Communist state

This article is about one-party states governed by Communist parties. For information regarding communism as a form of society, as an ideology advocating that form of society, or as a popular movement, see the main Communism article.

A Communist state is a state governed by a single political party which declares allegiance to the principles of Marxism-Leninism. This Communist Party, as it is known, holds a monopoly on political power.

The leaders of Communist states have generally referred to their states as socialist states, not Communist states. In Marxist political theory, communism is defined as a classless, egalitarian, and stateless society, while socialism is the transitional phase between capitalism and communism that consists of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Communist states have traditionally practiced planned economy.

Disputes over definition of a "Communist state"

See also: Socialist republic

Some writers argue that the term "Communist state" is an oxymoron. These writers treat the term as synonymous with Communism's theoretical goal of stateless communism, a society that is propertyless, classless, and stateless [1], where everyone works according to their ability and receive according to their need. Marx and Engels's theory does, however, include a transitional phase known as the dictatorship of the proletariat. The Communist state claims to be the practical enactment of this dictatorship of the proletariat.

Certain socialists have rejected the idea that historical Communist Party states represented genuine communism, claiming that their governments became corrupt and distorted communist ideals. Trotskyists, for example, were opposed to the Soviet government following Joseph Stalin's consolidation of power, as well as the Communist Party states established by the USSR in Eastern Europe following World War II. Other leftists, such as anarcho-communists, have also opposed historical Communist Party state, similarly arguing that their governments were oppressive and corrupt.

There have been and still exist countries where Communist Parties have come to power through democratic elections, and ruled in the context of a multi-party democracy.

Historical examples

Global expansion of Communist states by date of establishment.

  1920s and 1930s

  1940s and 1950s

  1960s and 1970s

In the 20th century, a number of Communist Parties based on Marxist-Leninist ideology established governments in various countries. In those countries, the aforementioned Communist parties made themselves the only legal political parties.

The history of Communist states is often closely related to the history of non-Communist governments, and to the history of the Communist movement in general. As such, the following historical account is not restricted to Communist states:

Following the October Revolution in 1917, which established what later became the Soviet Union, there was a revolutionary wave throughout Europe. Communist revolutions, uprisings or attempted uprisings took place in many European countries. However, Russian Communists, engaged in the Russian Civil War, were unable to provide any significant support to communist movements outside Russia. Eventually, in the first decades after the Russian revolution, only five revolutions outside Russia were able to take power, and these for short periods of time. They resulted in the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic in 1918, the Bavarian Soviet Republic from November 1918 until May 3 1919, the Slovak Soviet Republic in 1919, the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, and the Persian Soviet Socialist Republic from 1920 to 1921. All of them were soon abolished, and with the defeat of the Red Army in the Polish-Soviet War in 1920, the Russian Communists were forced to abandon any plans of military aid to Communist movements in Europe. On the other side of the world, Mongolia had been a protectorate of the Russian Empire from its independence from China in 1912 until 1919, when the Chinese reasserted control during the chaos of the Russian Civil War. The Russian monarchist White Army regained control in 1921, but was driven out by the Red Army that same year. Mongolia was not absorbed into the Soviet Union, but was renamed the People's Republic of Mongolia and became the Soviet Union's first satellite state in 1924. Another example of Communist state was the Tuvinian People's Republic establlished in 1921 and absorbed into the Soviet Union in 1944.

From 1924 until World War II, there were no successful Communist revolutions, and no more Communist states were established.

Most of the Communist states in the world were established in the aftermath of World War II in Eastern Europe, either in countries which were liberated from the Nazis by the Soviet Red Army, or in countries where Communist-led partisans succeeded in driving out the Nazis and taking power themselves. The Red Army arranged for the establishment of Communist governments in Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Romania, which became Soviet satellites. Communist partisans established Communist governments which were initially pro-Soviet in Albania and Yugoslavia. Furthermore, in East Asia, the Red Army joined the war against Japan and established a Communist state in North Korea.

With Soviet military aid, Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War and established the People's Republic of China in 1949. The First Indochina War led to the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in northern Vietnam in 1954. Later, the Vietnam War ended with the defeat of South Vietnam by the North Vietnamese Army and the establishment of a unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1975. The broader Indochina conflict also saw Communist states established in Laos and Cambodia in 1975, though the latter government (known as Democratic Kampuchea) was toppled in a Vietnamese invasion and denounced by Vietnam and its Communist allies. (see Khmer Rouge)

In 1959, the Cuban Revolution eventually led to the first Communist state being established in the Western Hemisphere, the Republic of Cuba. Some also call Nicaragua under the Sandinista National Liberation Front and Grenada under the New Jewel Movement "Communist States" as both nations came under Marxist military junta control in 1979.

A civil war led to the establishment of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen in southern Yemen in 1969.

For several years, Communist states also existed in Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Angola, Mozambique, Benin, Somalia, and the Republic of the Congo.

By the early 1980s, nearly one third of the world's population in 25 nations was ruled by Communist governments (due largely to the size of Russia and China).

There have been several wars or military conflicts between Communist states: the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the Prague spring, the Sino-Soviet border conflict, the Ogaden War, the Cambodian-Vietnamese War and the Sino-Vietnamese War.

However, due to internal economic problems, foreign entanglements, and pressures for reform, the Soviet Union itself was growing increasingly unstable. In the late 1980s, Eastern Europe grew increasingly unstable as pro-westerners rose up against their governments, and in 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. Only Yugoslavia survived the fall.

As of 2006, there are five Communist states in the world: China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam. Despite a common Communist ideology, they possess certain distinct characteristics, both politically and economically.

Post Soviet states

Some post-Soviet states retain some of the features of a Communist state. Moldova has been governed since 2001 by an elected Communist Party. It does not qualify as a Communist state in the context of this article, because the Communist Party exists as one of multiple parties and does not have a monopoly on political power. Turkmenistan and Belarus have retained many of the authoritarian characteristics of the Soviet-era. However, while Belarus maintains a large degree of state ownership, the Belarus Communist Party does not hold a monopoly on political power, holding only 8 seats in a 110 seat legislature. Turkmenistan's ruling party does hold a monopoly on political power, but the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan has supported market reforms and large-scale privatization. None of these post-Soviet examples have retained a Soviet-style command economy.

Communist theories and ideologies of government

See also the articles on Marxism, Leninism, Trotskyism, Stalinism, Maoism, and Juche.

Communist states base themselves on a form of Marxist-Leninist ideology. All historical Communist states that existed for significant periods of time during the 20th century had their roots in either Soviet-inspired Marxism-Leninism or Maoism. Whether these states were faithful to Marxism is a matter of dispute. Trotskyists have been vocal communist opponents of the Stalinist and post-Stalinist Soviet Union, and Maoism on the grounds that they were perversions of Marxism-Leninism and communist ideals.

Marxism holds — among other things — that human history has had and will have a developmental structure, alternating between slow development of technology/economy (and the according philosophy/religion) and short periods of rapid change in technology and economy (as well as philosophy and, sometimes, religion.) The short periods of rapid change take place immediately after revolutions of one kind or another.

Marx envisioned communism as the final evolutionary phase of society at which time the state would have withered away. He specified that the workers should rise up to destroy capitalism and replace it with socialism, a transitional stage during which the state is to gain control over all means of production on behalf of the proletariat. Marx theorized that socialism would give way to communism, a classless society in which full collective ownership has been attained and the state no longer plays a role.

Communist states have never actually claimed to have reached communism. They described themselves as socialist states in which the working people's will was represented through the Communist Party and (affiliated) mass organizations. This is because Marxist theory says a society cannot advance from capitalism to communism overnight. A transitional stage is needed. (see dictatorship of the proletariat).

Leninist theory, developed by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, emphasises the role of a well-organized group of revolutionaries in planning and carrying out the transition to socialism. According to Leninism, a Communist party must be organized along the principles of democratic centralism in order to maximize efficiency. Leninism departs from original Marxist theory in arguing that the revolution will not begin in the most advanced capitalist countries, but in poor, underdeveloped countries where the capitalist ruling class is weakest. From there, the revolution would need to spread quickly to the advanced industrialized nations, who would provide the underdeveloped country with the resources necessary to build socialism.

With these principles in mind, right after the Russian Revolution, Lenin argued that the success of socialism in Russia depended on the victory of socialist revolutions in other countries (most notably the German Revolution.) However, all the socialist revolutions that flared up across Europe in the years 1918-1922 were crushed. Russia found itself alone in its attempt to build socialism.

Lenin did not live long enough to formulate a solution to this problem. Instead, the role fell on his successors, the most notable of whom were Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin. Trotsky proposed his thesis of the "permanent revolution," while Stalin proposed "socialism in one country." Over the following years, Stalin gradually succeeded in eliminating his ideological opponents (including Trotsky) and taking over the Soviet government. He upheld and implemented the idea of "socialism in one country," which argued that socialism could and should be built in the Soviet Union without the help of other nations.

Throughout the 1930s, Stalin created the State and Party structure on which all subsequent Communist states were to be based. Power was centralized in his hands, and democratic centralism was gradually removed from the decision-making process of the Communist Party (a process which culminated in the Great Purge.)

Later, the ideology of Mao Zedong in the People's Republic of China (Maoism) diverged from traditional Stalinism by emphasizing the peasantry over the urban proletariat in both the revolution and post-revolutionary development.

Communist governments have historically been characterized by state ownership of productive resources in a planned economy and sweeping campaigns of economic restructuring such as nationalization of industry and land reform (often focusing on collective farming or state farms.) While they promote collective ownership of the means of production, Communist governments have been characterized by a strong state apparatus in which decisions are made by the ruling Communist Party. Dissident communists have characterized the Soviet model as state socialism or state capitalism.

Further, critics have often claimed that a Stalinist or Maoist system of government creates a new ruling class, usually called the nomenklatura.

Relationship between party and state

Political scientists have developed the concept of the Communist state to reflect claims made by Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and others that the revolutionary state must be led by the dictatorship of the proletariat, in which the working class is represented by the Communist Party. In practice, according to this theory, state and the party are effectively identical, and govern all aspects of the society.

In the Soviet Union for example, the General Secretary of the Communist Party did not necessarily hold a state office. Instead party members answerable to or controlled by the party held these posts, often as honorific posts as a reward for their long years of service to the party. On other occasions, having governed as General Secretary, the party leader might assume a state office in addition. For example, Mikhail Gorbachev initially did not hold the presidency of the Soviet Union, that office being given as an honor to a former Soviet Foreign Minister.

Within Communist states there have rarely been restrictions on state power, resulting in state structures which are either totalitarian or authoritarian. Marxist-Leninist ideology views restrictions on state power to be an unnecessary interference in the goal of reaching communism. Dissident communists have argued that a state with absolute power naturally becomes corrupt and is thus incapable of moving society toward communism.

Communist states have maintained a large secret police apparatus to closely monitor the population and silence those deemed "enemies of the state." Arrest, torture, "reeducation," and summary execution are all methods that have been employed. Some political scientists have argued that there are deep similarities between Communist states and fascist ones and that both are examples of totalitarian states.

The nature of each individual Communist state differs widely both between countries and within each individual state. States that incorporate the policies and techniques of the orthodox Stalinist state of the 1930s are characteristically more totalitarian, impoverished, militaristic, and static, as can be seen in North Korea and Communist Albania. States such as China have benefitted from market reforms introduced by the Communist Party, but attempts to dramatically reform the Soviet Union under Mikhail Gorbachev contributed to its collapse as the Communist Party was unable to maintain its grip on power.

The People's Republic of China and to a lesser extent Vietnam and Laos have all moved toward market reforms after the command economy failed to produce necessary development.

Criticism and advocacy

See also: Criticisms of communism

Advocates of Communism praise Communist parties for running countries that have sometimes leapt ahead of contemporary "capitalist" countries, offering guaranteed employment, health care and housing to their citizens. Critics of communism typically condemn Communist states by the same criteria, claiming that all lag far behind the industrialized West in terms of economic development and living standards.

Central economic planning has in certain instances produced dramatic advances, including rapid development of heavy industry during the 1930s in the Soviet Union (a belated industrialisation) and later in their space program. Another example touted by Communists is the development of the pharmaceutical industry in Cuba. Early advances in the status of women were also notable, especially in Islamic areas of the Soviet Union. See Gregory J. Massell, The Surrogate Proletariat: Moslem Women and Revolutionary Strategies in Soviet Central Asia: 1919–1929, Princeton University Press, 1974, hardcover, 451 pages, ISBN 069107562X. Critics however cite counter-examples: the failure of the Soviet Union to achieve the same kind of development in agriculture (forcing the Soviet Union to become a net importer of cereals after the Second World War), as well as the continued poverty of other Communist states such as Laos, Vietnam or Maoist China. Indeed, they point out that China only achieved high rates of growth after introducing Capitalist economic reforms — a sign, claim the critics, of the superiority of Capitalism.

The rigid execution of economic plans has had negative results, such as the 5 year plans in the Soviet Union, the total focus on agrarian reform at the expense of industrialisation in China and the plans to achieve an enormous sugar production at all cost in Cuba in the 1960's, which left the rest of the economy in shambles.

Other claims include generous social and cultural programs, often administered by labor organizations. Universal education programs have been a strong point, as has the generous provision of universal health care. This is illustrated by the high levels of literacy enjoyed by Eastern Europeans (in comparison, for instance, with Southern Europe), Cubans or Chinese. Critics charge that Communist compulsory education was replete with pro-Communist propaganda and censored opposing views. Critics also note that the Communist states do not compare favourable when comparing states with similar culture and economic development before the Communist takeover. Examples include North Korea vs. South Korea; China vs. Hong Kong and Taiwan; and East Germany vs. West Germany.

Critics also point out that some Communist states have been involved in the destruction of cultural heritage: Romania (planned destruction of historical centres of most towns — partially achieved in Bucharest), China (repression of Tibetan culture, destructions during the Cultural Revolution) and the Soviet Union (destruction, abandon or reconversion of religious buildings) are the most cited examples.

Also pointed out are environmental disasters which, critics claim, were due to the Communist governments in place. The most cited example is the disappearance of the Aral Sea in today's Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, which is believed to have been caused by the diversion of the waters of its two affluent rivers for cotton production. This is, however, at least partly due to the belated industrialisation in the Soviet Union.

The Soviet practice of making it illegal to quit one's job, to hire a dissident, or to hire relatives, is regarded by the critics as tantamount to slavery.

In the Soviet Union scientific research was at a high level, as illustrated by the space program and the fact that one third of the world's scientific literature was written in Russian. Critics, however, argue that the Communist states corrupted science. One example is censorship and revisionism of history. Others are Lysenkoism and Japhetic theory.

Many of the Communist states used an extensive network of civilian informants to spy on their own population. Critics argue that this created a society where no one could trust other citizens, who might report real or fabricated criticism of the Communist system to the secret police.

Another objection is the practice in some Communist states of classifying internal critics of the system as having a mental disease and incarcerating them in mental hospitals.

The personality cults of many of the leaders of Communist states and the fact that in some cases the leadership of the state has become inherited has also been criticized.

Critics argue that the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the Prague spring, and the 1956 Hungarian Revolution were imperialistic wars where military force crushed popular uprisings against the Communist system.

Extensive historical research has documented large scale human rights violations that occurred in these states, particularly during the regimes of Stalin and Mao, but starting immediately after the October Revolution during the regime of Lenin and to have continued to occur in all communist states during their existence. Most prominent being deaths due to executions, forced labor camps, genocides of certain ethnic minorities, and mass starvations caused by either government mismanagement or deliberately. The exact number of deaths caused by these regimes is disputed, but extensive historical research shows at least tens of millions (see, e.g., the estimates reached in The Black Book of Communism and the references below). Other widespread criticism concern the documented lack of freedom of speech in Communist Party regimes, religious and ethnic persecutions, lack of democracy and systematic use of torture. And although the birth control program in China may have averted a demographic disaster, it was also a violation of human rights.

The restriction of emigration has also been criticized, the most prominent example being the Berlin Wall.

Others find this approach simplistic, noting that executions, forced labor camps, the repression of ethnic minorities, and mass starvation were patterns in both Russian and Chinese history before their respective Communist takeovers. Critics argue that past evils in an old regime cannot be used to justify new ones; otherwise supporters of Hitler could justify his deeds by pointing to past human rights crimes by the German Empire in Africa. Also, communists may argue that (Capitalist) western countries have gathered much of their wealth through exploitation of workers, slavery and imperialism.

Many Marxists and some Marxist-Leninists argue that most Communist states do not actually adhere to Marxism but rather to a version heavily influenced by Stalinism, which sharply diverges in practice from the humanistic philosophy of Marxist revolutionaries. This critique is common, for example, amongst democratic socialists and some critical theorists who hold that Marxism is correct as a social and historical theory, but that it can only be implemented within a multiparty democracy. Trotskyists similarly argue that the bureaucratic and repressive nature of Communist states differs from Lenin's vision of the socialist state. Some Marxists (for example Milovan Djilas, James Burnham) described Communist states as systems in which a new powerful class of party bureaucrats emerged, exercised complete control over the means of production, and exploited the working class. This new ruling class is usually called the nomenklatura.

List of current Communist states

A map showing the current Communist states.

The following countries are generally considered to be Communist states according to the way the term has been generally used since World War II as they are states in which a ruling Communist Party has a monopoly on political power. The degree to which these states are socialist is a matter of contention due to differing definitions of socialism but it is generally acknowledged that they are Soviet-style systems emulating the former Soviet Union. Even so, there is a wide degree of variation from the People's Republic of China, on one end, which follows market socialism, to North Korea, which follows a system similar to Stalinism and practices a rigid command economy.

Current Communist states and their ruling parties are:

• People's Republic of China (since 1949); Communist Party of China
• Republic of Cuba (Cuban Revolution in 1959, socialist state declared in 1961); Communist Party of Cuba
• Lao People's Democratic Republic (since 1975); Lao People's Revolutionary Party
• Democratic People's Republic of Korea (since 1948); Korean Workers' Party
• Socialist Republic of Vietnam (since 1976); Communist Party of Vietnam

Even though Hong Kong since 1 July 1997 and Macao since 20 December 1999 are Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China (communist state), Hong Kong and Macao are not communist areas. The Republic of China (Taiwan) holds multi-party elections, so it is also not a communist area.

Many post-Soviet states retain some characteristics of Communist states. See above.

Other countries, such as Burma, have been run by military juntas which have constructed parties which they describe as socialist to support their regimes. In some cases, these states have been supported by communist states, but they are not included here.

See also: List of Communist parties

Defunct Communist states

Defunct Communist states and their ruling parties (where applicable) (see also Soviet Republic):

State	Founded	Disbanded	Ruling party	Notes
Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic	1918	1922	Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic and Labour Party	Founded as a result of the October Revolution.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics	1922	1991	Communist Party of the Soviet Union	See also Republics of the Soviet Union for various Soviet republics, some of them short-lived, which were eventually included into the USSR.
Soviet Republic of Naissaar	December 1917	February 1918		On an island in the Baltic.
Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic	January 1918	April 1918	Social Democratic Party of Finland	In the south of Finland only.
Räterepubliken	November 1918	November 1918		"Council Republics" (named after the Workers and Soldiers' Councils that ruled them) established throughout Germany, beginning in Kiel, during the German Revolution
Alsace Soviet Republic	November 8, 1918	November 22, 1918		Founded by a sailors' mutiny that formed a Workers and Soldiers Council that took power- inspired by Kiel revolt
Slovak Soviet Republic	1918	1919
Hungarian Soviet Republic	1919	1919	Hungarian Communist Party
Bavarian Soviet Republic	1919	1919	Independent Social Democratic Party	Also known as the Munich Soviet Republic
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic	July 9 1920	September 21 1920		Created in Soviet occupied territory during the Polish-Soviet War.
Persian Soviet Socialist Republic	June 1920	September 1921		Also known as the Soviet Republic of Gilan
Mongolian People's Republic	1924	1992	Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party
Hunan Soviet	ca 1927	ca 1927	Communist Party of China
Tuvinian People's Republic	1929	1944	Tuvan People’s Revolutionary Party	annexed to the USSR in 1944 (as Tuvinian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)
Chinese Soviet Republic	1931	1934	Mao Zedong's faction of the Communist Party of China	Also known as the "Jiangxi Soviet"
Finnish Democratic Republic	1939	1940	Communist Party of Finland	Also known as the Terijoki Government, established in parts of Finland occupied by the Soviet Union during the Winter War
Poland	1944	1989	Polish United Workers Party	Name changed to "People's Republic of Poland" in 1952
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	1945	1992	League of Communists of Yugoslavia	Democratic Federal 1945–1946; Federal People's Republic 1946–1963;Socialist Federal Republic 1963–1992
Democratic Republic of South Azerbaijan	1945	1946	Azerbaijani Democratic Party
People's Socialist Republic of Albania	1946	1991	Albanian Party of Labour	People's Republic 1946–1976; People's Socialist Republic 1976–1991
People's Republic of Bulgaria	1946	1990	Communist Party of Bulgaria
Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam)	1946	1976	Communist Party of Vietnam	Incorporated into Socialist Republic of Vietnam
Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia	1948	1990	Communist Party of Czechoslovakia	People's Republic 1948–1960; Socialist Republic 1960–1990
German Democratic Republic	October 7, 1949	October 3, 1990	Socialist Unity Party of Germany	Finally merged into the Federal Republic of Germany in German reunification
People's Republic of Hungary	1949	1989	Hungarian Workers Party (until 1956), Hungarian Socialist Workers Party
Socialist Republic of Romania	1947	1989	Romanian Communist Party (Romanian Workers' Party prior to 1965)	People's Republic 1947–1965; Socialist Republic 1965–1989
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen	1969	1990	Yemeni Socialist Party
People's Republic of Congo	1970	1992	Congolese Labour Party	Communist rule 1969–1992; Congolese Labour Party, only legal party 1979–1991
Somali Democratic Republic	1969	1991	Supreme Revolutionary Council or SRC from 1969–1976; Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party from 1976–1991	Officially declared socialist in 1970
People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia	1974	1991	Workers' Party of Ethiopia also called Ethiopian Workers' Party	Communist rule 1974–1991, People's Democratic Republic formally established in 1987
People's Republic of Benin	1975	1989	People's Revolutionary Party of Benin or PRPB	Marxism abandoned 1989, one party rule until 1990
Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam	1975	1976	Communist Party of Vietnam	Incorporated into Socialist Republic of Vietnam
Democratic Kampuchea	1975	1979	Khmer Rouge
People's Republic of Angola	1975	1992	Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola-Labour Party popularly known as the MPLA
People's Republic of Mozambique	1975	1990	Mozambican Liberation Front popularly known as FRELIMO
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan	1978	1992	People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan
People's Republic of Kampuchea	1979	1989	Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party
Grenada, People's Revolutionary Government	1979	1983	New Jewel Movement	"Jewel" stands for Joint Endeavour for Welfare, Education, and Liberation

Sometimes the Paris Commune (1870–1871) is also classified as a Communist state, since Karl Marx described it as a living example of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

See also

• Coordinatorism
• Single-party state
• List of communist countries
• Dictatorship
• Democracy
• Human rights
• Soviet Empire

References and further reading

• Andrew G. Walder (ed.) Waning of the Communist State: Economic Origins of the Political Decline in China & Hungary (University of California Press, 1995) hardback. (ISBN 0520088514)
• Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartosek, Jean-Louis Panne, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stephane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, September, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0674076087
• Anne Applebaum, Gulag: A History, Broadway Books, 2003, hardcover, 720 pages, ISBN 0767900561
• Slavenka Drakulic, How We Survived Communism and Even Laughed, W. W. Norton (1992), hardcover, ISBN 0393030768; trade paperback, Harpercollins (1993), ISBN 0060975407 Women of communist Yugoslavia.
• János Kornai, The Socialist System. The Political Economy of Communism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992

References on human rights violations by Communist states

• Becker, Jasper (1998) Hungry Ghosts : Mao's Secret Famine. Owl Books. ISBN 0805056688.
• Conquest, Robert (1991) The Great Terror: A Reassessment. Oxford University Press ISBN 0195071328.
• Conquest, Robert (1987) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195051807.
• Courtois,Stephane; Werth, Nicolas; Panne, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674076087.
• Hamilton-Merritt, Jane (1999) Tragic Mountains: The Hmong, the Americans, and the Secret Wars for Laos, 1942-1992 Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253207568.
• Jackson, Karl D. (1992) Cambodia, 1975–1978 Princeton University Press ISBN 069102541X.
• Kakar, M. Hassan (1997)Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982 University of California Press. ISBN 0520208935.
• Khlevniuk, Oleg & Kozlov, Vladimir (2004) The History of the Gulag : From Collectivization to the Great Terror (Annals of Communism Series) Yale University Pres. ISBN 0300092849.
• Natsios, Andrew S. (2002) The Great North Korean Famine. Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 1929223331.
• Nghia M. Vo (2004) The Bamboo Gulag: Political Imprisonment in Communist Vietnam McFarland & Company ISBN 0786417145.
• Pipes, Richard (1995) Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. Vintage. ISBN 0679761845.
• Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (2006) Res. 1481 Need for international condemnation of crimes of totalitarian communist regimes
• Rummel, R.J. (1997). Death by Government. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1560009276.
• Rummel, R.J. (1996). Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Transaction Publishers ISBN 1560008873.
• Rummel, R.J. & Rummel, Rudolph J. (1999). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. Lit Verlag ISBN 3825840107.
• Todorov, Tzvetan & Zaretsky, Robert (1999). Voices from the Gulag: Life and Death in Communist Bulgaria. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0271019611.
• Yakovlev, Alexander (2004). A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300103220.

External links

Official websites

• Cubaweb
• Granma Internacional
• DPR Korea

Other websites

• Marxist Internet Archive

Critical

• Crimes of Soviet Communists
• How many did the communist regimes murder?
• The Black Book of Communism
• Museum of Communism FAQ
• Communism