Abyssal plain: Difference between revisions
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[[Image:Oceanic divisions.svg|400px|thumb|left|Depiction of the [[abyssal zone]] in relation to other major [[oceanic zone]]s.]] |
[[Image:Oceanic divisions.svg|400px|thumb|left|Depiction of the [[abyssal zone]] in relation to other major [[oceanic zone]]s.]] |
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The ocean can be conceptualized as being divided into various [[oceanic zone|zones]], depending on depth, and presence or absence of |
The ocean can be conceptualized as being divided into various [[oceanic zone|zones]], depending on depth, and presence or absence of [[sunlight]]. Nearly all [[life form]]s in the ocean depend on the [[Photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] activities of [[phytoplankton]] and [[plant]]s to convert [[carbon dioxide]] into [[organic carbon]], which is the basic building block of [[organic matter]]. Photosynthesis in turn requires energy from sunlight to drive the chemical reactions that produce organic carbon. |
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The stratum of the [[water column]] nearest the surface of the ocean ([[sea level]]) is referred to as the [[photic zone]] (a term which is more or less synonymous with the ''[[Epipelagic_zone#Epipelagic_.28sunlit.29|epipelagic zone]]'', or ''surface zone''). The uppermost portion of the photic zone, where there is adequate light to support photosynthesis by phytoplankton and plants, is referred to as the [[euphotic zone]]. The euphotic zone is somewhat arbitrarily defined as extending from the surface to the depth where the light intensity is approximately 0.1–1% of surface [[irradiance]]. In the clearest ocean water, the euphotic zone may extend to a depth of about {{convert|150|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name=Peruvian>{{cite book |
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⚫ | The |
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|author=Jorge Csirke |
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|title=Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries |
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|editor=Edward A. Laws |
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|chapter=El Niño and the Peruvian Anchovy Fishery (series: Global Change Instruction Program) |
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|publisher=Springer |
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|location=Netherlands |
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|edition=Volume 9, Number 1 |
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|date=March, 1999 |
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|pages=118-121 |
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|doi=10.1023/A:1008801515441 |
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|issn=0960-3166 |
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|url=http://www.ucar.edu/communications/gcip/m12anchovy/anchovy.pdf |
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|accessdate=12 June 2010}}</ref> The lower portion of the photic zone, extending from the base of the euphotic zone to about {{convert|200|m|ft|sp=us}} is a stratum called the [[disphotic zone]], where the light intensity is considerably less than 1% of surface irradiance, and therefore insufficient for photosynthesis.<ref name=Britann>{{cite web |
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|author= |
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|date=2010 |
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|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/457662/photic-zone |
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|title=Photic zone |
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|publisher=[http://www.britannica.com/ Encyclopædia Britannica Online] |
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|accessdate=18 June 2010}}</ref> Extending from the bottom of the photic zone down to the [[seabed]] is the [[aphotic zone]], a region of perpetual darkness.<ref name=Buesseler/> |
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The thickness of the photic zone varies with the intensity of sunlight as a function of [[season]], [[latitude]] and degree of water [[turbidity]].<ref name=Peruvian/><ref name=Britann/> [[solution|Dissolved substances]] and [[suspension|solid particles]] absorb and scatter light, and in coastal regions the high concentration of these substances causes light to be attenuated rapidly with depth. In such areas the euphotic zone may be only a few tens of meters deep or less.<ref name=Peruvian/> Since the average depth of the ocean is about {{convert|3800|m|ft|sp=us}},<ref name=Peruvian/> only a tiny fraction of the ocean’s volume has the potential for photosynthesis. |
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⚫ | The aphotic zone |
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⚫ | The photic zone has the greatest biodiversity and [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] of all oceanic zones. Nearly all [[primary production]] in the ocean occurs here. Any life forms present in the aphotic zone must either be capable of [[Diel vertical migration|movement upwards through the water column]] into the euphotic zone for feeding, or must rely on [[marine snow|material sinking from above]], or must find another source of energy and nutrition, such as occurs in [[chemosynthesis|chemosynthetic]] [[archaea]] found near [[hydrothermal vent]]s. |
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⚫ | The aphotic zone can be further subdivided into different vertical regions, based on depth and temperature. The [[mesopelagic zone]] is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at a [[thermocline]] of {{convert|12|C|F}}, which, in the [[tropics]] generally lies between {{convert|700|m|ft|sp=us}} and {{convert|1000|m|ft|sp=us}}. Next is the [[bathyal zone]], lying between {{convert|10-4|C|F}}, typically between {{convert|700|-|1000|m|ft|sp=us}} and {{convert|2000|-|4000|m|ft|sp=us}}. The next zone, the [[abyssal zone]], is typically found between {{convert|3000|-|4000|m|ft|sp=us}} and {{convert|6000|m|ft|sp=us}}. The final zone includes the deep oceanic trenches, and is known as the [[hadal zone]]. This zone lies between {{convert|6000|-|11000|m|ft|sp=us}} and is the deepest oceanic zone. |
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Abyssal plains are typically located in the abyssal zone, at depths ranging from {{convert|3000|-|6000|m|ft|sp=us}}. In practice, many researchers employ a simplified system of classification of oceanic zones:<ref name=Smith2008 /><ref name=Vino1997 /><ref name=Morelle2008>{{cite web |
Abyssal plains are typically located in the abyssal zone, at depths ranging from {{convert|3000|-|6000|m|ft|sp=us}}. In practice, many researchers employ a simplified system of classification of oceanic zones:<ref name=Smith2008 /><ref name=Vino1997 /><ref name=Morelle2008>{{cite web |
Revision as of 00:44, 19 June 2010
Aquatic layers |
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Stratification |
See also |
An abyssal plain is an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor, usually found at depths between 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) and 6,000 meters (20,000 ft). Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a mid-ocean ridge, abyssal plains cover more than 50% of the Earth’s surface.[1][2] They are among the flattest, smoothest and least explored regions on Earth.[3] Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of oceanic basins (the other elements being an elevated mid-ocean ridge and flanking abyssal hills). In addition to these elements, active oceanic basins (those that are associated with a moving plate tectonic boundary) also typically include an oceanic trench and a subduction zone.
Abyssal plains were not recognized as distinct physiographic features of the sea floor until the late 1940s. They are poorly preserved in the sedimentary record because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process. The abyssal plain is formed when the lower oceanic crust is melted and forced upwards by the asthenosphere layer of the upper mantle. As this basaltic material reaches the surface at mid-ocean ridges, it forms new oceanic crust. Abyssal plains result from the blanketing of an originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained sediments, mainly clay and silt. Much of this sediment is deposited from turbidity currents that have been channeled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water. The remainder of the sediment is comprised chiefly of pelagic sediments. The sediment deposition rate in remote areas is estimated at two to three centimeters per thousand years. Metallic nodules are common in some areas of the plains, with varying concentrations of metals, including manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper. These nodules may provide a significant resource for future mining ventures.
Due in part to their vast size, abyssal plains are currently believed to be to be a major reservoir of biodiversity. The abyss also exerts significant influence upon ocean carbon cycling, dissolution of calcium carbonate and atmospheric CO2 concentrations over timescales of 100–1000 years. The structure and function of abyssal ecosystems are strongly influenced by the rate and composition of food flux to the seafloor. Factors such as climate change, fishing practices, and ocean fertilization are expected to substantially alter primary production patterns in the euphotic zone. This will undoubtedly impact the flux of organic material to the abyss in a similar manner; profoundly affecting structure, function and diversity of abyssal ecosystems.[1][4]
Oceanic zones
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2010) |
The ocean can be conceptualized as being divided into various zones, depending on depth, and presence or absence of sunlight. Nearly all life forms in the ocean depend on the photosynthetic activities of phytoplankton and plants to convert carbon dioxide into organic carbon, which is the basic building block of organic matter. Photosynthesis in turn requires energy from sunlight to drive the chemical reactions that produce organic carbon.
The stratum of the water column nearest the surface of the ocean (sea level) is referred to as the photic zone (a term which is more or less synonymous with the epipelagic zone, or surface zone). The uppermost portion of the photic zone, where there is adequate light to support photosynthesis by phytoplankton and plants, is referred to as the euphotic zone. The euphotic zone is somewhat arbitrarily defined as extending from the surface to the depth where the light intensity is approximately 0.1–1% of surface irradiance. In the clearest ocean water, the euphotic zone may extend to a depth of about 150 meters (490 ft).[5] The lower portion of the photic zone, extending from the base of the euphotic zone to about 200 meters (660 ft) is a stratum called the disphotic zone, where the light intensity is considerably less than 1% of surface irradiance, and therefore insufficient for photosynthesis.[6] Extending from the bottom of the photic zone down to the seabed is the aphotic zone, a region of perpetual darkness.[7]
The thickness of the photic zone varies with the intensity of sunlight as a function of season, latitude and degree of water turbidity.[5][6] Dissolved substances and solid particles absorb and scatter light, and in coastal regions the high concentration of these substances causes light to be attenuated rapidly with depth. In such areas the euphotic zone may be only a few tens of meters deep or less.[5] Since the average depth of the ocean is about 3,800 meters (12,500 ft),[5] only a tiny fraction of the ocean’s volume has the potential for photosynthesis.
The photic zone has the greatest biodiversity and biomass of all oceanic zones. Nearly all primary production in the ocean occurs here. Any life forms present in the aphotic zone must either be capable of movement upwards through the water column into the euphotic zone for feeding, or must rely on material sinking from above, or must find another source of energy and nutrition, such as occurs in chemosynthetic archaea found near hydrothermal vents.
The aphotic zone can be further subdivided into different vertical regions, based on depth and temperature. The mesopelagic zone is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of 12 °C (54 °F), which, in the tropics generally lies between 700 meters (2,300 ft) and 1,000 meters (3,300 ft). Next is the bathyal zone, lying between 10–4 °C (50–39 °F), typically between 700–1,000 meters (2,300–3,300 ft) and 2,000–4,000 meters (6,600–13,100 ft). The next zone, the abyssal zone, is typically found between 3,000–4,000 meters (9,800–13,100 ft) and 6,000 meters (20,000 ft). The final zone includes the deep oceanic trenches, and is known as the hadal zone. This zone lies between 6,000–11,000 meters (20,000–36,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic zone.
Abyssal plains are typically located in the abyssal zone, at depths ranging from 3,000–6,000 meters (9,800–19,700 ft). In practice, many researchers employ a simplified system of classification of oceanic zones:[1][2][8]
Zone | Subzone (common name) | Depth of zone | Water temperature | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|
euphotic | 0–200 meters | highly variable | ||
aphotic | bathyal | 200–3000 meters | (4°C - 12°C) | |
abyssal | 3000–6000 meters | (-0.5°C - 4°C) | water temperature may reach as high as 464°C near hydrothermal vents[9][10][11][12][13] | |
hadal | below 6000 meters[14] | (1°C - 2.5°C)[15] | ambient water temperature increases below 4000 meters due to adiabatic heating[15] |
Hydrothermal vents
A rare but important terrain feature found in the abyssal and hadal zones is the hydrothermal vent. In contrast to the approximately 2°C ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60°C up to as high as 464°C.[9][10][11][12][13] Due to the high barometric pressure at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a supercritical fluid at such temperatures.
At a barometric pressure of 218 atmospheres, the critical point of water is 375°C. At a depth of 3,000 meters, the barometric pressure of sea water is more than 300 atmospheres (as salt water is denser than fresh water). At this depth and pressure, seawater becomes supercritical at a temperature of 407°C (see image). However the increase in salinity at this depth pushes the water closer to its critical point. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents, black smokers and submarine volcanoes can be a supercritical fluid, possessing physical properties between those of a gas and those of a liquid.[9][10][11][12][13]
Sister Peak (Comfortless Cove Hydrothermal Field, 4°48′S 12°22′W / 4.800°S 12.367°W, elevation -2996.0 m), Shrimp Farm and Mephisto (Red Lion Hydrothermal Field, 4°48′S 12°23′W / 4.800°S 12.383°W, elevation -3047.0 m), are three hydrothermal vents of the black smoker category, located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near Ascension Island. They are presumed to have been active since an earthquake shook the region in 2002.[9][10][11][12][13] These vents have been observed to vent phase-separated, vapor-type fluids. In 2008, sustained exit temperatures of up to 407°C were recorded at one of these vents, with a peak recorded temperature of up to 464°C. These thermodynamic conditions exceed the critical point of seawater, and are the highest temperatures recorded to date from the seafloor. This is the first reported evidence for direct magmatic-hydrothermal interaction on a slow-spreading mid-ocean ridge.[9][10][11][12][13]
Formation
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2010) |
Abyssal plains are among the least studied areas of the Earth's surface. They were not recognized as distinct physiographic features of the sea floor until the late 1940s, and until very recently, few have been systematically studied. They are poorly preserved in the sedimentary record because they tend to be consumed by subduction over the long term.[3]
The bedrock of abyssal plains is formed when the upper mantle is partially melted into magma by compression under mid-ocean ridges. This magma then migrates upward, where it solidifies to form new oceanic crust. This process is called mantle convection.[16] The lithosphere, which rides atop the asthenosphere, is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries. Accretion occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate, usually associated with seafloor spreading. This hot added material cools down by conduction and convection of heat. At the consumption edges of the plate, the material has thermally contracted to become dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction at an oceanic trench.[17]
This new oceanic crust is mostly basalt at shallow levels and has a rugged topography. The roughness of this topography is a function of the rate at which the mid-ocean ridge is spreading (the spreading rate). Magnitudes of spreading rates vary quite significantly, and are generally broken down into 3 rates (fast, medium and slow). Typical values for fast-spreading ridges are >100 mm/yr, whilst medium-spreading rates are ~60 mm/yr, and slow-spreading ridges are typically less than 20 mm/yr. Studies have shown that the slower the spreading rate, the rougher the new oceanic crust will be, and vice versa. It is thought this is due to faulting at the mid-ocean ridge when the new oceanic crust was formed. This oceanic crust eventually becomes overlain with sediments, producing the flat appearance.
Abyssal plains result from the blanketing of an originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained sediments, mainly clay and silt. Much of this sediment is deposited from turbidity currents that have been channeled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water. The remainder of the sediment comprises chiefly dust (clay particles) blown out to sea from land, and the remains of small marine plants and animals which sink from the upper layer of the ocean, known as pelagic sediments. The sediment deposition rate in remote areas is estimated at two to three centimeters per thousand years. Sediment-covered abyssal plains are less common in the Pacific Ocean than in other major ocean basins because sediments from turbidity currents are trapped in oceanic trenches that border the Pacific Ocean.
Discovery
The landmark scientific expedition (December 1872 – May 1876) of the British Royal Navy survey ship HMS Challenger yielded a tremendous amount of bathymetric data, much of which has been confirmed by subsequent researchers. Bathymetric data obtained during the course of the Challenger expedition enabled scientists to draw maps,[18] which provided a rough outline of certain major submarine terrain features, such as the edge of the continental shelves and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This discontinuous set of data points was obtained by the simple technique of taking soundings by lowering long lines from the ship to the seabed.[19]
Beginning in 1916, Canadian physicist Robert William Boyle and other scientists of the Anti-Submarine Detection Investigation Committee (ASDIC) undertook research which ultimately led to the development of sonar technology. Acoustic sounding equipment was developed which could be operated much more rapidly than the sounding lines, thus enabling the expedition aboard the German research vessel RV Meteor (1925–27) to take frequent soundings on east-west Atlantic transects. Maps produced from these techniques show the major Atlantic basins, but the depth precision of these early instruments was not sufficient to reveal the flat featureless abyssal plains.[20][21]
As technology improved, measurement of depth, latitude and longitude became more precise and it became possible to collect more or less continuous sets of data points. This allowed researchers to draw accurate and detailed maps of large areas of the ocean floor. Use of a continuously recording fathometer enabled Tolstoy & Ewing in the summer of 1947 to identify and describe the first abyssal plain. This plain, located to the south of Newfoundland, is now known as the Sohm Abyssal Plain.[22] Following this discovery many other examples were found in all the oceans.[23][24][25][26][27]
The Challenger Deep is the deepest surveyed point of all of Earth's oceans; it is located at the southern end of the Mariana Trench near the Mariana Islands group. The depression is named after HMS Challenger, whose researchers made the first recordings of its depth on 23 March 1875 at station 225. The reported depth was 4,475 fathoms 8,184 meters (26,850 ft) based on two separate soundings. On 1 June 2009, sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the Simrad EM120 multibeam sonar bathymetry system aboard the RV Kilo Moana indicated a maximum depth of 10,971 meters (35,994 ft) (6.82 miles). The sonar system uses phase and amplitude bottom detection, with an accuracy of better than 0.2% of water depth (this is an error of about 22 meters at this depth).[28][29]
Biodiversity
Though the plains were once assumed to be vast, desert-like habitats, research over the past decade or so shows that they teem with a wide variety of microbial life.[30][31] Recent oceanographic expeditions conducted by an international group of scientists from the Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life (CeDAMar) have found an extremely high level of biodiversity on abyssal plains, with 2000 species of bacteria, 250 species of protozoans, and 500 species of invertebrates (worms, crustaceans and molluscs) typically found at single abyssal sites.[32] Because of the size and remoteness of the abyss, ecosystem structure and function at the seafloor have historically been very poorly studied. New species make up more than 80% of the thousands of seafloor invertebrate species collected at any abyssal station, highlighting our heretofore poor understanding of abyssal diversity and evolution.[32][33][34][35]
Abyssobrotula galatheae, a species of cusk eel in the family Ophidiidae, is among the deepest-living species of fish. In 1970, one specimen was trawled from a depth of 8,370 meters (27,460 ft) in the Puerto Rico Trench. The animal was dead however, upon arrival at the surface.[36][37][38] In 2008, the hadal snailfish (Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis)[39] was observed and recorded at a depth of 7,700 meters (25,300 ft) in the Japan Trench. These are, to date, the deepest living fish ever recorded.[8][40] Other fish of the abyssal zone include the fishes of the Ipnopidae family, which includes the abyssal spiderfish (Bathypterois longipes), tripod fish (Bathypterois grallator), feeler fish (Bathypterois longifilis), and the black lizardfish (Bathysauropsis gracilis). Some members of this family have been recorded from depths of more than 6,000 meters (20,000 ft).[41]
CeDAMar scientists have demonstrated that some abyssal and hadal species have a cosmopolitan distribution. One example of this would be protozoan foraminiferans,[42] certain species of which are distributed from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Other faunal groups, such as the polychaete worms and isopod crustaceans, appear to be endemic to certain specific plains and basins.[32] Many apparently unique taxa of nematode worms have also been recently discovered on abyssal plains. This suggests that the very deep ocean has fostered adaptive radiations.[32] Click here to see a list of some of the species that have been discovered or redescribed by CeDAMar.
In 2001, scientists of the Diversity of the deep Atlantic benthos (DIVA 1) expedition (cruise M48/1 of the German research vessel RV Meteor III) discovered and collected a new species of the Asellota suborder of isopod[43] from the abyssal plains of the Angola Basin in the South Atlantic Ocean; this rare benthic isopod is a subspecies of Eurycope tumidicarpus.[44]
Peracarid crustaceans are known to form a significant part of the macrobenthic community that is responsible for scavenging on large food falls onto the sea floor.[1][45] In 2003, De Broyer et al. collected some 68,000 peracarid crustaceans from 62 species from baited traps deployed in the Weddell Sea, Scotia Sea, and off the South Shetland Islands. They found that about 98% of the specimens belonged to the amphipod superfamily Lysianassoidea, and 2% to the isopod family Cirolanidae. Half of these species were collected from depths of greater than 1000 meters.[45][46]
In 2005, the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) remotely operated vehicle, KAIKO, collected sediment core from the Challenger Deep. 432 living specimens of soft-walled foraminifera were identified in the sediment samples.[47][48] Foraminifera are single-celled protists that construct shells. There are an estimated 4,000 species of living foraminifera. Out of the 432 organisms collected, the overwhelming majority of the sample consisted of simple, soft-shelled foraminifera, with others representing species of the complex, multi-chambered genera Leptohalysis and Reophax. Overall, 85% of the specimens consisted of organic soft-shelled allogromids. This is unusual compared to samples of sediment-dwelling organisms from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20% of the total. Small organisms with hard calcated shells have trouble growing at extreme depths because the water at that depth is severely lacking in calcium carbonate.[citation needed]
While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower oceanic trenches (>7,000 m) and on the abyssal plain, the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep may represent independent taxa from those shallower ecosystems. This preponderance of soft-shelled organisms at the Challenger Deep may be a result of selection pressure. Millions of years ago, the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now. Over the past six to nine million years, as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth, many of the species present in the sediment of that ancient biosphere were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment. Those species that were able to adapt may have been the ancestors of the organisms currently endemic to the Challenger Deep.[47]
Polychaetes occur throughout the Earth's oceans at all depths, from forms that live as plankton near the surface, to the deepest oceanic trenches. The robot ocean probe Nereus observed a 2–3 cm specimen (still unclassified) of polychaete at the bottom of the Challenger Deep on 31 May 2009.[48][49][50][51] There are more than 10,000 described species of polychaetes; they can be found in nearly every marine environment. Some species live in the coldest ocean temperatures of the hadal zone, while others can be found in the extremely hot waters adjacent to hydrothermal vents.
Relative to the most of the abyssal and hadal zones, the areas around submarine hydrothermal vents, especially black smokers, are biologically more productive. Fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids, these areas are often home to large and diverse communities of organisms. Chemosynthetic archaea form the base of the food chain, supporting other simple organisms. These in turn support more complex, multicellular organisms such as giant tube worms, clams, limpets, isopods, and shrimp.
Probably the most important ecological characteristic of abyssal ecosystems is energy limitation. Abyssal seafloor communities are considered to be food limited because benthic production depends on the input of detrital organic material produced in the euphotic zone, thousands of meters above.[52] Most of the organic flux arrives as an attenuated rain of small particles (typically, only 0.5–2% of net primary production in the euphotic zone), which decreases inversely with water depth.[7] The small particle flux can be augmented by the fall of larger carcasses and downslope transport of organic material near continental margins.[52]
Eleven of the 31 described monoplacophoran species worldwide live below 2000 meters.[53] Of these 11 species, two live exclusively in the hadal zone. The greatest number of monoplacophorans are from the eastern Pacific along the oceanic trenches.[53] However, no abyssal monoplacophorans have yet been found in the Western Pacific and there is only a single species known from below 2000 meters in the Indian Ocean. Of the 922 known chitons, 22 species (2.4%) are reported to live below 2000 meters and two of them are restricted to the abyssal plain.[53] Although genetic studies are lacking, at least six of these species are thought to be eurybathic and a few of them are reported as occurring from the sublittoral to abyssal depths. A large number of the polyplacophorans from great depths are herbivorous or xylophagous, which could explain the difference between the distribution of monoplacophorans and polyplacophorans in the world's oceans.[53]
Exploitation of resources
In addition to their high biodiversity, abyssal plains are of great current and future commercial and strategic interest. For example, they may be used for the legal and illegal disposal of large structures such as ships and oil rigs, radioactive waste and other hazardous waste, such as munitions. They may also be attractive sites for deep-sea fishing, and extraction of oil and gas and other minerals. Future deep-sea waste disposal activities that could be significant by 2025 include emplacement of sewage and sludge, carbon-dioxide sequestration, and disposal of dredge spoils.[54]
As fish stocks dwindle in the upper ocean, deep-sea fisheries are increasingly being targeted for exploitation. Because deep sea fish are long-lived and slow growing, these deep-sea fisheries are not thought to be sustainable in the long term given current management practices.[54]
Hydrocarbon exploration in deep water results in significant environmental degradation resulting mainly from accumulation of contaminated drill cuttings, but also from oil spills. While the oil gusher involved in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico originates from a wellhead only 5,000 feet (1,500 m) below the ocean surface,[55] it nevertheless illustrates the kind of environmental disaster that can result from mishaps related to offshore drilling for oil and gas.
Sediments of certain abyssal plains contain abundant mineral resources, notably polymetallic nodules. These potato-sized concretions of manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper, distributed on the seafloor at depths of greater than 4000 meters,[54] are of significant commercial interest. The area of maximum commercial interest for polymetallic nodule mining (called the Pacific nodule province) lies in international waters of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from 118°–157°, and from 9°–16°N, an area of more than 3 million km².[4]
Eight commercial contractors are currently licensed by the International Seabed Authority (an intergovernmental organization established to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction) to explore nodule resources and to test mining techniques in eight claim areas, each covering 150,000 km².[4] When mining ultimately begins, each mining operation is projected to directly disrupt 300–800 km² of seafloor per year and disturb the benthic fauna over an area 5-10 times that size due to redeposition of suspended sediments. Thus, over the 15-year projected duration of a single mining operation, nodule mining might severely damage abyssal seafloor communities over areas of 20,000 to 45,000 km² (a zone at least the size of Massachusetts).[4]
Marine mineral extraction is among the most significant conservation challenges in the deep sea. The vast scales envisioned for deep sea mining dwarf all other human impacts on the abyssal zone. Environmental degradation caused by mining of polymetallic nodules could possibly affect as much as several hundred thousand km², with ecosystem recovery requiring many decades to millions of years (for nodule regrowth).[54] Limited knowledge of the taxonomy, biogeography and natural history of deep sea communities prevents accurate assessment of the risk of species extinctions from large-scale mining. Changes in primary production in surface waters will alter the standing stocks in the food-limited, deep-sea benthic. Long time-series studies from the abyssal North Pacific and North Atlantic suggest that even seemingly stable deep-sea ecosystems may exhibit change in key ecological parameters on decadal time scales.[54]
List of Abyssal plains
Following is a list of named abyssal plains:[3][56]
See also
References
- ^ a b c d Craig R. Smith, Fabio C. De Leo, Angelo F. Bernardino, Andrew K. Sweetman, and Pedro Martinez Arbizu (2008). "Abyssal food limitation, ecosystem structure and climate change" (PDF). Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 23 (9): 518–528. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.002. PMID 18584909. Retrieved 12 June 2010.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b N.G. Vinogradova (1997). "Zoogeography of the Abyssal and Hadal Zones". Advances in Marine Biology. 32: 325–387. doi:10.1016/S0065-2881(08)60019-X. Retrieved 12 June 2010.
- ^ a b c P.P.E. Weaver; J. Thomson; P. M. Hunter (1987). Geology and Geochemistry of Abyssal Plains (PDF). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. p. x. ISBN 0-632-01744-9. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
- ^ a b c d Smith, C.R., Paterson,G., Lambshead, J., Glover, A.; et al. (2008). "Biodiversity, species ranges, and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province: predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining". International Seabed Authority Technical Study: No.3 (PDF). Kingston, Jamaica: International Seabed Authority. pp. 1–45. ISBN 978-976-95217-2-8. Retrieved 12 June 2010.
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(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d Jorge Csirke (March, 1999). "El Niño and the Peruvian Anchovy Fishery (series: Global Change Instruction Program)". In Edward A. Laws (ed.). Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries (PDF) (Volume 9, Number 1 ed.). Netherlands: Springer. pp. 118–121. doi:10.1023/A:1008801515441. ISSN 0960-3166. Retrieved 12 June 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|date=
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- ^ a b c d Enrico Schwabe (2008). "A summary of reports of abyssal and hadal Monoplacophora and Polyplacophora (Mollusca)". In Pedro Martinez Arbizu & Saskia Brix (ed.). Bringing light into deep-sea biodiversity (Zootaxa 1866) (PDF). Auckland, New Zealand: Magnolia Press. pp. 205–222. ISBN 978-1-86977-260-4. Retrieved 12 June 2010. Cite error: The named reference "Schwabe2008" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
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- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (2010). "Blake Plateau". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
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- ^ Daniel Sarewitz (November 1983). "Seven Devils terrane: Is it really a piece of Wrangellia?". Geology. 11 (11): 634–637. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11<634:SDTIIR>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
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: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ WESLEY K. WALLACE, CATHERINE L. HANKS and JOHN F. ROGERS (November 1989). "The southern Kahiltna terrane: Implications for the tectonic evolution of southwestern Alaska". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 101 (11): 1389–1407. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1989)101<1389:TSKTIF>2.3.CO;2. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
- ^ ROGERS, Robert K. and SCHMIDT, Jeanine M. (May 15, 2002). "METALLOGENY OF THE WRANGELLIA TERRANE IN THE TALKEETNA MOUNTAINS, SOUTHERN ALASKA". Cordilleran Section - 98th Annual Meeting. Alaskan Tectonics, Structure, and Stratigraphy. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Greene, A.R., Scoates, J.S., Weis, D. and Israel, S. (2005). "Flood basalts of the Wrangellia Terrane, southwest Yukon: Implications for the formation of oceanic plateaus, continental crust and Ni-Cu-PGE mineralization". In D.S. Emond, L.L. Lewis and G.D. Bradshaw (ed.). Yukon Exploration and Geology (PDF). Yukon Geological Survey. pp. 109–120. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ WARREN J. NOKLEBERG, DAVID L. JONES and NORMAN J. SILBERLING (1985). "Origin and tectonic evolution of the Maclaren and Wrangellia terranes, eastern Alaska Range, Alaska". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 96 (10): 1257–1270. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1985)96<1251:OATEOT>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
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: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ ISRAEL, Steve A. and MORTENSEN, James K. (8 May 2009). "STRATIGRAPHIC AND TECTONIC RELATIONSHIPS OF THE PALEOZOIC PORTION OF WRANGELLIA". Cordilleran Section Meeting - 105th Annual Meeting. Paleozoic Paleogeography of Cordilleran Terranes III. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ A.R. Greene, J.S. Scoates and D. Weis (2005). "Wrangellia Terrane on Vancouver Island, British Columbia: Distribution of Flood Basalts with Implications for Potential Ni-Cu-PGE Mineralization in Southwestern British Columbia" (PDF). British Columbia Geological Survey. Geological Fieldwork 2004: 209–220. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
Further reading
- Gill, Adrian E. (1982). Atmosphere-Ocean Dynamics. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0122835204.
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: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - Stewart, Robert H. (2007). Introduction to Physical Oceanography (PDF). College Station: Texas A&M University. OCLC 169907785.
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External links
- Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (3 November 2009). "Deep-sea Ecosystems Affected By Climate Change". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 12 June 2010.
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