters]] tripled to $2.8 billion.<ref>{{citation|title=Electronic Education|work=Electronic Education|volume=2|issue=5-8|publisher=Electronic Communications|year=1983|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nFBRAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=2011-4-23|page=41|quote=In 1980 alone, according to Time, $2.8 billion in quarters, triple the amount of the previous years, were fed into video games.}}</ref> By 1981, the arcade video game industry was generating an annual revenue of $5 billion in North America,<ref name="Whittaker-122"/><ref>{{citation|title=The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond|author=Mark J. P. Wolf|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=031333868X|page=103|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XiM0ntMybNwC&pg=PA103|accessdate=2011-04-19}}</ref> equivalent to $12.3 billion in 2011.<ref name="Inflation">{{cite web|title=CPI Inflation Calculator|publisher=[[Bureau of Labor Statistics]]|url=http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm|accessdate=2011-03-22}}</ref> In 1982, the arcade video game industry reached its peak, generating $8 billion in quarters,<ref name="Rogers-Larsen-263">{{citation|title=Silicon Valley fever: growth of high-technology culture|author=Everett M. Rogers & Judith K. Larsen|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|year=1984|isbn=0465078214|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=frYrAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-23|page=263|quote=Video game machines have an average weekly take of $109 per machine. The video arcade industry took in $8 billion in quarters in 1982, surpassing pop music (at $4 billion in sales per year) and Hollywood films ($3 billion). Those 32 billion arcade games played translate to 143 games for every man, woman, and child in America. A recent Atari survey showed that 86 percent of the US population from 13 to 20 has played some kind of video game and an estimated 8 million US homes have video games hooked up to the television set. Sales of home video games were $3.8 billion in 1982, approximately half that of video game arcades.}}</ref> equivalent to over $18.5 billion in 2011,<ref name="Inflation"/> surpassing the annual gross revenue of both [[pop music]] ($4 billion) and [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] films ($3 billion) combined at the time.<ref name="Rogers-Larsen-263"/> The arcade video game industry would continue to generate an annual revenue of $5 billion in quarters until 1985.<ref>{{citation|title=Keeping in touch|author=[[Ellen Goodman]]|publisher=[[Summit Books]]|year=1985|isbn=0671553763|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Un7N5WbyW94C|accessdate=2011-04-23|page=38|quote=There are 95,000 others like him spread across the country, getting fed a fat share of the $5 billion in videogame quarters every year.}}</ref> [[Video game music|Music based on arcade games]] were successful, such as the "[[Pac-Man Fever (song)|Pac-Man Fever]]" song reaching #9 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]] and selling over a million singles,<ref>{{Cite news |title=Popular Computing|publisher=McGraw-Hill|date=1982: Volume 2|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,921174,00.html|accessdate=August 14, 2010|quote=Pac-Man Fever went gold almost instantly with 1 million records sold.}}</ref> while the ''[[Pac-Man Fever (album)|Pac-Man Fever]]'' album sold over a million records, with both receiving [[RIAA certification|Gold certifications]].<ref>[http://riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?resultpage=1&table=SEARCH_RESULTS&action=&title=Pac-Man_Fever&artist=&format=&debutLP=&category=&sex=&releaseDate=&requestNo=&type=&level=&label=&company=&certificationDate=&awardDescription=&catalogNo=&aSex=&rec_id=&charField=&gold=&platinum=&multiPlat=&level2=&certDate=&album=&id=&after=&before=&startMonth=1&endMonth=1&startYear=1958&endYear=2009&sort=Artist&perPage=10 RIAA Gold & Platinum Searchable Database - Pac-Man Fever]. RIAA.com. Retrieved 2009-11-01.</ref> [[List of films based on video games|Films based on arcade games]] were also moderately successful, such as ''[[Tron (film)|Tron]]'' grossing over $33 million in 1982,<ref>{{Mojo title|id=tron.htm|title=Tron (1982)}}</ref> equivalent to over $76 million in 2011.<ref name="Inflation"/>
+In 1980, the arcade video game industry's revenue generated from [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarters]] tripled to $2.8&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{citation|title=Electronic Education|work=Electronic Education|volume=2|issue=5-8|publisher=Electronic Communications|year=1983|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nFBRAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=2011-4-23|page=41|quote=In 1980 alone, according to Time, $2.8&nbsp;billion in quarters, triple the amount of the previous years, were fed into video games.}}</ref> By 1981, the arcade video game industry in the United States was generating an annual revenue of over $5&nbsp;billion<ref name="Whittaker-122"/><ref>{{citation|title=The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond|author=Mark J. P. Wolf|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=031333868X|page=103|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XiM0ntMybNwC&pg=PA103|accessdate=2011-04-19}}</ref> (equivalent to $12.3&nbsp;billion in 2011),<ref name="Inflation">{{cite web|title=CPI Inflation Calculator|publisher=[[Bureau of Labor Statistics]]|url=http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm|accessdate=2011-03-22}}</ref> with some estimates as high as $10.5&nbsp;billion for all video games (arcade and home) in the US that year, which would be three times the amount spent on movie tickets in 1981,<ref>{{citation|title=Computer-mediated communication: human relationships in a computerized world|author=James W. Chesebro & Donald G. Bonsall|publisher=[[University of Alabama Press]]|year=1989|isbn=0817304606|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Se3AAAAIAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-26|page=130|quote=In 1981, $10.5&nbsp;billion was spent on all features of video games, 3 times the amount spent on movie tickets that year (Surrey, 1982, p. 74).}}</ref> and equivalent to over $25.8&nbsp;billion in 2011.<ref name="Inflation"/> The total revenue for the worldwide arcade video game industry in 1981 had estimates ranging between $7&nbsp;billion and $35&nbsp;billion,<ref>{{citation|title=Videodisks, microcomputers form integrated systems|author=Edward S. Roschild|work=[[InfoWorld]]|date=21 Jun 1982|volume=4|issue=24|issn=0199-6649|publisher=InfoWorld Media Group|page=16}}</ref> which would be between $17.2 and $86&nbsp;billion in 2011.<ref name="Inflation"/> In 1982, the arcade video game industry's revenue in quarters was estimated between $8&nbsp;billion<ref name="Rogers-Larsen-263">{{citation|title=Silicon Valley fever: growth of high-technology culture|author=Everett M. Rogers & Judith K. Larsen|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|year=1984|isbn=0465078214|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=frYrAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-23|page=263|quote=Video game machines have an average weekly take of $109 per machine. The video arcade industry took in $8&nbsp;billion in quarters in 1982, surpassing pop music (at $4&nbsp;billion in sales per year) and Hollywood films ($3&nbsp;billion). Those 32&nbsp;billion arcade games played translate to 143 games for every man, woman, and child in America. A recent Atari survey showed that 86 percent of the US population from 13 to 20 has played some kind of video game and an estimated 8&nbsp;million US homes have video games hooked up to the television set. Sales of home video games were $3.8&nbsp;billion in 1982, approximately half that of video game arcades.}}</ref> and more than $9&nbsp;billion<ref name="Durant-1982">{{citation|title=Movie Studios Purchase Piece Of Video Game Action|work=[[The Durant Daily Democrat]]|date=July 14, 1982|page=22|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=qwlbAAAAIBAJ&sjid=A04NAAAAIBAJ&pg=1192,1139884|accessdate=2011-04-30}}</ref> (equivalent to between $18.5&nbsp;billion and $21&nbsp;billion in 2011),<ref name="Inflation"/> surpassing the annual gross revenue of both [[pop music]] ($4&nbsp;billion) and [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] films ($3&nbsp;billion) combined that year,<ref name="Rogers-Larsen-263"/><ref name="CBC-1982">{{cite web|title=Making millions, 25 cents at a time|work=[[The Fifth Estate]]|publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=November 23, 1982|url=http://archives.cbc.ca/arts_entertainment/media/clips/15869/|accessdate=2011-04-30}}</ref> as well as exceeding the revenues of all major [[sports]] combined at the time.<ref name="CBC-1982"/> This was also more than twice as much revenue as the $3.8&nbsp;billion generated by the home video game industry (during the [[History of video game consoles (second generation)|second generation of consoles]]) that same year;<ref name="Rogers-Larsen-263"/> both the arcade and home markets combined added up to a total revenue between $11.8&nbsp;billion and $12.8&nbsp;billion for the video game industry in 1982, equivalent to between $27.3&nbsp;billion and $30&nbsp;billion in 2011.<ref name="Inflation"/> In the following years, the arcade video game industry would continue to generate an annual revenue of at least $5&nbsp;billion in quarters through to 1985.<ref>{{citation|title=Keeping in touch|author=[[Ellen Goodman]]|publisher=[[Summit Books]]|year=1985|isbn=0671553763|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Un7N5WbyW94C|accessdate=2011-04-23|page=38|quote=There are 95,000 others like him spread across the country, getting fed a fat share of the $5&nbsp;billion in videogame quarters every year.}}</ref>
-Prior to the golden age, the best selling arcade video game, ''Pong'', had sold over 19,000 units,<ref>{{citation|title=Computer and Video Game Law: Cases and Materials|author=Ashley S. Lipson & Robert D. Brain|publisher=Carolina Academic Press|year=2009|isbn=1594604886|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IxNDAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-11|page=9|quote=Atari eventually sold more than 19,000 Pong machines, giving rise to many imitations. Pong made its first appearance in 1972 at "Andy Capp's," a small bar in Sunnyvale, California, where the video game was literally "overplayed" as eager customers tried to cram quarters into an already heavily overloaded coin slot.}}</ref> and generated a revenue of $14 million in 1974.<ref>{{citation|title=Business 1974: Industry: Space Age Pinball, Atari's PONG|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,952086,00.html|accessdate=2011-04-21|quote=Typical of the new games is Pong, a popular version of electronic table tennis manufactured by two-year-old Atari, Inc. (estimated fiscal 1974 revenue: $14 million) of Los Gatos, Calif. Atari sold some 8,500 games to U.S. amusement parlors and other businesses last year.}}</ref> In contrast, the [[List of best-selling video games#Arcade|best selling arcade games]] of the golden age, ''Space Invaders'' and ''[[Pac-Man]]'', had sold over 360,000<ref>{{citation|title=Asia Pacific perspectives, Japan|volume=1|author=Jiji Gaho Sha, inc.|year=2003|publisher=[[University of Virginia]]|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CTRWAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-09|page=57|quote=At that time, a game for use in entertainment arcades was considered a hit if it sold 1000 units; sales of Space Invaders topped 300,000 units in Japan and 60,000 units overseas.}}</ref> and 350,000<ref>{{cite web | url = http://classicgaming.gamespy.com/View.php?view=GameMuseum.Detail&id=261 | title = Game of the Week: ''Pac-Man'' | author = Kevin "Fragmaster" Bowen | publisher = [[GameSpy]] | year = 2001 | accessdate = 2011-04-09 | quote=Released in 1980, Pac-Man was an immediate success. It sold over 350,000 units, and probably would of sold more if not for the numerous illegal pirate and bootleg machines that were also sold.}}</ref> units, respectively, with both games also each generating revenues of more than $1 billion from quarters;<ref name="Glinert">{{citation|title=Visual programming environments: applications and issues|author=Ephraim P. Glinert|publisher=[[IEEE Computer Society Press]]|year=1990|isbn=0818689749|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NMtWAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-10|page=321|quote=As of mid-1981, according to Steve Bloom, author of Video Invaders, more than four billion quarters had been dropped into ''Space Invaders'' games around the world}}</ref><ref name="Wolf-73">{{citation|title=The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond|author=Mark J. P. Wolf|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|year=2008|isbn=031333868X|chapter=Video Game Stars: Pac-Man|page=73|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XiM0ntMybNwC&pg=PA73|accessdate=2011-04-10|quote=It would go on to become arguably the most famous video game of all time, with the arcade game alone taking in more than a billion dollars, and one study estimated that it had been played more than 10 billion times during the twentieth century.}}</ref> ''Space Invaders'' achieved this figure within three years of release,<ref name="Glinert"/> while ''Pac-Man'' did it within one year,<ref name="Barton-181">{{citation|title=Vintage games: an insider look at the history of Grand Theft Auto, Super Mario, and the most influential games of all time|author=Bill Loguidice & Matt Barton|publisher=[[Focal Press]]|year=2009|isbn=0240811461|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M_bFdsP9L7oC|accessdate=2011-04-23|page=181|quote=The machines were well worth the investment; in total they raked in over a billion dollars worth of quarters in the first year alone.}}</ref> and is estimated to have grossed over 10 billion quarters ($2.5 billion) during the 20th century.<ref name="Wolf-73"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Pac Man turns 25: A pizza dinner yields a cultural phenomenon - and millions of dollars in quarters|date=May 10, 2005|author=Chris Morris|publisher=[[CNN]]|url=http://money.cnn.com/2005/05/10/commentary/game_over/column_gaming/index.htm|accessdate=2011-04-23|quote=In the late 1990s, Twin Galaxies, which tracks video game world record scores, visited used game auctions and counted how many times the average Pac Man machine had been played. Based on those findings and the total number of machines that were manufactured, the organization said it believed the game had been played more than 10 billion times in the 20th century.}}</ref> Many other arcade games during the golden age also had unit sales at least in the tens of thousands, including ''[[Ms. Pac-Man]]'' with over 115,000 units, ''[[Asteroids (video game)|Asteroids]]'' with 70,000,<ref name="Wolf-44">{{citation|title=The medium of the video game|author=Mark J. P. Wolf||publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|year=2001|isbn=029279150X|page=44|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lKZriBxbcwQC&pg=PA44|accessdate=2011-04-09}}</ref> ''[[Donkey Kong (video game)|Donkey Kong]]'' with over 60,000,<ref name="Kent-352">{{citation|author=Steven L. Kent|year=2001|title=The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story behind the Craze that Touched Our Lives and Changed the World|publisher=[[Prima Games|Prima]]|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C2MH05ogU9oC|accessdate=2011-04-09|page=352|quote=With more than 60,000 units sold in the United States, Donkey Kong was Nintendo's biggest arcade hit. ... Nintendo released Donkey Kong Junior in 1982 and sold only 30,000 machines, 20,000 Popeye machines (also 1982), and a mere 5000 copies of Donkey J (1983).}}</ref> ''[[Defender (video game)|Defender]]'' with 55,000,<ref>{{citation|author=Steven L. Kent|year=2001|title=The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story behind the Craze that Touched Our Lives and Changed the World|publisher=[[Prima Games|Prima]]|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C2MH05ogU9oC|accessdate=2011-04-09|page=147|quote=Defender was Williams Electronics' biggest seller. More than 55,000 units were placed worldwide.}}</ref> and ''[[Galaxian]]'' with 40,000 units.<ref>{{citation|title=United States Patents Quarterly, Volume 216|work=[[United States Patents Quarterly]]|volume=216|author=[[Bureau of National Affairs]]|publisher=Associated Industry Publications|year=1983|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EbVCAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-09|quote=Since February 1980, Midway has sold in excess of 40,000 Galaxian games}}</ref> A number of arcade games also generated revenues in the hundreds of millions, including ''[[Defender (video game)|Defender]]'' with more than $100 million<ref>{{citation|title=The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond|author=Mark J. P. Wolf|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=031333868X|page=103|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XiM0ntMybNwC&pg=PA103|accessdate=2011-04-19}}</ref> and ''[[Donkey Kong (video game)|Donkey Kong]]'' with $280 million,<ref>{{citation|title=Wii Innovate - How Nintendo Created a New Market Through Strategic Innovation|author=Jörg Ziesak|publisher=[[:de:GRIN Verlag|GRIN Verlag]]|year=2009|isbn=3640497740|page=2029|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C8rHXoUCbfAC&pg=PA2029|accessdate=2011-04-09|quote=Donkey Kong was Nintendo's first international smash hit and the main reason behind the company's breakthrough in the Northern American market. In the first year of its publication, it earned Nintendo 180 million US dollars, continuing with a return of 100 million dollars in the second year.}}</ref> in addition to many more with revenues in the tens of millions, including ''[[Tron (video game)|Tron]]'' which grossed more than the film version (which grossed over $30 million),<ref>{{citation|title=The naked computer: a layperson's almanac of computer lore, wizardry, personalities, memorabilia, world records, mind blowers, and tomfoolery|author=Jack B. Rochester & John Gantz|publisher=[[William Morrow and Company]]|year=1983|isbn=0688024505|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=walFAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-20|page=164|quote=Although the Disney Studios expected to make over $400 million from this siliconic extravaganza, our source at Variety tells us that its North American rentals were $15 million and estimated total gross, $30 million. The arcade game Tron, made by Bally, grossed more.}}</ref> ''[[Dragon's Lair]]'' with $48 million, and ''[[Space Ace]]'' with $13 million.<ref name="Allgame-Dyer">{{cite web|title=Rick Dyer: Biography|publisher=[[Allgame]]|url=http://www.allgame.com/person.php?id=3332|accessdate=2011-04-10}}</ref>
+Prior to the golden age, the best selling arcade video game, ''Pong'', had sold over 19,000 [[Video game arcade cabinet|arcade cabinet]]s,<ref>{{citation|title=Computer and Video Game Law: Cases and Materials|author=Ashley S. Lipson & Robert D. Brain|publisher=Carolina Academic Press|year=2009|isbn=1594604886|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IxNDAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-11|page=9|quote=Atari eventually sold more than 19,000 Pong machines, giving rise to many imitations. Pong made its first appearance in 1972 at "Andy Capp's," a small bar in Sunnyvale, California, where the video game was literally "overplayed" as eager customers tried to cram quarters into an already heavily overloaded coin slot.}}</ref> and generated a revenue of $14&nbsp;million in 1974.<ref>{{citation|title=Business 1974: Industry: Space Age Pinball, Atari's PONG|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,952086,00.html|accessdate=2011-04-21|quote=Typical of the new games is Pong, a popular version of electronic table tennis manufactured by two-year-old Atari, Inc. (estimated fiscal 1974 revenue: $14&nbsp;million) of Los Gatos, Calif. Atari sold some 8,500 games to U.S. amusement parlors and other businesses last year.}}</ref> In contrast, the [[List of best-selling video games#Arcade|best-selling arcade games]] of the golden age, ''Space Invaders'' and ''[[Pac-Man]]'', had sold over 360,000<ref>{{citation|title=Asia Pacific perspectives, Japan|volume=1|author=Jiji Gaho Sha, inc.|year=2003|publisher=[[University of Virginia]]|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CTRWAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-09|page=57|quote=At that time, a game for use in entertainment arcades was considered a hit if it sold 1000 units; sales of Space Invaders topped 300,000 units in Japan and 60,000 units overseas.}}</ref> and 350,000<ref>{{cite web | url = http://classicgaming.gamespy.com/View.php?view=GameMuseum.Detail&id=261 | title = Game of the Week: ''Pac-Man'' | author = Kevin "Fragmaster" Bowen | publisher = [[GameSpy]] | year = 2001 | accessdate = 2011-04-09 | quote=Released in 1980, Pac-Man was an immediate success. It sold over 350,000 units, and probably would of sold more if not for the numerous illegal pirate and bootleg machines that were also sold.}}</ref> cabinets, respectively, with each machine costing between $2000 and $3000 (specifically $2400 in ''Pac-Man's'' case).<ref>{{citation|title=Video arcades rival Broadway theatre and girlie shows in NY|work=[[InfoWorld]]|date=12 April 1982|volume=4|issue=14|issn=0199-6649|page=15|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YjAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA15|accessdate=2011-05-01}}</ref> In addition, ''Space Invaders'' had grossed $2&nbsp;billion in quarters by 1982<ref name="CBC-1982"/> (equivalent to $4.6&nbsp;billion in 2011),<ref name="Inflation"/> while ''Pac-Man'' had grossed over $1&nbsp;billion within a year by 1981<ref name="Barton-181">{{citation|title=Vintage games: an insider look at the history of Grand Theft Auto, Super Mario, and the most influential games of all time|author=Bill Loguidice & Matt Barton|publisher=[[Focal Press]]|year=2009|isbn=0240811461|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=M_bFdsP9L7oC|accessdate=2011-04-23|page=181|quote=The machines were well worth the investment; in total they raked in over a&nbsp;billion dollars worth of quarters in the first year alone.}}</ref> and $2.5&nbsp;billion by the late 1990s<ref name="Wolf-73">{{citation|title=The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond|author=Mark J. P. Wolf|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|year=2008|isbn=031333868X|chapter=Video Game Stars: Pac-Man|page=73|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XiM0ntMybNwC&pg=PA73|accessdate=2011-04-10|quote=It would go on to become arguably the most famous video game of all time, with the arcade game alone taking in more than a&nbsp;billion dollars, and one study estimated that it had been played more than 10&nbsp;billion times during the twentieth century.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pac Man turns 25: A pizza dinner yields a cultural phenomenon - and millions of dollars in quarters|date=May 10, 2005|author=Chris Morris|publisher=[[CNN]]|url=http://money.cnn.com/2005/05/10/commentary/game_over/column_gaming/index.htm|accessdate=2011-04-23|quote=In the late 1990s, Twin Galaxies, which tracks video game world record scores, visited used game auctions and counted how many times the average Pac Man machine had been played. Based on those findings and the total number of machines that were manufactured, the organization said it believed the game had been played more than 10&nbsp;billion times in the 20th century.}}</ref> (equivalent to over $3.4&nbsp;billion in 2011).<ref name="Inflation"/> In 1982, ''Space Invaders'' was considered the highest-grossing entertainment product of its time, with comparisons made to the then [[List of highest-grossing films|highest-grossing film]] ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]]'',<ref name="CBC-1982"/><ref name="Executive-SW"/> which had grossed $486&nbsp;million,<ref name="Executive-SW">{{citation|title=Space Invaders vs. Star Wars|work=Executive|volume=24|publisher=Southam Business Publications|year=1982|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-KwTAQAAMAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-30|page=9|quote=They compare this to the box office movie top blockbuster Star Wars, which has taken in only $486&nbsp;million, for a net of $175&nbsp;million.}}</ref> while ''Pac-Man'' is today considered the [[List of best-selling video games|highest-grossing video game]] of all time.<ref>{{citation|title=The ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world|author=Steve L. Kent|publisher=[[Prima Publishing|Prima]]|year=2001|isbn=0761536434|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C2MH05ogU9oC|accessdate=2011-05-01|page=143|quote=Rumors emerged that the unknown creator of Pac-Man had left the industry when he received only a $3500 bonus for creating the highest-grossing video game of all time.}}</ref> Many other arcade games during the golden age also had hardware unit sales at least in the tens of thousands, including ''[[Ms. Pac-Man]]'' with over 115,000 units, ''[[Asteroids (video game)|Asteroids]]'' with 70,000,<ref name="Wolf-44">{{citation|title=The medium of the video game|author=Mark J. P. Wolf||publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|year=2001|isbn=029279150X|page=44|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lKZriBxbcwQC&pg=PA44|accessdate=2011-04-09}}</ref> ''[[Donkey Kong (video game)|Donkey Kong]]'' with over 60,000,<ref name="Kent-352">{{citation|author=Steven L. Kent|year=2001|title=The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story behind the Craze that Touched Our Lives and Changed the World|publisher=[[Prima Games|Prima]]|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C2MH05ogU9oC|accessdate=2011-04-09|page=352|quote=With more than 60,000 units sold in the United States, Donkey Kong was Nintendo's biggest arcade hit. ... Nintendo released Donkey Kong Junior in 1982 and sold only 30,000 machines, 20,000 Popeye machines (also 1982), and a mere 5000 copies of Donkey J (1983).}}</ref> ''[[Defender (video game)|Defender]]'' with 55,000,<ref>{{citation|author=Steven L. Kent|year=2001|title=The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story behind the Craze that Touched Our Lives and Changed the World|publisher=[[Prima Games|Prima]]|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C2MH05ogU9oC|accessdate=2011-04-09|page=147|quote=Defender was Williams Electronics' biggest seller. More than 55,000 units were placed worldwide.}}</ref> ''[[Galaxian]]'' with 40,000,<ref>{{citation|title=United States Patents Quarterly, Volume 216|work=[[United States Patents Quarterly]]|volume=216|author=[[Bureau of National Affairs]]|publisher=Associated Industry Publications|year=1983|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EbVCAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-09|quote=Since February 1980, Midway has sold in excess of 40,000 Galaxian games}}</ref> ''[[Donkey Kong Junior]]'' with 35,000,<ref name="Kent-352"/> ''[[Mr. Do!]]'' with 30,000,<ref>{{citation|title=The ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world|author=Steve L. Kent|publisher=[[Prima Games|Prima]]|year=2001|isbn=0761536434|page=352|quote=In 1982, Universal Sales made arcade history with a game called Mr Do! Instead of selling dedicated Mr Do! machines, Universal sold the game as a kit. The kit came with a customized control panel, a computer board with Mr Do! read-only memory (ROM) chips, stickers that could be placed on the side of stand-up arcade machines for art, and a plastic marquee. It was the first game ever sold as a conversion only. According to former Universal Sales western regional sales manager Joe Morici, the company sold approximately 30000 copies of the game in the United States alone.}}</ref>
+and ''[[Popeye (video game)|Popeye]]'' with 20,000 units.<ref name="Kent-352"/> A number of arcade games also generated revenues (from quarters) in the hundreds of millions, including ''Defender'' with more than $100&nbsp;million<ref>{{citation|title=The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond|author=Mark J. P. Wolf|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=031333868X|page=103|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XiM0ntMybNwC&pg=PA103|accessdate=2011-04-19}}</ref> and ''Donkey Kong'' with $280&nbsp;million,<ref>{{citation|title=Wii Innovate - How Nintendo Created a New Market Through Strategic Innovation|author=Jörg Ziesak|publisher=[[:de:GRIN Verlag|GRIN Verlag]]|year=2009|isbn=3640497740|page=2029|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C8rHXoUCbfAC&pg=PA2029|accessdate=2011-04-09|quote=Donkey Kong was Nintendo's first international smash hit and the main reason behind the company's breakthrough in the Northern American market. In the first year of its publication, it earned Nintendo 180&nbsp;million US dollars, continuing with a return of 100&nbsp;million dollars in the second year.}}</ref> in addition to many more with revenues in the tens of millions, including ''[[Dragon's Lair]]'' with $48&nbsp;million and ''[[Space Ace]]'' with $13&nbsp;million.<ref name="Allgame-Dyer">{{cite web|title=Rick Dyer: Biography|publisher=[[Allgame]]|url=http://www.allgame.com/person.php?id=3332|accessdate=2011-04-10}}</ref>
 The most successful arcade game companies of this era included Taito (which ushered in the golden age with the [[shooter game]] ''Space Invaders''<ref name="Kent-500"/> and produced other successful arcade [[action game]]s such as ''[[Gun Fight]]'' and ''[[Jungle Hunt|Jungle King]]''), [[Namco]] (the Japanese company that created ''Galaxian'', ''Pac-Man'', ''[[Pole Position]]'' and ''[[Dig Dug]]'') and [[Atari]] (the company that introduced video games into arcades with ''Computer Space'' and ''Pong'', and later produced ''Asteroids'').  These companies wrestled for the top slot in American arcades for several years. Other companies such as [[Sega]] (who later entered the home console market against its former arch rival, Nintendo), [[Nintendo]] (whose [[mascot]], [[Mario]], was introduced in 1981's ''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''), [[Midway Games|Bally Midway Manufacturing Company]] (which was later purchased by Williams), [[Capcom]], [[Cinematronics]], [[Konami]], [[Centuri]], [[Williams (gaming company)|Williams]] and [[SNK Playmore|SNK]] also entered around this era.
@@ Line 37: / Line 38: @@
 The Golden Age also saw developers experimenting with [[vector monitor|vector displays]], which produced crisp lines that couldn't be duplicated by [[raster graphics|raster display]]s. An early example of [[vector graphics]] was Sega's 1978 release ''[[Shoot 'em up#Origins and rise|Space Ship]]'', a [[multi-directional shooter]] space combat game.<ref>{{KLOV game|12823|Space Ship}}</ref> A few of these vector games became great hits, such as [[1980 in video gaming|1980]]'s ''[[Battlezone (1980 video game)|Battlezone]]'' and ''[[Tempest (arcade game)|Tempest]]'' and [[1983 in video gaming|1983]]'s ''[[Star Wars (1983 video game)|Star Wars]]'' from Atari, as well as 1982's ''[[Star Trek (arcade game)|Star Trek]]'' from Sega. Another notable example was Sega's 1981 release ''[[Eliminator (video game)|Eliminator]]'', the only four-player vector game ever created,<ref name="Wolf-69">{{citation|author=Mark J. P. Wolf|year=2008|title=The video game explosion: a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XiM0ntMybNwC&pg=PA69&lpg=PA69|page=69|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=031333868X|accessdate=2011-03-28}}</ref> and featuring color vector graphics as well as both cooperative and competitive [[multiplayer]].<ref>{{KLOV game|7704|Eliminator}}</ref> Sega's ''[[Space Fury]]'' that year also featured colour vector graphics, in addition to [[speech synthesis]].<ref>{{KLOV game|7704|Space Fury}}</ref> However, vector technology fell out of favor with arcade game companies due to the high cost of repairing vector displays.
+This period also saw significant advances in [[digital audio]] technology. ''Space Invaders'' in 1978 was the first game to use a continuous [[Video game music|background soundtrack]], with four simple [[Diatonic and chromatic|chromatic]] descending [[bass note]]s repeating in a loop, though it was dynamic and changed pace during stages.<ref>{{Cite book|title=From Pac-Man to pop music: interactive audio in games and new media|author=Karen Collins|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]]|year=2008|isbn=0754662004|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lFEYAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-08|page=2}}</ref> ''Rally-X'' in 1980 was the first game to feature continuous [[Video game music|background music]],<ref name="GamesRadar-2">{{cite web|url=http://www.gamesradar.com/f/gamings-most-important-evolutions/a-20101008102331322035/p-2|title=Gaming's Most Important Evolutions|page=2|publisher=[[GamesRadar]]|date=October 8, 2010|accessdate=2011-04-27}}</ref> which was generated using a dedicated [[sound chip]], a Namco 3-channel [[Programmable sound generator|PSG]].<ref>{{KLOV game|9259|Rally-X}}</ref> That same year saw the introduction of [[speech synthesis]], which was first used in ''[[Stratovox]]'', released by [[Sunsoft|Sun Electronics]] in 1980,<ref name="GamesRadar-2"/> followed soon after by Namco's ''[[King & Balloon]]'', which was an early example of [[Multi-core processor|dual-core processing]], using two [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] [[microprocessor]]s, the second to drive a [[Digital-to-analog converter|DAC]] for speech.<ref>{{KLOV game|8311|King & Balloon}}</ref>
 Developers also experimented with [[laserdisc]] players for delivering [[full motion video based game]]s with movie-quality animation.  The first [[laserdisc video game]] to exploit this technology was [[1983 in video gaming|1983]]'s ''[[Astron Belt]]'' from Sega,<ref name="AtariHQ">{{cite web|title=ASTRON BELT|publisher=Atari HQ|url=http://www.atarihq.com/coinops/laser/astbelt.html|accessdate=2011-03-25}}</ref><ref name="Astron-Belt">{{allgame|9550|Astron Belt}}</ref> soon followed by ''[[Dragon's Lair]]'' from [[Cinematronics]]; the latter was a sensation when it was released (and, in fact, the laserdisc players in many machines broke due to overuse). While laserdisc games were usually either [[shooter game]]s with full-motion video backdrops like ''Astron Belt'' or [[interactive movie]]s like ''Dragon's Lair'', [[Data East]]'s 1983 game ''[[Bega's Battle]]'' introduced a new form of video game storytelling: using brief full-motion video [[cutscene]]s to develop a story between the game's shooting stages, which would years later become the standard approach to video game storytelling. By the mid-1980s, the genre dwindled in popularity, as laserdiscs were losing out to the [[VHS]] format and the laserdisc games themselves were losing their novelty,<ref name="Fahs">{{cite web|title=The Lives and Deaths of the Interactive Movie|author=Travis Fahs|publisher=[[IGN]]|date=March 3, 2008|url=http://uk.retro.ign.com/articles/856/856379p2.html|accessdate=2011-03-11}}</ref> due to their linearity and, in many cases, depending less on reflexes than on memorizing sequences of moves.
@@ Line 50: / Line 53: @@
 ==Popular culture==
-Some games of this era were so popular that they entered the [[popular culture]]. The release of ''[[Pac-Man]]'' in [[1980 in video gaming|1980]] caused such a sensation that it initiated what is now referred to as "Pac-Mania" (which later became the title of the last coin-operated game in the series, released in [[1987 in video gaming|1987]]). Released by [[Namco]], the game featured a yellow, circle-shaped creature trying to eat dots through a maze while avoiding pursuing enemies. Though no one could agree what the "hero" or enemies represented (they were variously referred to as ghosts, goblins or monsters), the game was extremely popular; there are anecdotes to the effect that some game owners had to empty the game's coin bucket every hour in order to prevent the game's coin mechanism from jamming from having too many coins in the receptacle. The game spawned an animated television series, numerous clones, ''Pac-Man''-branded foods, toys, and a hit pop song, ''[[Pac-Man Fever (album)|Pac-Man Fever]]''. Though many popular games quickly entered the lexicon of popular culture, most have since left, and ''Pac-Man'' is unusual in remaining a recognized term in pop culture, along with ''Donkey Kong'', ''Mario Bros.'', and ''[[Frogger]]''.
+Some games of this era were so popular that they entered the [[popular culture]]. The first to do so was ''[[Space Invaders]]''. Following its release in 1978, the game caused a national shortage of [[100 yen coin]]s in Japan, leading to a production increase of coins to meet demand for the game.<ref name="GWR08-2">{{cite book| editor= Craig Glenday| title= Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008| series= [[Guinness World Records]]| date= 2008-03-11| publisher= Guinness| isbn= 978-1-904994-21-3| pages= 106–107| chapter= Record Breaking Games: Shooting Games Roundup}}</ref><ref name="guardian">{{cite web| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2005/jul/24/games.shopping| title=A life through video games| publisher=[[Guardian Media Group]]| work=[[The Observer]]| author=Richards, Giles |date=2005-07-24| accessdate=2008-05-22}}</ref> It would soon have a similar impact in North America, where it has appeared or is referenced in numerous facets of popular culture. The game that had the biggest impact on popular culture in North America was ''[[Pac-Man]]''. Its release in [[1980 in video gaming|1980]] caused such a sensation that it initiated what is now referred to as "Pac-Mania" (which later became the title of the last coin-operated game in the series, released in [[1987 in video gaming|1987]]). Released by [[Namco]], the game featured a yellow, circle-shaped creature trying to eat dots through a maze while avoiding pursuing enemies. Though no one could agree what the "hero" or enemies represented (they were variously referred to as ghosts, goblins or monsters), the game was extremely popular; there are anecdotes to the effect that some game owners had to empty the game's coin bucket every hour in order to prevent the game's coin mechanism from jamming from having too many coins in the receptacle. The game spawned an animated television series, numerous clones, ''Pac-Man''-branded foods, toys, and a hit pop song, ''[[Pac-Man Fever (album)|Pac-Man Fever]]''. The game's popularity was such that President [[Ronald Reagan]] congratulated a player for setting a record score in ''Pac-Man''.<ref name="mitchell">Ramsey, David. "[http://web.archive.org/web/20080229043301/http://www.oxfordamericanmag.com/content.cfm?ArticleID=58&Entry=Home The Perfect Man - How Billy Mitchell became a video-game superstar and achieved Pac-Man bliss]." ''Oxford American'', issue 53. Spring 2006.</ref> Though many popular games quickly entered the lexicon of popular culture, most have since left, and ''Pac-Man'' is unusual in remaining a recognized term in pop culture, along with ''Space Invaders'', ''[[Donkey Kong]]'', ''[[Mario Bros.]]'', and ''[[Frogger]]''.
+Arcade games also had an impact on the [[music industry]], revenues for which had declined by $400&nbsp;million between 1978 and 1981 (from $4.1 billion to $3.7 billion), a decrease that was directly credited to the rise of arcade games at the time.<ref name="Durant-1982"/> In addition, [[Video game music|music based on video games]] were successful, such as the "[[Pac-Man Fever (song)|Pac-Man Fever]]" song reaching #9 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]] and selling over a&nbsp;million singles in 1982,<ref>{{Cite news |title=Popular Computing|publisher=McGraw-Hill|date=1982: Volume 2|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,921174,00.html|accessdate=August 14, 2010|quote=Pac-Man Fever went gold almost instantly with 1&nbsp;million records sold.}}</ref> while the ''[[Pac-Man Fever (album)|Pac-Man Fever]]'' album sold over a&nbsp;million records, with both receiving [[RIAA certification|Gold certifications]].<ref>[http://riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?resultpage=1&table=SEARCH_RESULTS&action=&title=Pac-Man_Fever&artist=&format=&debutLP=&category=&sex=&releaseDate=&requestNo=&type=&level=&label=&company=&certificationDate=&awardDescription=&catalogNo=&aSex=&rec_id=&charField=&gold=&platinum=&multiPlat=&level2=&certDate=&album=&id=&after=&before=&startMonth=1&endMonth=1&startYear=1958&endYear=2009&sort=Artist&perPage=10 RIAA Gold & Platinum Searchable Database - Pac-Man Fever]. RIAA.com. Retrieved 2009-11-01.</ref> The booming success of video games at the time led to music magazine ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' listing the 15 top-selling video games alongside their record charts by 1982.<ref name="Enterprise-1982">{{citation|title=Cash In On the Video Game Craze|work=[[Black Enterprise]]|date=December 1982|volume=12|issue=5|issn=0006-4165|pages=41-2|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=N6pacvfrf0wC&pg=PA41|accessdate=2011-05-01}}</ref> Arcade games also had an impact on the [[film industry]], as arcade video games, beginning with ''Space Invaders'', began appearing at many [[movie theater]]s,<ref name="Wolf-44"/> while early [[List of films based on video games|films based on video games]] were also produced and gained moderate success, most notably ''[[Tron (film)|Tron]]'', which grossed over $33&nbsp;million in 1982<ref>{{Mojo title|id=tron.htm|title=Tron (1982)}}</ref> (equivalent to over $76&nbsp;million in 2011),<ref name="Inflation"/> began the [[Tron (franchise)|''Tron'' franchise]] which included a [[Tron (video game)|video game adptation]] that grossed more than the film,<ref name="Gantz-164">{{citation|title=The naked computer: a layperson's almanac of computer lore, wizardry, personalities, memorabilia, world records, mind blowers, and tomfoolery|author=Jack B. Rochester & John Gantz|publisher=[[William Morrow and Company]]|year=1983|isbn=0688024505|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=walFAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=2011-04-20|page=164|quote=Although the Disney Studios expected to make over $400&nbsp;million from this siliconic extravaganza, our source at Variety tells us that its North American rentals were $15&nbsp;million and estimated total gross, $30&nbsp;million. The arcade game Tron, made by Bally, grossed more.}}</ref> and inspired the use of [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] by Hollywood film studios such as [[Pixar]].<ref name="Thompson">{{cite web|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/digital/visual-effects/are-tron-legacys-3d-fx-ahead-of-their-time|title=What Will Tron: Legacy’s 3D VFX Look Like in 30 Years?|last=Thompson|first=Anne|date=December 9, 2010|work=Tron Legacy VFX  Special Effects in Tron Legacy|publisher=[[Popular Mechanics]]|accessdate=24 December 2010}}</ref><ref name="awm-lasseter">{{cite web |last=Lyons |first=Mike |title=Toon Story: John Lasseter's Animated Life |url=http://www.awn.com/mag/issue3.8/3.8pages/3.8lyonslasseter.html |work=Animation World Magazine |accessdate=13 October 2010 |month=November |year=1998 }}</ref>
 ==Strategy guides==
-The enormous popularity of video arcade games also led to the very first video game strategy guides; these guides (rare to find today) discussed in detail the patterns and strategies of each game, including variations, to a degree that few guides seen since can match. "Turning the machine over"&mdash;making the score counter overflow and reset to zero&mdash;was often the final challenge of a game for those who mastered it, and the last obstacle to getting the highest score.
+The period saw the emergence of a gaming media, publications dedicated to video games, in the form of [[video game journalism]] and [[strategy guide]]s.<ref name="CBC-1982"/> The enormous popularity of video arcade games led to the very first video game strategy guides;<ref name="Ludington-1982">{{cite web|title=Learn The Code Book And Beat Video Games|work=[[Ludington, Michigan#Media|Ludington Daily News]]|date=March 1, 1982|page=25|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HZpaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=j0sDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4643,3691324|accessdate=2011-04-30}}</ref> these guides (rare to find today) discussed in detail the patterns and strategies of each game, including variations, to a degree that few guides seen since can match. "Turning the machine over"&mdash;making the score counter overflow and reset to zero&mdash;was often the final challenge of a game for those who mastered it, and the last obstacle to getting the highest score.
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+Some of these strategy guides sold hundreds of thousands of copies at prices ranging from $1.95 to $3.95 in 1982<ref name="Ludington-1982"/> (equivalent to between $4.52 and $9.15 in 2011).<ref name="Inflation"/> That year, Ken Uston's ''Mastering Pac-Man'' sold 750,000 copies, reaching #5 on [[B. Dalton]]'s mass-market [[bestseller]] list, while Bantam's ''How To Master the Video Games'' sold 600,000 copies, appearing on the ''[[The New York Times]]'' mass-market paperback list.<ref name="Ludington-1982"/>
 ==List of most popular games==