Less common theories include John Darrah and Arthur Cummins, who propose an [[Bronze Age Arthur theorists|Early Bronze Age Arthur]] (2300 BC). They argue that pulling a sword from the stone and anvil is a [[metaphor]] for making a sword from ore and hammering it into shape on an anvil.
Less common theories include John Darrah and Arthur Cummins, who propose an [[Bronze Age Arthur theorists|Early Bronze Age Arthur]] (2300 BC). They argue that pulling a sword from the stone and anvil is a [[metaphor]] for making a sword from ore and hammering it into shape on an anvil.
Overlooked is the theory that Arthur was a war leader (''dux bellorum'') for the [[Scotland|Scots]] and [[Britons]] - possibly of mixed [[Roman]], Scots, and Brythonnic background. By this theory, Arthur was preomdinately active in the region between the Roman walls - the Gododdin. He was never the "king" per se, but rather the son of Scottish king [[Aidan]], who ruled from about 574. He lead a loose, possibly the first, coalition of the [[Christian]] [[Celts]] against their [[pagan]] invaders - effectively holding them off due to significantly decisive battles, for about one hundred more years [http://www.legendofkingarthur.com/].
Overlooked is the theory that Arthur was a war leader (''dux bellorum'') for the [[Scotland|Scots]] and [[Britons]] - possibly of mixed [[Roman]], Scots, and Brythonnic background. By this theory, Arthur was preomdinately active in the region between the Roman walls - the Gododdin. He was never the "king" per se, but rather the son of Scottish king [[Aidan]], who ruled from about 574. He led a loose, possibly the first, coalition of the [[Christian]] [[Celts]] against their [[pagan]] invaders - effectively holding them off due to significantly decisive battles, for about one hundred more years [http://www.legendofkingarthur.com/].
Another school of thought believes that Arthur had no historical existence, explaining that Arthur originally was a half-forgotten Celtic deity that has devolved into a personage (citing sometimes a supposed change of the sea-god [[Lir]] into [[Leir of Britain|King Lear]]) or a possibly fictive person like [[Beowulf (character)|Beowulf]]. Subscribers to this school of thought argue that another Roman Briton of the period, for example [[Ambrosius Aurelianus]], led the forces battling the Saxons at the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus]].
Another school of thought believes that Arthur had no historical existence, explaining that Arthur originally was a half-forgotten Celtic deity that has devolved into a personage (citing sometimes a supposed change of the sea-god [[Lir]] into [[Leir of Britain|King Lear]]) or a possibly fictive person like [[Beowulf (character)|Beowulf]]. Subscribers to this school of thought argue that another Roman Briton of the period, for example [[Ambrosius Aurelianus]], led the forces battling the Saxons at the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus]].
King Arthur is an important figure in the mythology of Great Britain, where he appears as the ideal of kingship in both war and peace. He is the central character in the cycle of legends known as the Matter of Britain. There is disagreement about whether Arthur, or a model for him, ever actually existed: in the earliest mentions and Welsh texts he is never given the title "King." Early texts refer to him as dux bellorum ("war leader") and High Medieval Welsh texts often call him ameraudur ("emperor"; the word is borrowed from the Latin imperator, which could also mean "war leader").
Victorian image of King Arthur in plate armour with visor raised and with jousting shield
The possible historicity of the King Arthur of legend has long been debated by scholars. One school of thought believes Arthur to have lived sometime in the late 5th century to early 6th century, to have been of Romano-British origin, and to have fought against the paganSaxons. His power base was probably in either Wales, Cornwall, or the west of what would become England, but controversy over the center of his power and the extent and kind of power he wielded continues to rage.
Some members of this school, most notably Geoffrey Ashe and Leon Fleuriot, have argued for identifying Arthur with a certain Riothamus, "King of the Brettones," who was active during the reign of the Roman EmperorAnthemius. Unfortunately, Riothamus is a shadowy figure of whom we know little, and scholars are not certain whether the "Brettones" he led were Britons or Bretons.
Other writers suggest that Arthur should be identified as one Lucius Artorius Castus, a historical Roman of the 2nd century, whose military exploits in Britain may have been remembered for centuries afterwards. This is linked to a theory by C.Scott Littleton and Linda Malcor suggesting a Sarmatian Arthur which was the basis of the film King Arthur. The obscurity surrounding the historical Artorius makes this identification unlikely, as there seems to be little reason for him to have become a major legendary figure.
Less common theories include John Darrah and Arthur Cummins, who propose an Early Bronze Age Arthur (2300 BC). They argue that pulling a sword from the stone and anvil is a metaphor for making a sword from ore and hammering it into shape on an anvil.
Overlooked is the theory that Arthur was a war leader (dux bellorum) for the Scots and Britons - possibly of mixed Roman, Scots, and Brythonnic background. By this theory, Arthur was preomdinately active in the region between the Roman walls - the Gododdin. He was never the "king" per se, but rather the son of Scottish king Aidan, who ruled from about 574. He led a loose, possibly the first, coalition of the ChristianCelts against their pagan invaders - effectively holding them off due to significantly decisive battles, for about one hundred more years [1].
Another school of thought believes that Arthur had no historical existence, explaining that Arthur originally was a half-forgotten Celtic deity that has devolved into a personage (citing sometimes a supposed change of the sea-god Lir into King Lear) or a possibly fictive person like Beowulf. Subscribers to this school of thought argue that another Roman Briton of the period, for example Ambrosius Aurelianus, led the forces battling the Saxons at the Battle of Mons Badonicus.
Earliest traditions of Arthur
Arthur first appears in Welsh literature. In a surviving early Welsh poem, the Gododdin (ca. 594), the poet Aneirin (ca. 535–600) writes of one of his subjects that "he fed black ravens on the ramparts, although he was no Arthur" — but this poem as it currently exists is full of interpolations, and it is not possible to decide if this passage is an interpolation from a later period. The following poems attributed to Taliesin are possibly from a similarly early date: The Chair of the Sovereign, which refers to "Arthur the Blessed"; Preiddeu Annwn ("The Treasures of Annwn"), mentions "the valour of Arthur" and states "we went with Arthur in his splendid labours"; and the poem Journey to Deganwy, which contains the passage "as at the battle of Badon with Arthur, chief giver of feasts, with his tall blades red from the battle which all men remember."
Another early reference to Arthur is in the Historia Britonum, attributed to the Welsh monkNennius, who is said to have written this compilation of early Welsh history around the year 830. In this work, Arthur is referred to as a "leader of battles" rather than as a king. Two separate sources within this compilation list twelve battles that he fought, culminating in the battle of Mons Badonicus, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men. According to the Annales Cambriae, Arthur was killed at the Battle of Camlann in 537.
Arthur makes an appearance in a number of well-known Welsh vitae ("Lives") of 6th-century saints: for example, in the Life of Saint Illtud, he is said to be a cousin of that churchman. Many of these appearances portray Arthur as a fierce warrior, and not necessarily as morally impeccable as in later Romances. According to the Life of Saint Gildas (died ca. 570), written in the 11th century by Caradoc of Llancarfan, Arthur killed Gildas' brother Hueil, a pirate on the Isle of Man.
Lifris writes in his Life of Saint Cadoc that Arthur was bettered by Cadoc: Cadoc gave protection to a man who killed three of Arthur's soldiers; Arthur was awarded a herd of cattle from Cadoc as wergeld for his men; Cadoc delivered them as demanded; but when Arthur took possession of the animals, they were transformed into bundles of ferns. The likely original purpose of this story would be to promote popular acceptance of the new Christian faith by "demonstrating" that Cadoc, the Christian leader, had magical powers traditionally ascribed to Druids and of sufficient intensity to outsmart the temporal ruler, Arthur. Similar incidents are described in the late medieval biographies of Carannog, Padern, and Goeznovius.
Arthur also appears in the Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen, a narrative that is usually associated with the Mabinogion. In that work, Culhwch visits his court to seek his help in winning the hand of Olwen. Arthur, who is described as his kinsman, agrees to the request, and fulfils the demands of Olwen's giant father Ysbaddaden, which includes his hunt for the great boarTwrch Trwyth, described at length by the author.
This may be related to legends where Arthur is depicted as the leader of the Wild Hunt, a folk motif that is also recorded in Brittany, France, and Germany; Roger S. Loomis has listed a number of these instances (Loomis 1972). Gervase of Tilbury in the 13th century and two 15th century writers assign this role to Arthur: Gervase tells that Arthur and his knights regularly hunt an ancient trackway between Cadbury Castle and Glastonbury (which is still known as King Arthur's Causeway[2]), and that he with his company of riders may be seen by moonlight in the forests of Britain or Brittany or Savoy. Loomis alludes to a Scottish mention in the 16th century, and that many of these beliefs were still current in the 19th century at Cadbury Castle, and in several parts of France.
The first major popularization of Arthurian legend was Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, a medieval equivalent of a bestseller that helped draw the attention of other writers, such as Robert Wace and Layamon, who then expanded on the tales of Arthur. The date of the Historia is given as 1133 by a small proportion of experts; however, the date is more normally given as 1138, as the following quote indicates:
Geoffrey stayed at Oxford at least until 1151 and during this period wrote his two extant works, Historia regum Britanniae (1136-1138; "History of the Kings of Britain") and Vita Merlini (ca. 1148; "The Life of Merlin").
During a period of five hundred years the tradition of his exploits was preserved, and rudely embellished, by the obscure bards of Wales and Armorica (otherwise known as Britany), who were odious to the Saxons, and unknown to the rest of mankind. The pride and curiosity of the Norman conquerors prompted them to inquire into the ancient history of Britain; they listened with fond credulity to the tale of Arthur, and eagerly applauded the merit of a prince who had triumphed over the Saxons, their common enemies. [Chapter 38, Footnote 138]
Thus, according to Gibbon, the once obscure 500-year-old Welsh legend became more widely known (through the works of the Anglo-Norman poet Wace and others), creating a unified cultural icon under which the Norman rulers and the native Welsh could rally against their common enemy: the Saxons.
One of the influencing factors is that William the Conqueror was a quarter Breton and the Bretons also carried the legends of King Arthur as they were the escaping nobility from the Saxons. Geoffrey of Monmouth was also of Breton stock. The Bretons and other British emigrees had supported William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings, providing a large proportion of the knights in the battle. Since the ethnic British nobility fought against the Saxons at Hastings it was inevitable that their mythology would experience a resurgence when the crown was won.
While many scholars believe that Geoffrey of Monmouth is the source for medieval interest in Arthur, at least one scholar, Loomis, has argued that many of the tales surrounding Arthur were independently adapted from Bretonoral traditions, spread through the royal and noble courts of Europe by professional storytellers known as jongleurs. The French medieval writer, Chrétien de Troyes, recounted tales from the mythos during the mid-12th century, as did Marie de France in her narrative poems called lais. In any case, the later stories told by these two writers and by many others appear to be independent of what Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote.
In these Arthurian romances, which gained popularity beginning in the 12th century, Arthur gathered the Knights of the Round Table (Lancelot, Gawain, Galahad, and others). At his court, most often held at Camelot in the later prose romances, could sometimes be found the wizard Merlin. Arthur's knights engaged in fabulous quests, the quest for the Holy Grail being perhaps the best known. Other stories from the Celtic world came to be associated with Arthur, such as the tale of Tristan and Isolde. In the late prose romances the love affair between Arthur's champion, Lancelot, and the Queen, Guinevere, becomes the central reason for the fall of the Arthurian world.
In the romances, Arthur is killed in his last battle, the Battle of Camlann, in which he fought against the forces of Mordred. The Prose Lancelot and the later prose cyclic romances state that Mordred was also a Knight of the Round Table and the child of an incestuous union between Arthur and his sister Morgause. In almost all accounts Arthur is said to have been mortally wounded, but to have been taken after the battle to Avalon (sometimes identified with Glastonbury in Somerset, England), where his wounds are healed or his body buried in a chapel. Some texts refer to a return of Arthur in the future.
The Arthurian mythos spread far across the continent. An image of Arthur and his Knights attacking a castle was carved into an archivolt over the north doorway of Modena Cathedral in Italy sometime between 1099 and 1120. The surprising fact that these Italian images seem to have been carved more than a decade before the appearance of Geoffrey's "Historia" indicates how limited is our knowledge of the spread of Arthurian legend in the early Middle Ages. Also in Italy, a mosaic pavement in the cathedral of Otranto, near Bari, was made in 1165 with the unexplained depiction of Arturus Rex bearing a sceptre and riding a goat. 15th century merchants set up an Arthurian hall in his honour in Gdańsk, Poland.
In 1191, monks of Glastonbury Abbey announced that they had found the burial site of Arthur and Guinevere. Their grave was shown to many people, and the reputed remains were moved to a new tomb in 1278. The tomb was destroyed during the Reformation, and the bones lost. The antiquary John Leland reports that he saw the cross found with the remains, and transcribed its inscription as
Hic iacet sepvltvs inclytvs rex artvrivs in insvla avalonia — "Here is buried the famous king Arthur in the Island of Avalon".
If Leland accurately reproduced the script of this inscription, then it can be dated to the 10th century. At least one scholar has suggested that the cross was added when Arthur's remains were transferred to the Abbey.
In Robert de Boron's Merlin, later followed by Thomas Malory, Arthur obtained the throne by pulling a sword from a stone and anvil. In this account, this act could not be performed except by "the true king," meaning the divinely appointed king or true heir of Uther Pendragon. This sword was presumably the famous Excalibur and the identity is made explicit in the later so-called Vulgate Merlin Continuation.
However, in what is sometimes called the Post-Vulgate Merlin, Excalibur was taken from a hand rising from a lake and given to Arthur sometime after he began to reign by The Lady of the Lake. According to many sources, Arthur broke the sword pulled from the stone whilst fighting King Pellinore, and thus Merlin took him to achieve Excalibur from the Lake (as cited in many novels including Howard Pyle's King Arthur and His Knights, King Arthur and the legend of Camelot, and indeed most modern Arthurian literature). In this Post-Vulgate version, the sword's blade could slice through anything and its sheath made the wearer invincible. Some stories say that Arthur did indeed pull the sword from the stone (Excalibur), giving him the right to be king, but accidentally killed a fellow knight with it and cast it away. Merlin told him to undertake a quest to find another blade, and it was then that Arthur received his sword from the hand in the water, and named it Excalibur, after his original sword. The first appearance of the sword named Caliburn is in Geoffrey of Monmouth who asserted that in battle against Arthur "nought might armour avail, but that Caliburn would carve their souls from out them with their blood." ([3]).
The several books by Norma Lorre Goodrich are very popular, but are based on a poorly received analysis of Arthurian legend and medieval history. She asserts he was a borderlands king whose activity centred around the Roman walls and wall forts. This is so at odds with entrenched beliefs that she is dismissed by many scholars despite some well founded conclusions.
Mary Stewart's Merlin books: The Crystal Cave sets up the background for the Arthurian legend. The Hollow Hills encompasses most of Arthur's lifespan, including his childhood with Merlin as his tutor. The Last Enchantment deals with Merlin's later life, against the continued background of Arthur's rule. A later book, The Wicked Day, was written from the point of view of Mordred in the later period of Arthur's rule, and provides an interesting counterpoint to the original three novels.
Dragon Lord, David Drake's somewhat unconventional story involving a "King Arthur" who is more great military general than quasi-enchanted King and takes place shortly after the fall of the Roman Empire and long before the Age of Chivalry.
Tim Powers' The Drawing of the Dark depicts an eternal King Arthur reincarnated to participate in the Siege of Vienna.
Persia Woolley's Child of the Northern Spring, Queen of the Summer Stars, and Guinevere: The Legend in Autumn.
Jack Whyte's The Camulod Chronicles, a series of books based more in historical fiction than fantasy beginning with Roman Britain and leading through Arthur's reign.
Bernard Cornwell's Warlord Chronicles consist of three novels, Winter King, Enemy of God, and Excalibur, and reintroduce many old characters back into the tale. Told by Derfel after Arthur's death they are very realistic in nature even though they do have Merlin and Lancelot and magic. Well worth a read and the Authors notes at the end are enlightening. "There is a sword and there is a stone, but one is not in the other", is Cornwell's own summary.
Rosalind Miles' Guenevere Trilogy is a fictional trilogy that follows Guenevere and King Arthur through their reign as High King & Queen
In 1960, a successful Broadway musical called "Camelot" was created by the team responsible for "My Fair Lady", Moss Hart, Alan Jay Lerner, and Frederick Loewe. It starred Richard Burton as Arthur, Julie Andrews as Guinevere, and introduced Robert Goulet as Lancelot. The original cast album of the show was a particular favorite of then-President John F. Kennedy, and the "Camelot" metaphor has been often associated with his presidency. A film based on the musical starring Richard Harris as Arthur, Vanessa Redgrave as Guinevere, and Franco Nero as Lancelot, was made in 1967.
John Boorman's 1981 film Excalibur -- considered by many to be one of the more faithful modern retellings of the Arthurian Legend.
King Arthur, a motion picture released on July 7, 2004, claiming (despite being heavily criticised for its historical inaccuracies) to be more historically accurate about the legend with respect to new archaeological findings; similar in story line to Jack Whyte's books.
The late 1960s Australian animated cartoon series Arthur! and the Square Knights of the Round Table was a typically wacky take on Arthurian legend.
The 1970s British television series, Arthur of the Britons, starring Oliver Tobias, sought to create a more "realistic" portrait of the period and to explain the origins of some of the myths about the Celtic leader.
The television movie Merlin showing a tale of Arthur and his knights.
The animated series The Legend of Prince Valiant followed the adventures of three young warriors training to be Knights of the Round Table. Originally aired in the early 1990s, it featured Arthur, Merlin, Guinevere, and Gawain in its main cast and several other Arthurian characters in recurring roles.
The animated series Gargoyles featured several tales of Arthur (who was prematurely awakened in a time of need) and the magic and fairies of Avalon. A proposed spin-off for the character never materialized.
The animated series Justice League and Justice League Unlimited featuring related characters Morgan Le Fay, Mordred, and Merlin.
The animated series King Arthur and the Knights of Justice featured an American Football team called the Knights led by quarterback Arthur King. When the "real" Knights of the Round Table are captured, Merlin magically transports the Knights football team to Camelot to defend the kingdom and rescue the captured knights.
In Season Nine of the science-fiction television series Stargate SG-1, Arthur and Arthurian legend, particularly Merlin, are intrinsic to the plot of the season; specifically, Merlin is an Ancient who may have taught Arthur how to Ascend at Glastonbury Tor and hid the wealth of the Knights in an elaborate, puzzle-laden chamber.
Other media
In 1937, a newspaper comic strip by Hal Foster, Prince Valiant was first published, with the byline "In the Days of King Arthur". Since the death of Foster in 1982, John Cullen Murphy has continued producing this comic strip.
The comic bookDracula vs King Arthur from Silent Devil Productions takes the Arthur as he begins his quest for the Grail and pits him against a time-crossing Dracula.
The video game Knights Of The Round by Capcom is a light-hearted take on the Arthurian legend in a sword fighting beat-em-up similar to the video game Final Fight.
A Guide to King Arthur's Forgotten Realm http://panther.bsc.edu/~arthur A detailed but digestible site containing the research materials and experiences of two college students' experiences while travelling Britain's sites associated with the Aurthurian legend.
Camelot in Four Colors : A Survey of the Arthurian Legend in Comics [4]
The Taliesin Foundation: Understanding Celtic tradition in relation to today, in particular the Anglo-Celtic Inheritance of what Winston Churchill called "The English Speaking Peoples", inspired and informed by the mythos of King Arthur, the Round Table, the Quest for the Holy Grail.[5]
Loomis, Roger R. 1972. "Arthur" in Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend (edited by Maria Leach) Funk and Wagnalls. New York.
