Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
File:Ataturk23.jpg
1st 2nd 3rd 4th terms President
In office 1923, 1927, 1931, 1935 – 1927, 1931, 1935, 1938
Succeeded by	İsmet İnönü
1st term Prime Minister
In office 3 May 1920 – 24 January 1921
Succeeded by	Fevzi Çakmak
1st term Speaker of the Parliament
In office 1920–1923
Succeeded by	Ali Fethi Okyar
1st Leader of the R.P.P.
In office 1921–1938
Succeeded by	Ali Fethi Okyar
Personal details
Born	350px 1881 Selânik (Thessaloniki)
Died	November 10, 1938 Dolmabahçe Palace, İstanbul
Resting place	350px
Nationality	Turkish
Political party	Republican People's Party
Spouse	Lâtife Uşaklıgil (1923–25)
Parent	350px
Signature	File:SignitureofMKAtaturk.png

Template:Infobox Mustafa Kemal Ataturk extension Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881 – November 10, 1938), army officer, revolutionary statesman, the founder of the Republic of Turkey and its first President. Mustafa Kemal established himself as a successful military commander while serving as a division commander in the Battle of Gallipoli of World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire at the hands of the Allies, and the subsequent plans for its partition, Mustafa Kemal led the Turkish national movement in what would become the Turkish War of Independence. His successful military campaigns led to the liberation of the country and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. Kemal implemented what is known as Atatürk's Reforms which led to sweeping changes in the political, economic and cultural sphere of the Kemalist state, striving to create a modern, democratic and secular state based on Western principles of governance.

Mustafa Kemal or commonly "Kemal Pasha" was his name until his resignation from his post in the Ottoman Empire. During the independence war the Turkish National Assembly assigned the title Gazi, hence Gazi Mustafa Kemal. On November 24, 1934 he was presented by the Turkish National Assembly with the surname "Atatürk" (meaning "Father Turk" or "Ancestor Turk"), hence Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

Early life

Atatürk was born in 1881, in the Ottoman city of Selânik (Thessaloniki in present-day Greece), the son of a minor official who became a timber merchant. In accordance with the then prevalent Turkish custom, he was given a single name, Mustafa. His father, Ali Rıza Efendi, was a customs officer who died when Mustafa Kemal was seven and it was left to his mother Zübeyde Hanım, to raise the young Mustafa.

When Atatürk was 12 years old, he went to military schools in Selânik and Manastır (now Bitola, Republic of Macedonia), centres of discontent towards the Ottoman administration. Mustafa studied at the military secondary school in Selânik, where the additional name Kemal ("perfection" or "maturity", not an uncommon name) was given to him by his mathematics teacher in recognition of his academic excellence. Mustafa Kemal entered the military academy at Manastır in 1895. He graduated as a lieutenant in 1905 and was posted to Damascus under the command of the 5th Army. In Damascus, he soon joined a small secret revolutionary society of reform-minded officers called Vatan ve Hürriyet (Motherland and Liberty) and became an active opponent of the Ottoman regime. In 1907, he attained the rank of captain and was posted to the 3rd Army in Manastır. During this period he joined the Committee of Union and Progress, commonly known as the Young Turks. The Young Turks seized power from the Sultan Abdul-Hamid II in 1908, and Mustafa Kemal became a senior military figure.

In 1910, he took part in the Picardie army maneuvers in France, and in 1911, he served at the Ministry of War in Istanbul. Later in 1911, he was posted to the province of Trablusgarp to participate in the defense against the Italian invasion. Following the successful defense of Tobruk on December 22, 1911, he was appointed the commander of Derne on March 6, 1912.

He returned to Istanbul following the outbreak of the Balkan Wars in October 1912. During the First Balkan War, he fought against the Bulgarian army at Gallipoli and Bolayır on the coast of Thrace (Turkish: Trakya), and played a crucial role in the recapture of Edirne and Didymoteicho during the Second Balkan War. In 1913 he was appointed military attaché to Sofia, partly to remove him from the capital and its political intrigues, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1914.

Military career in World War I

Further information: [[:Middle Eastern theatre of World War I]]

Battle of Gallipoli, 1915

Kemal commanded 19^th division at Battle of Gallipoli, which he faced with nearly all the landings

In 1914, the German Marshal Otto Liman von Sanders was assigned the defence of the Dardanelles in command of the 5^th Army. Kemal was subsequently promoted to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel and given the task of organizing and commanding the 19^th Division attached to 5^th Army. With his division stationed in Gallipoli (Turkish: Gelibolu), Kemal found himself at the centre of the Allies attempt to force their way on the peninsula.

Mustafa Kemal in Gallipoli with soldiers, 1915.

On 8 January 1915, the British War Council decided to launch an operation "to bombard and take the Gallipoli peninsula with Istanbul as its objective". Between 19-25 February, during an initial British scouting, a sergeant named "Mehmet" rushed a British sailor with a rock, when his rifle was jammed. Kemal publicized this incident to improve the morale of his soldiers and gave birth to the term "Turkish: Mehmetçik", which is used today as a nickname for Turkish soldiers. In April 1915, during the first stage of landings, Kemal held off allied forces at Chunuk Bair (Turkish: Conkbayırı), which earned him the rank of "full" Colonel. The second stage of the Gallipoli campaign that was opened on August 6, put Kemal only three hundred meters away from the firing line. Before the war ended he was the commander at the major battles; Anzac Cove, Chunuk Bair, Scimitar Hill, Sari Bair.

While ironically the evacuation was the greatest Allied success, on the Ottoman Empire side Halil Sami (9^th division) at Cape Helles, Esat Bülkat (III Corps), Yakup Şevki Subaşı (XV Corps), Otto Liman von Sanders (5^th Army) and Enver Pasha (Minister of War) had significant achievements based on their role toward the defense of straits. However, Kemal became the outstanding front-line commander and gained much respect from his former enemies for his chivalry in victory. The Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Memorial has an honoured place on ANZAC Parade in Canberra, Australia. Kemal's commemorating speech on the loss of thousands of Turkish and Anzac soldiers in Gallipoli stays at Anzac Cove.

File:Attaturkswords.JPG

Words of Atatürk at the Anzac Cove commemorating the loss of thousands of Turkish and Anzac soldiers in Gallipoli

Those heroes that shed their blood and lost their lives… you are now lying in the soil of a friendly country. Therefore rest in peace. There is no difference between the Johnnies and the Mehmets where they lie side by side here in this country of ours… You the mothers who sent their sons from far away countries, wipe away your tears. Your sons are now lying in our bosom and are in peace. Having lost their lives on this land they have become our sons as well.

Caucasus Campaign, 1916

Following the Battle of Gallipoli, Mustafa Kemal served in Edirne until April of 1916.

On April 1, 1916, he was given the command of XVI corps of 2^nd Army and sent to the Caucasus Campaign, with the rank of Brigadier General. Most historians believe that Enver Pasha deliberately delayed his promotion. In 1916 the Russian Caucasus army had two branches. Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich was in north and moving toward Trabzon while pushing the 3^rd Army. 2^nd Army was on the south facing the insurgency and two organized military forces; Russian army under General Tovmas Nazarbekian and the detachment Armenian volunteer units controlled by Andranik Toros Ozanian. When Kemal assigned to his post, these forces were in constant advance and an Armenian provisional government was formed with a progressive autonomous region . The Armenian administration was growing from its initial set up around Lake Van. When Kemal arrived to the region Aram Manougian was controlling occupied regions since the beginning from the early Van Resistance. The initial stages of the Battle of Bitlis and the Battle of Muş were already developed and these centers were captured by opposing forces. The region was inhospitable at the best of times. Communication lines were under insurgency attacks. It was hard to find craftsmen to fix things. Kurds were roaming round towns whose social fabric had been destroyed. Hundreds of thousands of refugees, many of them Kurds, which had a bitter relations to Armenian units, came flooding in front the advancing armies. Kemal's initial task was to bring presence (order) to the scared people so that his Corps can function under this human suffering. Kemal succeeded in recapturing Muş and Bitlis. In September, he had to retreat from Muş under the heavy advance of Armenian volunteer units.

During his command, Kemal concentrated on inspection of the hospitals to check the wounded, the mosques which became the centers for helping refugees, alongside of the strategic goal to confine the enemy within the mountainous region. Same year as a recognition of his military achievement and the improvement of stability of the region, he was given the medal golden sword of the order of "Imtiyaz". On March 7, 1917, He was appointed from command of XVI corps to the 2^nd Army.

Sinai and Palestine Campaign, 1917

File:Palestine-WW1-3-Kemals HQ.png

Sinai and Palestine Campaign in 1918, which Kemal was commanding 7^th Army from Nablus.

His command to the 2nd Army was cut short, as he was transfered to Sinai and Palestine Campaign. He was assigned to the 7^th Army. After a short visit to the 7^th Army HQ, he returned to Istanbul on October 7. He joined the crown prince Mehmed Vahdettin on a visit to Germany. During this trip he fell ill and stayed in Vienna for a medical treatment.

He returned to Aleppo on August 28, 1918. He resumed the command of the 7^th Army. His headquarters were in Nablus Palestine. He was under Liman von Sanders, whose group headquarters were in Nazaret. Afher he studied Syria throughly once again and visited the front line... His conclusion was that Syria is in a pitiable state (the 1915-1917 period had 500,000 Syrian casualties to famine). There is no (overall Ottoman) civil governor or commander. Instead, there was an abundance of English propaganda and English secret agents are everywhere. The people hate the government and look forward to the arrival of the English as soon as possible. The enemy was stronger than his forces were in men and equipment. He said "We are like a cotton thread drawn across his path."

Mustafa had Arab Revolt in his hand, which was organized by Great Britain. Liman von Sanders lost the Battle of Megiddo from the first day leaving 75,000 POW behind. Now, Allenby and Kemal's 7^th Army were face to face. Kemal retreated east, towards the Jordan. In couple days the total size of the deserters reached to 300,000 . Kemal's war was changed drastically from fighting against allies to fighting against disintegration. After a furious telegram to Sultan, "if we have a fool like Enver Pasha had not been the director-general of operations. If we did not have a commander (Ahmet Cemal Pasha) at the head of military force that abandoned the army. If above them we did not have group headquarters (Liman von Sanders) that lost the control within the first day of the battle... Now there is nothing left to do but to make peace. Kemal was appointed to the command of Yıldırım Orduları, replacing Liman von Sanders. Established his headquarters at Katma and succeeded in regaining control. He managed to resist at south of Aleppo, at the mountains. He stopped the advancing British forces (last engagements of the campaign), which Kemal's line became base of the peace agreement. Kemal's last active service to Ottoman Empire was organizing what was left behind in the southern part.

Partitioning of the Empire, 1918

See also: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire

Kemal in Aleppo, 1918

On 30 October, 1918 the Ottomans capitulated to the Allies with the Armistice of Mudros. Beginning with the armistice, the creation of the modern Arab world and Turkey began. As a reaction to the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish people waged an independence war to create the modern Turkey as soon as possible. The Arab rejection to the armistice developed later, which had established the independent Arab countries of Syria, Iraq, Kuwait, Palestine, Jordan, and Lebanon.

At the end of the war, Kemal was 37 years old. He was known as a difficult man, ambitious and willful, proven to be correct in his every assessment, he had his signature in every front and big achievements (except the Mesopotamian campaign), and finally become the General that had the control of the biggest front, Yıldırım Orduları. The Yıldırım Orduları was dissolved in compliance to armistice and Kemal returned to an occupied Istanbul on November 13, 1918. He was given an administrative position at the Ministry of War.

The English, Italian, French and Greek forces, leaving only a part of Central Anatolia as Turkish territory began to occupy the Anatolia. Occupation of Istanbul along with the occupation of İzmir mobilized the establishment of the Turkish national movement and the Turkish War of Independence.

Independence

Main article: Turkish War of Independence

Initial organization (May 1919-March 1920)

Further information: [[:Initial Organization]]

File:WithFirstMPs1920.JPG

Members of the first Assembly with Kemal, Ankara, 23 April 1920

Establishment of the Turkish national movement was the first goal in Kemal's mind. The occupations generated disorganized local oppositions which were through numerous militant resistance groups and unions. Most of these oppositions faced with Allied crack downs. Some of their leaders were exiled to Malta, Malta exiles. Sultan kept his title during the occupation of Istanbul and to escape from allied pressure initiated the Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919-20.

Kemal's active participation to resistance began with his assignment as a General Inspector the East army. He task was to oversee the demobilisation. This assignment put him to an ideal position for organization of the resistance . Kemal stepped in Anatolia at May 19. Interpreting his powers liberally, contacted with local leaders and started issuing orders to provincial governors and military commanders — calling on them to resist occupation. In June 1919, he and his close friends issued the Amasya Circular which described why Istanbul's authority was illegitimate.

The British were alarmed when they learned of Kemal's activities. On June 23 High Commissioner Admiral Cathrope sent a report to the British Foreign Office. The following communications brought the Ottoman government's order for the execution of Kemal. On July 8 he resigned from the Ottoman Army, while he was in Erzurum. Erzurum was the gateway and the portal to Turkish tribes migrating to Eastern Anatolia. It was having the Erzurum Congress at the time. Kemal was declared a "Honorary Native" and freeman of the city, which issued him the first citizenship registration and certificate. Kemal became the city's deputy. The Sivas Congress, established after Erzurum, honored Kemal with the speaker title. Kemal called for a national election to establish a new parliament that would sit in Ankara. Nationalist call for the election was achieved. However, the assembly (Ottoman parliament) gathered in Istanbul, without Kemal. He decided to stay in Ankara.

The last Ottoman parliament declared the Misak-ı Milli (12 February 1920) and the coming days brought its dissolution by the British then subsequently the Sultan.

Jurisdictional Conflict (March 1920 - March 1922)

Further information: [[:Jurisdictional Conflict]]

File:AtaturkAndIsmetInonuAugust1922.jpg

Kemal and İsmet before the Battle of Dumlupınar

Kemal used the dissolution of the parliament as a chance to establish a new Assembly in Ankara. The first session of the "Grand National Assembly of Turkey" gathered on 23 April 1920. Kemal become its President. The goal that was declared was to liberate the sultan, that was in 1920.

A "jurisdictional conflict" occurred between Istanbul and the newly established parliament. This two entity had different policies (views), which had extended to the rejection of the Treaty of Sèvres, 10 August 1920, signed by the Istanbul. The Treaty of Sèvres signed between the Ottomans and the Allies further set up the occupation of Anatolia and caused a big drop in the legitimacy of the Istanbul government. Occupations were unacceptable. Kemal used this very effectively against the sultanate. Popular sovereignty passed with the new constitution of 1921. Constitution of 1921 gave the Kemal tools to wage independence war, as it refuted the principles of the Treaty of Sèvres by assigning the legality to the the nation, not to the monarch or its representative (Ottoman government). Kemal was an established military strategist. He persuaded assembly to gather a national Army.

The conflict between the national Army, under Marshal Kemal, was faced Allies on three fronts; Franco-Turkish, Greco-Turkish, Turkish-Armenian. One of these was the western front with Greece, where Turkish forces fell back in good order to the Sakarya River, eighty kilometers from the Grand National Assembly. Atatürk took personal command and decisively defeated the Greeks in the twenty-day Battle of Sakarya from August to September 1921. Final victory over the Greeks came in the Battle of Dumlupınar on August 30, 1922.

Stage for Peace (March 1922- April 1923)

Further information: [[:Stage for Peace]]

On the political front, Kemal signed the Treaty of Kars (October 23, 1921) with the Soviet Union - a treaty of friendship in which Turkey ceded the city of Batumi, in present-day Georgia — to Lenin's Bolsheviks in return for sovereignty over the cities of Kars and Ardahan, which were lost to Tsarist Russia in Russo-Turkish War of 1877–8.

The achievement at the fronts transfered to the negotiations at the Conference of Lausanne. İsmet İnönü was the leading negotiator at the Lausanne, while Kemal was doing the same with the Assembly in Ankara. There were deputies of the Assembly which demanded that peace can not be reached until the Misak-i Milli was established. Kemal was lenient to left some territories to a later time. Through the Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey finally entered a period of peace, despite irredentist opposition in the Assembly and elsewhere on July 24, 1923.

State

For the conceptual analysis see Kemalist ideology

The three heads of the State

The Treaty of Lausanne ended the Turkish Independence war and brought the Turkish Independence. However, the war to modernize the country had just started. Institutions and constitutions of western states like France, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland were to be adapted.

The nature of the state, its organization and its functions are summarized in Kemalist ideology. The Kemalist ideology is designated as an ideology of modernization based on realism and the pragmatism is evident .

Kemal saw the consequences of fascist and communist doctrine in the 1920s and 1930s and rejected both . As the time gets close to end of 1930s the Italian and German fascist models were also rejected, as new republic exposed to influence of these states. On may 1935, followers of these new idealist faced with "Who is to elect these bullies?" by Kemal. Kemal prevented the spread of totalitarian party rule which held sway in the Soviet Union, Germany and Italy. However, this was performed by silencing of the views and putting the state in the center. Some perceived it as the silencing of opposition, some perceived as preventing the rule of extremeness to the majority.

Early years of the Republic

Mustafa Kemal was 42 years old, when the "Republic of Turkey" was declared on October 29, 1923. At the declaration, public cheered 'We are returning to the days of the first caliphs'. Kemal managed to place Fevzi Çakmak, Kazım Özalp and İsmet İnönü in the important seats which helped him to establish reforms that were impossible to foresee in 1923.

In the first years of the republic, it was not just the old regime that wanted to resurface, new ideologies like communism represented by Nazım Hikmet and his colleagues were surfacing, as well. Mustafa Kemal and Turkish revolutionaries were representing straightforward spirit of Anatolia as opposed to cosmopolitan Istanbul and it's Ottoman heritage . Kemal was determined not to jeopardize the outcome of the Turkish Independence war after the fall of the Ottoman Empire..

On March 3, 1924, institution of caliphacy was abolished.

In 1925, partly in response to the Shaikh Said Rebellion of Shaikh Said Piran, the Maintenance of Order Law was passed, giving Atatürk the authority to shut down subversive groups.

Economical Policies

For the conceptual analysis see Economic reforms

Kemal supported large scale government subsided industrial complexes, such as Sümerbank, increasingly after Great Depression

Kemal instigated economical policies not just to develop small and large scale businesses but also to create social strata that was virtually non-existent during the Ottoman Empire. However, it needs to be mentioned that the primary problem of state (Kemalist state politics) was the lag in the development of political institutions behind social and economic change .

State intervention, 1923-1929

File:Ataturk-Nazilli-factory-opening.jpg

As part of his "full independence" program, he supervised economical developments

Mustafa Kemal and Inonu were the ones that promote the state projects. Their goal was to knit the country together, eliminate the foreign control of the economy, and improve the communications. Istanbul, a trading port with international foreign enterprises, was deliberately abandoned and resources channeled to other cities . The choices that Mustafa Kemal made on economical policies were reflection of the realities of its time; Anatolian economy was based on agriculture, with primitive tools and methods; roads and transportation facilities were far from sufficient; management of economy was inefficient. Turkish State Railways, and banks like Sümerbank and Etibank were founded.

The Great Depression, 1929

The Great Depression was very hard on Turkey. The young republic found itself in crises: The country could not finance essential imports; its currency was shunned; zealous revenue officials seized the meager possessions of peasants who could not pay their taxes. Kemal faced with the same problems all the countries faced; political upheaval. The Liberal Republican Party come out with a liberal program and proposed that state monopolies should be ended, foreign capital should be attracted, and that state investment should be curtailed. Kemal supported Inonu's point of view. Inonu "It is impossible to attract foreign capital for essential development". However, the effect of free republicans felt strong and state intervention was replaced with moderate state intervention, which was not close to capitalism; but a form of state capitalism. Kemal's one of the radical left-wing supporter Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu (Kadro movement (The Cadre)) claimed that Kemal found a third way between capitalism and socialism in his Marxist journal.

Political Reforms

For the conceptual analysis see Political reforms and Legal reforms

Kemal public speech, 1924

What Kemal cultivated between 1919-1920 was much more advanced than the Ottoman Empire's experience with the democracy (first constitutional and second constitutional era). Kemal promised to have a "direct government by the assembly" in 1920. Kemal defended the idea that the power of constitution (sovereignty) originates from the national assembly (national sovereignty) and not from the absolute monarch of the Ottoman Empire. The assembly solidified Kemal's position in the constitution of 1921.

File:YouthGoingWest.jpg

TIME 21 February 1927. TIME's rebuttal to Mustafa Kemal's reaction to US rejection of Laussanne Treaty

File:Time Ataturk.JPG

TIME March 24, 1923. Atatürk, the title reads 'Where is a Turk his own master?'

The activities towards national sovereignty intensified during 1923 with the initial backbone of legislative, judicial, and executive structures began to establish. Kemal took the position that country needed an immense task of reconstruction and this required the ability to make choices among policies. Idea of "direct government by the assembly" did not survive in this environment. The day before the Republic announced, Kemal defended the idea that there was a need in establishing a government with a Prime minister along side of President.

Kemal presenting the Nutuk at the Assembly

For Kemal total independence was not negotiable. In his view this had three dimensions at that time. Kemal defended the position that a democracy can not be formed without the economic independence. Kemal was working on the abolishment of capitulations during the Conference of Lausanne. Kemal was adamant: the capitulations had to go, and with them all unequal concessions to foreigners and minorities, all outside interference. Kemal locked the Conference of Lausanne until the French and Italian economic demands changed. Another issue was the position of Caliph. Kemal wanted to integrate the power(s) of Caliphate into the powers of Assembly, and his initial activities began at January 1 1924. He worked at three fronts, development of a civic law, education system and the caliph himself. Regarding the civic law: "We must liberate our concepts of justice, our laws, our legal institutions from the bonds which hold a tight grip on us, although these bonds are incompatible with the needs of our century." Kemal acquired the consent of İnönü, Çakmak and Özalp before abolition of the caliphate. March 1 1924 at the assembly; "The religion of Islam be elevated by ceasing to be a political instrument, as had been the case in the past." The next coming days the assembly moved the powers of Ottoman Caliphate into itself, see Abolishment. As far as Kemal's only involvement to the rest of this process came at a speech days after, which he said "There is no need to look at them as something extraordinary."

The political system was based on the single party politics. The only party was the Republican People's Party ("Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkası" in Turkish) which was founded by Mustafa Kemal in September 9, 1923. The basic structure of a democracy; elections, assembly, government with a PM and president was established under the Kemal's leadership. The extend of his leadership is sometimes questioned. There are historians claim that Kemal did not promote democracy, yet as his biographer notes "Between the two wars, democracy could not be sustained in many richer and better-educated societies. Atatürk's enlightened authoritarianism left a reasonable space for free private lives. More could not be expected in his lifetime."

Introducing Democracy

Kemal responding to an "arzuhal", 1930

Kemal's cultural revolution caused opposition. In 1925 to ease the social tensions another party was seen as a chance. Mustafa Kemal asked Kazım Karabekir to establish the Progressive Republican Party as an opposition party in the assembly, and the first two party era began. The party's economic program suggested liberalism as contrast to state socialism. The party's social program was conservatism as contrast to modernism. Leaders of the party strongly supported the Kemalist revolution in principle but had different opinions on the cultural revolution and secularism.

After some time, the new party was taken over by people Atatürk considered fundamentalists. Soon after the Shaikh Said rebellion, the Progressive Republican Party was disestablished under a new law, an act Mustafa Kemal claimed was necessary for preserving the Turkish state. The closure of the party was seen by some later biographers, such as Harold C. Armstrong, as an act of dictatorship.

Kemal giving the opening speech at the 1935 RPP congress

On August 11, 1930, Mustafa Kemal decided to try a democratic movement once again. He assigned Ali Fethi Okyar to establish a new party. In Mustafa Kemal's letter to Ali Fethi Okyar, laicism was insisted on. At first, the brand-new Liberal Republican Party succeeded all around the country. But once again the opposition party became too strong in its opposition to Atatürk's reforms, particularly in regard to the role of religion in public life. Finally Ali Fethi Okyar abolished his own party and Mustafa Kemal never succeeded in democratising the parliamentary system. He sometimes dealt sternly with opposition in pursuing his main goal of democratizing the country.

Reforms

Main article: Atatürk's Reforms

Mustafa Kemal capitalized on his reputation as an efficient military leader and spent his following years, up until his death in 1938, instituting a variety of wide-ranging and progressive political, economic, and social reforms, transforming Turkish society from seeing itself as a group of Muslim subjects of a vast Empire into defining itself as the citizens of a modern, democratic, and secular nation-state.

President Ataturk of the Sovereign Turkish State leaving the Parliament Building after a meeting

The reforms included, foremost, the proclamation of the new Turkish state as a republic on October 29, 1923, giving the Turkish nation the right to exercise popular sovereignty by representative democracy. Paving the way for the proclamation of the republic was the abolition of the powers of the Ottoman Dynasty which had ruled since 1383, and ordering the last members of the dynasty to leave the country, on November 1, 1922. Also during this process, the Caliphate (the nominal leadership of all Muslims in the world) held by the Ottoman Sultan since 1517 was abolished on March 3, 1924.

The leading legal reforms instituted by Mustafa Kemal included the complete separation of government and religious affairs and the adoption of a strong interpretation of the principle of laïcité in the constitution. This was coupled with the closure of Islamic courts and the replacement of Islamic canon law with a secular civil code modeled after Switzerland and a penal code modeled after the Italian Penal Code. The reforms instituted legal equality between the sexes and the granting of full political rights to women on December 5, 1934, well before several other European nations.

Another important part of Atatürk's reforms encompassed his emphasis on the Turkish language and history, leading to the establishment of Turkish Language Association and Turkish Historical Society for research on Turkish language and history, during the years 1931–2. On November 1, 1928, the new Turkish alphabet was introduced by the Language Commission at the initiative of Atatürk, replacing the previously used Arabic script. The adoption of the new alphabet, combined with the opening of Public Education Centers throughout the country and the active encouragement of people by Atatürk himself with many trips to the countryside teaching the new alphabet, succeeded in achieving a substantial increase of the public literacy rate from 20% to over 90%. The literacy reform was also supported by strengthening the private publishing sector with a new Law on Copyrights and congresses for discussing the issues of copyright, public education and scientific publishing.

Reforms in the field of economy included the establishment of many state-owned factories throughout the country for agriculture, machine, and textile industries, many of which grew into successful enterprises and became privatized during the latter half of 20th century. Atatürk considered the development of a national rail network as another important step for industrialization, and this was addressed by the foundation of Turkish State Railways in 1927, setting up an extensive rail network in a very short timespan.

Mustafa Kemal regarded the fez (in Turkish "fes", which Sultan Mahmud II had originally introduced to the Ottoman Empire's dress code in 1826) as a symbol of feudalism and banned it, encouraging Turkish men to wear European attire. Notwithstanding the strong Islamic proscription against alcoholic beverages, he encouraged domestic production of alcohol and established a state-owned spirits industry. He was known to have an appreciation for the national beverage, rakı, and enjoyed it in vast quantities.

Atatürk's reforms were regarded as being too rapid by some. In his quest to modernize Turkey, he effectively abolished centuries-old traditions by means of reforms to which much of the population was unaccustomed but nevertheless willing to adopt. In some cases, these reforms were seen as benefiting the urban elites rather than the generally illiterate inhabitants of the rural countryside, where religious sentiments and customary norms tended to be stronger. In particular, Atatürk's strict religious reforms met with some opposition; and to this day, they continue to generate a considerable degree of social and political tension. In the future, political leaders would draw upon dormant forces of religion in order to secure positions of power, only to be blocked by the interventions of the powerful military (as in 1960 when Prime Minister Adnan Menderes was overthrown by the military), which has always regarded itself as the principal and most faithful guardian of secularism.

Kurds criticize Atatürk for disregarding their cultural distinctions in pursuing a Turkish national identity. See #Atatürk and the Kurds for more details.

Cultural Revolution

See also: Atatürk's Reforms and People of Turkey

Kemal vising Pertek People's House

The first public mention of the Kemal's program to implement cultural revolution came at the Bursa speech. "A nation which does not practice science, such a nation, one must admit has no place in the high road of civilization. But our nation with its true qualities deserves to become and will become civilized and progressive."

Mustafa Kemal capitalized on his reputation as the nations father to institute a variety of wide-ranging reforms transforming Turkish society from seeing itself as a group of Muslim (Ottoman Muslim Millet) subjects of a vast Empire into defining itself as the citizens of a modern, democratic, and secular nation-state; the "People of Turkey".

Educational Reforms

For the conceptual analysis see Educational reforms

Kemal's idea of national development was all encompassing, see Educational reforms. Besides general education, he was interested in forming a background (skill base) in the country through adult education. In a Bursa 1925, Kemal asked to train waiters in providing the table service, which this training should cover etiquette and economics". His adult education ideas find its way in People's Houses. Turkish women were thought not only child care, dress-making and household management, but also the tools which they can use to become part of general economy.

Social Reforms

For the conceptual analysis see Social reforms

Kemal's women's social integration program; Teaching knitting to integrate women into economy

It is evident from his personal journal that Kemal began to develop the concepts of his social revolution very early. Kemal constantly discussed with his staff on issues like abolishing the veiling of women and integration to females to social life and developed conclusions. In November 1915, to his journal "The social change can come by (1) educating capable mothers; knowledgeable about life; (2) giving freedom to women. (3) A man can change, his morals, thoughts, and feelings by leading a common life with a woman as there is an inborn tendency towards the attraction of mutual affection." wrote.

Kemal's with his Panama hat.

Fex symbolized the tie to the past to Kemal . He was determined to force its abandonment and finalize a series of dress reforms which its history starts by Mahmud II. Like the Mahmud II, and other Ottoman reformists, fanaticism and reaction had raise obstacles in his path. Kemal first made the hat compulsory to the civil servants. After most educated adapted the hat of their own free will, in 1925 Kemal used the "Panama hat" during his public appearances to one of the most conservative towns in Anatolia, to explain the hats were the headgear of civilized nations.

In Kemal's world there was no dualism. He enforced his ideas to full extent. According to Kemal a progressive nation also progressive in understanding its belief system. Kemal commissioned the translation of Quran into Turkish and he himself read it in front of the public in 1932.

Atatürk and the Kurds

Main article: Atatürk and Kurds

During the years of War of Independence, Atatürk recognized the mutliethnic character of the Muslim population in Turkey, and promised self-government for ethnic minorities. After 1923, however, these promises were dropped out of his political program. On 8 December 1925, the Turkish Ministry of Education issued an order banning the use of ethnic terms such as Kurd, Circassian, Laz, Kurdistan and Lazistan.

In 1925, an uprising for an independent Kurdistan, led by Shaikh Said Piran, was put down quickly, and Said and 36 of his followers were executed soon thereafter. Several other large scale Kurdish revolts occurred in Ararat and Dersim in 1930 and 1937. Turkish Air Force used aerial bombardments effectively against Kurdish uprisings. Sabiha Gökçen, Turkey's first female pilot and the adopted daughter of Atatürk, took part in the bombing raids against the Dersim Kurds.

Atatürk explained his new policy in the manual of civics which he dedicated to his adopted daughter Afet İnan in 1930:

Within the political and social unity of today's Turkish nation, there are citizens and co-nationals who have been incited to think of themselves as Kurds, Circassians, Laz or Bosnians. But these erroneous terms have brought nothing but sorrow to individual members of the nation, with the exception of a few brainless reactionaries, who became enemy's instruments.

On 12 November 1937, Atatürk left Ankara to pay a last visit to the Kurdish inhabited areas of the country in south-east Anatolia. During his visit, he issued an order that the cities Diyarbekir and Elaziz should be renamed to Diyarbakır and Elazığ. This was in accordance with the Sun Theory of Languages which maintained that all words of foreign origin had Turkish roots. Also in 1937, he approved the publication of Outline of Turkish History (Turk Tarihinin Ana Hatlari), in which Medes (considered widely as ancestors of Kurds), were claimed to be of Turkish origin.

Arts

Opening the State Art and Sculpture Museum in Ankara.

Kemal believed in the supreme importance of culture; "Culture is the foundation of the Turkish Republic" he told. His view of culture included both his own nation's creative legacy and what he saw as the more admirable values of world civilization, and he put an emphasis on humanism above all. He once described modern Turkey's ideological thrust as "a creation of patriotism blended with a lofty humanist ideal".

In 1934, upon Kemal's order, Semiha Berksoy played the leading role in "Özsoy" (composed by Adnan Saygun), the first ever Turkish opera work, staged at the People's House in Ankara.

To assist in the creation of such a synthesis, Atatürk stressed the need to utilize the elements of the national heritage of the Turks and of Anatolia, including its ancient indigenous cultures as well as the arts and techniques of other world civilizations, both past and present. He emphasized the study of earlier civilizations, foremost of which being the Sumerians, later founding a SumerBank in Turkey, as well as other Anatolian civilizations such as the Hittites, Phrygians, and Lydians. The pre-Islamic culture of the Turks became the subject of extensive research, and particular emphasis was laid upon the fact that, long before the Seljuk and Ottoman civilizations, the Turks had had a rich culture. Atatürk also stressed the folk arts of the countryside as a wellspring of Turkish creativity.

The visual and the plastic arts, whose development had on occasion been arrested by some Ottoman officials claiming that the depiction of the human form was idolatry, were highly encouraged and supported by Atatürk, and these flourished in the new Turkish republic. Many museums were opened; architecture began to follow modern trends; and classical Western music, opera, and ballet, as well as the theatre, also took greater hold. Several hundred "People's Houses" and "People's Rooms" across the country allowed greater access to a wide variety of artistic activities, sports, and other cultural events. Book and magazine publications increased as well, and the film industry began to grow.

Last days, 1937-1938

During 1937, indications of Atatürk's worsening health started to appear, and while he was on a trip to Yalova during the beginning of 1938 he encountered serious illness. After a short period of treatment he spent in Yalova, an apparent improvement with his health was observed, but his condition again worsened following his journeys first to Ankara, and then to Mersin and Adana, in relation to the political developments regarding the status of the Republic of Hatay. Upon his return to Ankara in May, he was recommended to go to İstanbul for recovery and treatment, where he was at last diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver.

During his time in İstanbul, he made an effort to keep up with his regular lifestyle for a while, heading the Council of Ministers meeting, working on the Hatay issue, and hosting the King Carol II of Romania during his visit in June. He stayed onboard his newly arrived yacht Savarona until the end of July, after which the status of his health again worsened and he moved to a room arranged for him at the Dolmabahçe Palace. On his will written on September 5, 1938, he donated all of his possessions to the Republican People's Party, bound to the condition that, through the yearly interest of his funds, his sister Makbule and his adopted children will be looked after, the higher education of the children of İsmet İnönü will be funded, and the Turkish Language Association and Turkish Historical Society will be given the rest.

Funeral

Kemal's funeral arriving to Ethnography Museum, 1938

Atatürk died, at age 57, at the Dolmabahçe Palace on November 10, 1938. Ataturk's funeral called forth both sorrow and pride in Turkey, and seventeen countries sent special representatives, nine contributed with armed detachments to the cortege.

On November 1953, Kemal's remains were taken from the Ethnography Museum of Ankara by 138 young reserve officers in a procession that stretched for two miles including the President, the Premier, every Cabinet minister, every parliamentary deputy, every provincial governor and every foreign diplomat while 21 million Turks stood motionless all over the Turkey at the same time. One admiral guarded a velvet cushion which bore the Medal of Independence, the only decoration Ataturk ever wore. The Father of the Turks finally came to rest at the Anitkabir. An official noted: "I was on active duty during his funeral, when I shed bitter tears at the finality of death. Today I am not sad, for 15 years have taught me that Ataturk will never die."

His lifestyle had always been strenuous. Alcohol consumption during dinner discussions, smoking and very long hours hard at work with little sleep, and working on his projects and dreams had been his way of life. As the historian Will Durant had said, "Men devoted to war, politics, and public life wear out fast, and all three had been the passion of Atatürk."

Family and personal life

Dancing with the adopted daughter Nebile at her wedding on January 17, 1929

Kemal married only once. He married Latife Hanım (Uşaklıgil) on January 29, 1923, which lasted until August 5, 1925.

Atatürk adopted his daughters Afet (İnan), Sabiha (Gökçen), who later became the first female combat pilot in the world, Fikriye, Ülkü, Nebile, Rukiye, Zehra and his son Mustafa. Additionally, he had two children under his protection, Abdurrahim and İhsan. Out of the 5 siblings of Atatürk, four died at early ages and only his sister Makbule (Atadan) survived, living until 1956.

In times of leisure, he mainly enjoyed reading, horse riding and swimming. He was very interested in dancing, taking pleasure in waltz on almost every opportunity, as well as the traditional Zeibek folk dances of Rumelia. He also had an appreciation of Rumelian folk songs. He attached importance to his horse Sakarya and his dog Fox. Atatürk was fluent in French and German, and maintained a rich personal library of books on politics, history, and linguistics.

Publications

Here is a list of selected publications:

• "Tâbiye Meselesinin Halli ve Emirlerin Sureti Tahririne Dair Nesayih"
• "Takımın Muharebe Talimi", published in 1908 (Translation from German)
• "Cumalı Ordugâhı - Süvari: Bölük, Alay, Liva Talim ve Manevraları", published in 1909
• "Tâbiye ve Tatbikat Seyahati", published in 1911
• "Bölüğün Muharebe Talimi", published in 1912 (Translation from German)
• "Zabit ve Kumandan ile Hasbihal", published in 1918
• "Nutuk", published in 1927
• "Vatandaş İçin Medeni Bilgiler", published in 1930 (For high school civic classes)
• "Geometry", published in 1937 (For high school math classes)

His daily journals and military notes during Ottoman Empire period were published as a collection. There is another collection which covers the period 1923-1937 and indexes all the documents, notes, memorandums, communications (as a president) under multiple volumes titled Atatürk'ün Bütün Eserleri.

Legacy

Peace at home, peace in the world

Atatürk hosting a reception at the USSR Embassy in Ankara, on November 7, 1927

Kemal's foreign policy was extension of domestic needs; internal organization (stability) of this new republic is dependent to the foreign policy. Kemal said; "What particularly interests foreign policy is the internal organization of the state. It is necessary that foreign policy should agree with the internal organization”. He eternalized this view with "peace at home, peace in the world". This was evidence in his funeral.

Kemal hosted visits of many foreign monarchs and heads of state to Ankara and Istanbul including, in chronological order, King Amanullah Khan of Afghanistan (May 1928), Prime Minister of Hungary Count István Bethlen (October 1930), King Faisal I of Iraq (June 1932), Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos of Greece (October 1932), King Alexander I of Yugoslavia (October 1933), Shah Reza Pahlavi of Persia (June 1934), King Gustav V Adolf of Sweden (October 1934), King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom (September 1936), King Abdullah I of Jordan (June 1937), and King Carol II of Romania (June 1938). Many of the visits meaningfully coincided with the Republic Day, October 29, the anniversary of the declaration of the new Turkish Republic by the Turkish Grand National Assembly, in 1923.

Mustafa Kemal participated in forging close ties with the former enemy, Greece, culminating in a visit to Ankara by Greek premier Eleftherios Venizelos, in 1932. Venizelos even forwarded Atatürk's name for the 1934 Nobel Peace Prize, highlighting the mutual respect between the two leaders. Atatürk was visited in 1931 by General Douglas MacArthur of the United States, during which the two exchanged their views on the state of affairs in Europe which would eventually lead to the outbreak of World War II. MacArthur expressed his admiration of Atatürk on many occasions and stated that he "takes great pride in being one of Atatürk's loyal friends".

Turkey

File:Anitkabir.HB.jpg

Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Kemal Atatürk, in Ankara, Turkey

His successor, İsmet İnönü, fostered a posthumous Atatürk personality cult which has survived to this day, even after Atatürk's own Republican People's Party lost power following democratic elections in 1950. Atatürk's face and name are seen and heard everywhere in Turkey: his portrait can be seen in all public buildings, in schools, in all kinds of school books, on all Turkish banknotes, and in the homes of many Turkish families. It is common even after so many years, in addition to commemorative ceremonies on November 10, at 09:05 a.m. (the exact time of his death), many vehicles and people will pause for one minute in remembrance all over the country at the same instant.

He is commemorated by many memorials all over Turkey, like the Atatürk International Airport in Istanbul, Atatürk Bridge over the Golden Horn (Haliç), Atatürk Dam, Atatürk Stadium, and Anıtkabir, the mausoleum where he is now buried. Giant Atatürk statues loom over Istanbul and other Turkish cities, and practically any larger settlement has its own memorial to him. There are also several memorials to Atatürk internationally, such as the Atatürk Memorial in Wellington, New Zealand (which also serves as a memorial to the ANZAC forces that died at Gallipolli) and the Atatürk Memorial in the place of honour on ANZAC drive in Canberra, Australia . In 1981, the centennial of Atatürk's birth, the memory of Atatürk was honored by the United Nations and UNESCO by declaring it The Atatürk Year in the World and adopting the Resolution on the Atatürk Centennial.The Turkish Parliament issued a law (5816) outlawing insults to his legacy or attacks to objects representing him. This law is sometimes criticised as it applies solely to Atatürk, thus resembling leader-protecting laws of dictatorial regimes. This law was used to block access to the internet video-sharing site YouTube throughout Turkey in 2007

Atatürk sought to modernize and democratise a new Turkish Republic from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire. In his quest to do so, Atatürk had implemented far reaching reforms, the consequence of which has led Turkey towards the European Union today. The emphasis placed on secularism and nationalism had also led to a degree of conflict within society. Some practicing Muslims found the idea of secularism as being against the teaching of Islam, and criticise the state for not allowing full freedom of religion. In Turkey to this day Islam is still curbed and women are not allowed to wear their headscarves in public buildings. Ethnic minorities such as Kurds have also sought to gain more cultural rights, which in the past, has been limited by the promotion of Turkish nationalism. Despite these conflicts, Atatürk continues to be revered throughout Turkey and his principles remain the backbone of modern Turkish politics.

Media

• (The sound file of the message by U.S. President John F. Kennedy on Kemal Atatürk, 1963)
• File:JFKennedy1963 text.pdf (The Text of the message by President John F. Kennedy on Atatürk)
• File:IsmetInonu1963.ogg (The sound file of the message by President İsmet İnönü on Kemal Atatürk, November 10, 1963)
• (The Text of the message by President İsmet İnönü on Atatürk)
• (The sound file of the message by President Cemal Gürsel on Kemal Atatürk, November 10, 1963)
• File:CemalGursel1963 text.pdf (The Text of the message by President Cemal Gürsel on Atatürk)

See also

• Kemalism

References

• Kinross, Patrick (2003). Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation. Phoenix Press. ISBN 1-84212-599-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
• Mango, Andrew (2004). Atatürk: The Biography of the founder of Modern Turkey. John Murray. ISBN 0719565928.

External links

• Ataturk.org, Site with general information on the founder and first president of the Turkish Republic.
• Ataturk.net, a website dedicated to Atatürk
• Longest Atatürk Biography Template:Tr icon
• His biography and reforms
• Atatürk Gallery by the Ministry of Culture, Republic of Turkey
• Biography, the Revolutions and a speech excerpt from the Ministry of Culture, Republic of Turkey
• Memorial to Ataturk in Istanbul at the Sites of Memory webpage
• www.turkishnews.com/Ataturk/life.htm Turkishnews.com — Atatürk's life
• Ataturk Center of Azerbaijan Template:Az icon
• Ataturks Life

Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA ru-sib:Ататюрк, Мустафа Кемаль