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:<sup>186</sup>W, ''T''<sub>1/2</sub> > 27·10<sup>18</sup> years
:<sup>186</sup>W, ''T''<sub>1/2</sub> > 27·10<sup>18</sup> years


Another 30 artificial [[radioisotope]]s of tungsten have been characterized, the most stable of which are <sup>181</sup>W with a [[half-life]] of 121.2&nbsp;days, <sup>185</sup>W with a half-life of 75.1&nbsp;days, <sup>188</sup>W with a half-life of 69.4&nbsp;days, <sup>178</sup>W with a half-life of 21.6&nbsp;days, and <sup>187</sup>W with a half-life of 23.72 h.<ref name=isotopes></ref> All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives of less than 3&nbsp;hours, and most of these have half-lives that are less than 8&nbsp;minutes.<ref name=isotopes/> Tungsten also has 4&nbsp;[[meta state]]s, the most stable being <sup>179m</sup>W (''T''<sub>½</sub> 6.4&nbsp;minutes).
Another 30 artificial [[radioisotope]]s of tungsten have been characterized, the most stable of which are <sup>181</sup>W with a [[half-life]] of 121.2&nbsp;days, <sup>185</sup>W with a half-life of 75.1&nbsp;days, <sup>188</sup>W with a half-life of 69.4&nbsp;days, <sup>178</sup>W with a half-life of 21.6&nbsp;days, and <sup>187</sup>W with a half-life of 23.72 h.<ref name=isotopes>isotopes</ref> All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives of less than 3&nbsp;hours, and most of these have half-lives that are less than 8&nbsp;minutes.<ref name=isotopes/> Tungsten also has 4&nbsp;[[meta state]]s, the most stable being <sup>179m</sup>W (''T''<sub>½</sub> 6.4&nbsp;minutes).


==Chemical properties==
==Chemical properties==

Revision as of 18:03, 21 September 2008

For other uses, see Tungsten (disambiguation).
Tungsten, 74W
Tungsten
Pronunciation/ˈtʌŋstən/ ​(TUNG-stən)
Alternative nameWolfram, pronounced: /ˈwʊlfrəm/ (WUUL-frəm)
Allotropesα-tungsten (common), β-tungsten
AppearanceGrayish white, lustrous
Standard atomic weight Ar°(W)
Tungsten in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Mo
↑
W
↓
Sg
tantalum ← tungsten → rhenium
Atomic number (Z)74
Groupgroup 6
Periodperiod 6
Block  d-block
Electron configuration[Xe] 4f14 5d4 6s2[3]
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 32, 12, 2
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point3695 K ​(3422 °C, ​6192 °F)
Boiling point6203 K ​(5930 °C, ​10706 °F)
Density (at 20° C)19.254 g/cm3 [4]
when liquid (at m.p.)17.6 g/cm3
Heat of fusion52.31 kJ/mol[5][6]
Heat of vaporization774 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity24.27 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 3477 3773 4137 4579 5127 5823
Atomic properties
Oxidation states−4, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 (a mildly acidic oxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 2.36
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 770 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1700 kJ/mol
Atomic radiusempirical: 139 pm
Covalent radius162±7 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral lines of tungsten
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure ​body-centered cubic (bcc) (cI2)
Lattice constant
Body-centered cubic crystal structure for tungsten
a = 316.52 pm (at 20 °C)[4]
Thermal expansion4.42×10−6/K (at 20 °C)[4]
Thermal conductivity173 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity52.8 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic orderingparamagnetic[7]
Molar magnetic susceptibility+59.0×10−6 cm3/mol (298 K)[8]
Young's modulus411 GPa
Shear modulus161 GPa
Bulk modulus310 GPa
Speed of sound thin rod4620 m/s (at r.t.) (annealed)
Poisson ratio0.28
Mohs hardness7.5
Vickers hardness3430–4600 MPa
Brinell hardness2000–4000 MPa
CAS Number7440-33-7
History
Discovery and first isolationJuan José Elhuyar and Fausto Elhuyar[9] (1783)
Named byTorbern Bergman (1781)
Symbol"W": from Wolfram, originally from Middle High German wolf-rahm 'wolf's foam' describing the mineral wolframite[10]
Isotopes of tungsten
Main isotopes Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
180W 0.120% 1.8×1018 y α 176Hf
181W synth 121.2 d ε 181Ta
182W 26.5% stable
183W 14.3% stable
184W 30.6% stable
185W synth 75.1 d β− 185Re
186W 28.4% stable
188W synth 69.78 d β− 188Re
 Category: Tungsten
| references

Tungsten (Template:PronEng), also known as wolfram (/ˈwʊlfrəm/), is a chemical element that has the symbol W and atomic number 74.

A steel-gray metal, tungsten is found in several ores, including wolframite and scheelite. It is remarkable for its robust physical properties, especially the fact that it has the highest melting point of all the non-alloyed metals and the second highest of all the elements after carbon.[11] Tungsten is often brittle and hard to work in its raw state; however, if pure, it can be cut with a hacksaw.[12] The pure form is used mainly in electrical applications, but its many compounds and alloys are used in many applications, most notably in light bulb filaments, X-ray tubes (as both the filament and target), and superalloys. Tungsten is also the only metal from the third transition series that is known to occur in biomolecules.[13][14]

Etymology

The name "Tungsten" (from the Swedish and Danish tung sten, meaning "heavy stone") is used in English, French, Italian and some other languages (e.g. Celtic languages) as the name of the element, although in many other languages (e.g. in German and Spanish) it is known as "wolfram", and its ore as wolframite, and this is the also the origin of its chemical symbol, W.[12] The name "wolframite" is derived from "volf rahm", the name given to tungtsen by Johan Gottschalk Wallerius in 1747. This, in turn, derives from "Lupi spuma", the name Georg Agricola used for the element in 1546, which translates into English as "wolf's froth", and is a reference to the large amounts of tin consumed by the mineral during its extraction.[10]

Physical properties

In its raw form, tungsten is a steel-gray metal that is often brittle and hard to work. But, if pure, it can be worked easily.[12] It is worked by forging, drawing, extruding, or sintering. Of all metals in pure form, tungsten has the highest melting point (3,422 °C, 6,192 °F), lowest vapor pressure and (at temperatures above 1,650 °C) the highest tensile strength.[15] Tungsten has the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion of any pure metal. Alloying small quantities of tungsten with steel greatly increases its toughness.[11]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of tungsten

Naturally occurring tungsten consists of five isotopes whose half-lives are so long that they can be considered stable. Theoretically, all five can decay into isotopes of element 72 (hafnium) by alpha emission, but only 180W has been observed to do so with a half-life of (1.8 ± 0.2)·1018 yr; on average, this yields about two alpha decays of 180W in one gram of natural tungsten per year.[16] The other naturally occurring isotopes have not been observed to decay, constraining their half-lives to be:[16]

182W, T1/2 > 8.3·1018 years
183W, T1/2 > 29·1018 years
184W, T1/2 > 13·1018 years
186W, T1/2 > 27·1018 years

Another 30 artificial radioisotopes of tungsten have been characterized, the most stable of which are 181W with a half-life of 121.2 days, 185W with a half-life of 75.1 days, 188W with a half-life of 69.4 days, 178W with a half-life of 21.6 days, and 187W with a half-life of 23.72 h.[16] All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 3 hours, and most of these have half-lives that are less than 8 minutes.[16] Tungsten also has 4 meta states, the most stable being 179mW (T½ 6.4 minutes).

Chemical properties

Elemental tungsten resists attack by oxygen, acids, and alkalis.[17]

Compounds

Main article: Tungsten compounds

The most common formal oxidation state of tungsten is +6, but it exhibits all oxidation states from -1 to +6.[17] Tungsten typically combines with oxygen to form the yellow tungstic oxide, WO3, which dissolves in aqueous alkaline solutions to form tungstate ions, WO42−.

Tungsten carbides (W2C and WC) are produced by heating powdered tungsten with carbon and are some of the hardest carbides, with a melting point of 2770 °C for WC and 2780 degrees C for W2C. WC is an efficient electrical conductor, but W2C is not as efficient. Tungsten carbide behaves in a manner very similar to that of unalloyed tungsten and is resistant to chemical attack, although it reacts strongly with chlorine to form tungsten hexachloride (WCl6).[11]

Aqueous polyoxoanions

Aqueous tungstate solutions are noted for the formation of heteropoly acids and polyoxometalate anions under neutral and acidic conditions. As tungstate is progressively treated with acid, it first yields the soluble, metastable "paratungstate A" anion, W
7O6−
24, which over hours or days converts to the less soluble "paratungstate B" anion, H
2W
12O10−
42.[18] Further acidification produces the very soluble metatungstate anion, H
2W
12O6−
40, after equilibrium is reached. The metatungstate ion exists as a symmetric cluster of twelve tungsten-oxygen octahedra known as the "Keggin" anion. Many other polyoxometalate anions exist as metastable species. The inclusion of a different atom such as phosphorus in place of the two central hydrogens in metatungstate produces a wide variety of heteropoly acids, such as phosphotungstic acid H3P W12O40 in this example.

Biological role

Tungsten is an essential nutrient for some organisms. For example, enzymes called oxidoreductases use tungsten in a way that is similar to molybdenum by using it in a tungsten-pterin complex.[19]

On August 20, 2002, officials representing the U.S.-based Centers for Disease Control and Prevention announced that urine tests on leukemia patient families and control group families in the Fallon, Nevada area had shown elevated levels of tungsten in the bodies of both groups.[20] Sixteen recent cases of cancer in children were discovered in the Fallon area, which has now been identified as a cancer cluster; although the majority of the cancer victims are not longtime residents of Fallon. However, there is not enough data to support a link between tungsten and leukemia at this time.[21]

Applications

Closeup of a tungsten filament inside a halogen lamp.

Because of its ability to produce hardness at high temperatures and its high melting point (the second highest of any known element), elemental tungsten is used in many high-temperature applications.[22] These include light bulb, cathode-ray tube, and vacuum tube filaments, as well as heating elements and nozzles on rocket engines.[12] The high melting point also makes tungsten suitable for aerospace and high temperature uses which include electrical, heating, and welding applications, notably in the gas tungsten arc welding process (also called TIG welding).

Due to its conductive properties, as well as its relative chemical inertia, tungsten is also used in electrodes, and in the emitter tips of field emission electron-beam instruments, such as focused ion beam (FIB) and electron microscopes. In electronics, tungsten is used as an interconnect material in integrated circuits, between the silicon dioxide dielectric material and the transistors. Additionally, it is used in the manufacture of metallic films, which replace the wiring used in conventional electronics with a coat of tungsten (or molybdenum) on silicon.[23]

In World War I, steel was put under restricted commercial uses, so Victor developed a tungsten gramophone needle. Called the "Tungs-tone" stylus (as Victor called it), this needle could withstand about 50 to 100 uses before wearing out the record. Victor claimed the needle could be used 300 times, but this would likely cause excessive wear/damage to a record. Victor stated that the needle be tested in the run-off (near the label) grooves and be rotated a quarter turn periodically, and then be tested in the run-off grooves. Victor stated that a Tungs-tone should be a used one for playing a record.[24]

The electronic structure of tungsten makes it one of the main sources for X-ray targets,[25] and also for shielding from high-energy radiations (such as in the radiopharmaceutical industry for shielding radioactive samples of FDG). Tungsten powder is used as a filler material in plastic composites, which are used as a nontoxic substitute for lead in bullets, shot, and radiation shields. Since this element's thermal expansion is similar to borosilicate glass, it is used for making glass-to-metal seals.[15]

The hardness and density of tungsten are applied in obtaining heavy metal alloys. A good example is high speed steel, which may contain as much as 18% tungsten.[26] Superalloys containing tungsten, like Hastelloy and Stellite, are used in turbine blades and wear resistant parts and coatings. Applications requiring its high density include heat sinks, weights, counterweights, ballast keels for yachts, tail ballast for commercial aircraft, and as ballast in high level race cars in series, such as NASCAR and Formula 1. It is an ideal material to use as a bucking bar for Riveting, where the mass necessary for good results can be achieved in a small, easy to wield bar. In armaments, tungsten, usually alloyed with nickel and iron or cobalt to form heavy alloys, is used in kinetic energy penetrators as an alternative to depleted uranium but may also be used in cannon shells, grenades and missiles to create supersonic shrapnel. High-density alloys of tungsten may be used in darts (to allow for a smaller diameter and thus tighter groupings) or for fishing lures (tungsten bead heads allow the fly to sink rapidly). Some types of strings for musical instruments are wound with tungsten wires. Its density, similar to that of gold, allows tungsten to be used in jewelry as an alternative to gold or platinum.[12] Its hardness makes it ideal for rings that will resist scratching, and are hypoallergenic and will not need polishing, which is especially useful in designs with a brushed finish.[27]

Tungsten chemical compounds are used in catalysts, inorganic pigments (e.g. tungsten oxides), and also as high-temperature lubricants (tungsten disulfide). Tungsten carbide (WC) is used to make wear-resistant abrasives and cutters and knives for drills, circular saws, milling and turning tools used by the metalworking, woodworking, mining, petroleum and construction industries.[11] Tungsten oxides are used in ceramic glazes and calcium/magnesium tungstates are used widely in fluorescent lighting. Crystal tungstates are used as scintillation detectors in nuclear physics and nuclear medicine. Other salts that contain tungsten are used in the chemical and tanning industries.[15]

Lately, tungsten is used for jewelry because of its longevity.

Production

File:Tungsten (mined)2.PNG
Tungsten output in 2005

Tungsten is found in the minerals wolframite (iron-manganese tungstate, FeWO4/MnWO4), scheelite (calcium tungstate, (CaWO4), ferberite and hübnerite. These are mined and used to produce about 37,400 tons of tungsten concentrates per year in 2000.[28] Over 75% of this production came from China, while most of the remaining production is done in Austria, Bolivia, Portugal, and Russia, while United States produces none.[28]

The extraction of tungsten has several stages, the ore eventually being converted to tungsten (VI) oxide (WO3), which is heated with hydrogen or carbon, producing powdered tungsten.[29] It can be used in that state or converted into solid bars.

Tungsten can also be extracted by hydrogen reduction of WF6 (WF6 + 3H2 = W + 6HF) or pyrolytic decomposition (WF6 + energy = W + 3F2).[23]

History

In 1781, Carl Wilhelm Scheele ascertained that a new acid could be made from scheelite (at the time named tungstenite): tungstic acid. Scheele and Torbern Bergman suggested that it could be possible to obtain a new metal by reducing this acid.[29] In 1783, José and Fausto Elhuyar found an acid made from wolframite that was identical to tungstic acid. Later that year, in Spain, the brothers succeeded in isolating tungsten through reduction of this acid with charcoal. They are credited with the discovery of the element.[30][31]

In World War II, tungsten played a significant role in background political dealings. Portugal, as the main European source of the element, was put under pressure from both sides, because of its sources of wolframite ore. The resistance to high temperatures, as well as the extreme strength of its alloys, made the metal into a very important raw material for the weaponry industry.[32]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Tungsten". CIAAW. 1991.
  2. ^ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
  3. ^ Berger, Dan. "Why does Tungsten not 'Kick' up an electron from the s sublevel ?". Bluffton College, USA.
  4. ^ a b c Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.
  5. ^ Lide, David R., ed. (2009). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (90th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 6-134. ISBN 978-1-4200-9084-0.
  6. ^ Tolias P. (2017). "Analytical expressions for thermophysical properties of solid and liquid tungsten relevant for fusion applications". Nuclear Materials and Energy. 13: 42–57. arXiv:1703.06302. Bibcode:2017arXiv170306302T. doi:10.1016/j.nme.2017.08.002. S2CID 99610871.
  7. ^ Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds" (PDF). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0486-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-03.
  8. ^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. p. E110. ISBN 978-0-8493-0464-4.
  9. ^ "Tungsten". Royal Society of Chemistry. Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved May 2, 2020.
  10. ^ a b van der Krogt, Peter. "Wolframium Wolfram Tungsten". Elementymology& Elements Multidict. Archived from the original on 2010-01-23. Retrieved 2010-03-11. Cite error: The named reference "sweetums" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. ^ a b c d Daintith, John. Facts on File Dictionary of Chemistry. 4th ed. New York, New York: Checkmark Books, 2005
  12. ^ a b c d e Stwertka, Albert A Guide to the elements. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  13. ^ J McMaster and John H Enemark (1998). "The active sites of molybdenum- and tungsten-containing enzymes". Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 2 (2): 201–207. doi:10.1016/S1367-5931(98)80061-6.
  14. ^ Russ Hille (2002). "Molybdenum and tungsten in biology". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 27 (7): 360–367. doi:10.1016/S0968-0004(02)02107-2.
  15. ^ a b c "Tungsten". Los Alamos National Laboratory. 2003-12-15. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
  16. ^ a b c d Alejandro Sonzogni. "Interactive Chart of Nuclides". Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-06-06. {{cite web}}: Text "location,National Nuclear Data Center" ignored (help) Cite error: The named reference "isotopes" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  17. ^ a b Emsley, John E. The elements. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991
  18. ^ Smith, Bradley J. (2000). "Quantitative Determination of Sodium Metatungstate Speciation by 183W N.M.R. Spectroscopy". Australian Journal of Chemistry. 53 (12). CSIRO. Retrieved 2008-06-17.
  19. ^ Lassner, Erik (1999). Tungsten: Properties, Chemistry, Technology of the Element, Alloys and Chemical Compounds. Springer. pp. 409–411. ISBN 0306450534.
  20. ^ "Cross-Sectional Exposure Assessment of Environmental Contaminants in Churchill County, Nevada". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2003-02-06. Retrieved 2008-05-09.
  21. ^ Mullen, Frank X. (April 27, 2006). "Mouse Study Findings key in Fallon Cancer Cases, Scientists Say". Reno Gazette-Journal. Retrieved 2008-06-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ DeGarmo, E. Paul. Materials and Processes in Manufacturing. 5th ed. New York, New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1979.
  23. ^ a b Schey, John A. Introduction to Manufacturing Processes. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1987.
  24. ^ name="Tungs-tone"> http://www.gracyk.com/needletips.shtml. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  25. ^ "US Patent 6428904 - X-ray target". PatentStorm. August 6, 2002. Retrieved 2008-06-18. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); External link in |publisher= (help)
  26. ^ "Tungsten Applications - Steel". azom.com. 2000–2008. Retrieved 2008-06-18. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: date format (link)
  27. ^ Gray, Theo (March 14, 2008). "How to Make Convincing Fake-Gold Bars". Popular Science. Retrieved 2008-06-18. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  28. ^ a b Shedd, Kim B. (2000). "Tungsten" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-06-18.
  29. ^ a b Saunders, Nigel (February 2004). Tungsten and the Elements of Groups 3 to 7 (The Periodic Table). Chicago, Illinois: Heinemann Library. ISBN 1403435189.
  30. ^ "ITIA Newsletter" (PDF). International Tungsten Industry Association. June 2005. Retrieved 2008-06-18.
  31. ^ "ITIA Newsletter" (PDF). International Tungsten Industry Association. December 2005. Retrieved 2008-06-18.
  32. ^ Stevens, Donald G. (1999). "World War II Economic Warfare: The United States, Britain, and Portuguese Wolfram". The Historian. Questia. {{cite journal}}: External link in |publisher= (help)

Further reading

  • DC/AC Circuits and Electronics: Principles & Applications by Robert K. Herrick, Published by Delmar Learning 2003 for Purdue University

External links

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