Koreans: Difference between revisions

Koreans
한국인/韓國人
조선인/朝鮮人
	File:King Sejong.jpgFile:Kim Koo.jpg 1st row: Eulji Mundeok • Yun Duseo • King Sejong; 2nd row: Kim Jeonghui • Kim Gu • Kim Dae-jung; 3rd row: Lee Seung-Yeop • Park Ji-Sung • Kim Yuna Korean people
Regions with significant populations
	South Korea 50,062,000 (2009 est.) ; North Korea 24,051,218 (2009 est.); ; Overseas populations as of 2009
People's Republic of China	2,336,771
United States	2,102,283
Japan	904,512
Canada	223,322
Russia	222,027
Uzbekistan	175,939
Australia	125,669
Philippines	115,400
Kazakhstan	103,952
Vietnam	88,120
Brazil	48,419
United Kingdom	45,295
Thailand	40,370
Indonesia	31,760
Germany	31,248
New Zealand	30,792
Argentina	22,024
Kyrgyzstan	19,420
France	14,738
Malaysia	14,580
Singapore	13,509
Ukraine	13,001
Mexico	12,072
Guatemala	9,921
India	8,337
Sweden	7000
Paraguay	5,229
Cambodia	4,772
Italy	4,203
South Africa	3,949
Spain	3,647
Taiwan	3,158
United Arab Emirates	3,114
Qatar	2,365
Mongolia	2,323
Chile	2,249
Austria	2,247
Switzerland	2,141
Saudi Arabia	2,014
Czech Republic	1,780
Tajikistan	1,762
Netherlands	1,722
Slovakia	1,495
Sweden	1,434
Ecuador	1,418
Turkey	1,396
Belarus	1,265
Ireland	1,146
Kuwait	1,058
Hungary	1,053
Languages
	Korean speakers: 78 million (1999 est.)
Religion
	Korean Christianity, Korean Buddhism, Muism (Korean Shamanism), Cheondoism. Large non-religious and atheist segment. Background of Korean Confucianism.

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The Korean people are an ethnic group originating in the Korean peninsula and Manchuria.^[10]^[11] Koreans are one of the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous groups in the world.^[12]

Names

South Koreans call Koreans Han-guk-in (한국인; 韓國人)—or simply 한인/Han-in for South Koreans living abroad—or informally Hanguk saram (한국 사람; 韓國 사람), while North Koreans call Koreans Chosŏn-in (조선인; 朝鮮人) or Chosŏn saram (조선 사람; 朝鮮 사람). See Names of Korea, Korean romanization, Hangul (한글) and Hanja (한자).

Origins

Linguistic and archaeological studies

Koreans are believed to be descendants of peoples of Manchuria, often said to be Altaic-^[13]^[14] or proto-Altaic^[15]-speaking tribes, linking them with Mongols, Turkic and Tungusic peoples. Archaeological evidence suggests proto-Koreans were migrants from south-central Siberia,^[16] who populated ancient Korea in successive waves from the Neolithic age to the Bronze Age.^[17]

Genetic studies

Studies of polymorphisms in the human Y-chromosome have so far produced evidence to suggest that the Korean people have a long history as a distinct, mostly endogamous ethnic group, with successive waves of people moving to the peninsula and three major Y-chromosome haplogroups.^[18]

Y-DNA haplogroups

Korean males display a high frequency of Haplogroup O2b* (P49), a subclade of possibly Manchurian origin, and O3 (M122), a common Y-DNA haplogroup among East Asians in general.^[19]^[20] Haplogroup O2b* occurs in approximately 14%^[21]^[22]^[23] to 33%^[24] of all Korean males, while haplogroup O3 has been found in approximately 40% of sampled Korean males.^[22]^[25]^[26] The origins of Korean Haplogroup O3 are thought to be diverse, with some of them having expanded from Manchuria with Haplogroup O2b and some of them having expanded from southern China with rice agriculturists such as the Hmong people.

Korean males also exhibit a moderate frequency of Haplogroup C3. Haplogroup C3 is thought to be the original inhabitants of the area related to the Nivkh people.

mtDNA haplogroups

Studies of Korean mtDNA lineages have shown that there is a high frequency of Haplogroup D4, ranging from approximately 23% among ethnic Koreans in Arun Banner, Inner Mongolia^[27] to approximately 27% among ethnic Koreans in southern Manchuria and South Korea.^[23] Haplogroup D4 is the modal mtDNA haplogroup among Koreans and among northern East Asians in general. Haplogroup B, which occurs very frequently in many populations of Southeast Asia, Polynesia, and the Americas, is found in approximately 10% (5/48 ethnic Koreans from Arun Banner, Inner Mongolia) to 15% (27/185 Koreans from South Korea) of Koreans.^[23]^[27] Haplogroup A has been detected in approximately 8% (15/185 Koreans from South Korea) to 15% (7/48 ethnic Koreans from Arun Banner, Inner Mongolia) of Koreans.^[23]^[27] Haplogroup A is the most common mtDNA haplogroup among the Chukchi, Eskimo, Na-Dene, and many Amerind ethnic groups of North and Central America.

The other half of the Korean mtDNA pool consists of an assortment of various haplogroups, each found with relatively low frequency, such as G, N9, F, D5, M7, M8, M9, M10, M11, R11, C, and Z.^[23]

Sung-Soo Hung et al. (Korean:윤승수) of the Department of Biology at Seoul National University found that Mongoloids, including Koreans, were relatively homogenous in 9-bp deletion type of the mtDNA COM/ tRNA^Lys intergenic region and Hung found 16% of Koreans in Seoul (N=175) had this mutation while only 7.8% of Koreans in Cheju (N=38) had this mutation.^[28]

Autosomal studies

A 2010 paper on Korean genetics found that of the East Asians, the Koreans are the most genetically distant from Africans. In the same study, Koreans clustered mostly with the Japanese and Beijing/Jilin northeast Chinese populations; however, a significant number of Koreans were found to form a cluster distinct from the Chinese and Japanese. The authors suggested that this cluster were Koreans with significant Siberian admixture, and it was observed mainly in Koreans from the Gyeongsang regions.^[29]

A genetic admixture model reports that central Asian Altaic admixture is prevalent in Koreans, whereas it is relatively absent in Han Chinese from Beijing and in the Japanese.^[29] This suggests that the main direction of Altaic gene flow into Northeast Asia was from Central Asia into the Korean peninsula via Manchuria. Jongsun Jung et al. reports that the Koreans from central, west and east regions have the highest amount of central Asian Altaic admixture, whereas Koreans from the southwestern tip of Jeju Island have the least. This is in concordance with the fact that the Korean kingdom of Koguryo was situated in the central and northern parts of the Korean peninsula and Manchuria.

A recent paper of 2009 shows there is little evidence that Koreans migrated to Austronesia. Among the East Asians, they share the least DNA with those peoples, while the Han Chinese have the most DNA in common with Austronesians, indicating ancient migration of those peoples to that region. ^[30] The Japanese are shown to have slightly more DNA in common with Austronesians than the Koreans.^[31] According to Mapping Human Genetic Diversity in Asia, the chart from figure.1 shows both Korean and Japanese to have only an mixture between 1-2% Austronesian DNA, while Han Chinese have only between mixture of 7-12% Austronesians DNA, Southern Han Chinese minorities groups such as Minnan, Hakka, Cantonese have mixture between 26-34%.

Regional differences

Distinct regional differences, culturally and politically, exist among the Koreans, as they do among other ethnicities.

Within South Korea, the most important regional difference is between the Yeongnam region, embracing Gyeongsangbuk-do and Gyeongsangnam-do provinces in the southeast, and the Honam region, embracing Jeollabuk-do and Jeollanam-do provinces in the southwest. The two regions, separated by the Sobaek Mountains, nurture a rivalry said to reach back to the Three Kingdoms Period, which lasted from the fourth century to the seventh century A.D., when the kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla struggled for control of the peninsula.

Observers noted that interregional marriages are rare, as the two areas have been long separated. As of 1990, a new four-lane highway completed in 1984 between Gwangju and Daegu, the capitals of Jeollanam-do and Gyeongsangbuk-do, had limited success in promoting travel between the two areas.

South Korea's political elite, including presidents Park Chung-hee, Chun Doo-hwan, and Roh Tae-woo, have come largely from the Yeongnam region. As a result, Yeongnam has been a special beneficiary of government development assistance. By contrast, historically the Honam region has remained comparatively rural and undeveloped. Regional social disturbances intensified in the May 1980 Gwangju Democratization Movement or 5.18 Democratization Movement, in which about 200 and perhaps many more college students and citizens of the Gwangju were killed by Chun Doo-hwan's troops. They were sent to quell demonstrations of students and citizens against the government and the military regime. Chun Doo-hwan represented the Gwangju Democratization Movement as if it had been infiltrated by communism by controlling the media. The demonstrations against the military regime occurred all over the country, but only Gwangju was heavily damaged in retaliation. Because the GNP (Grand National Party) stems from the military regime, the people of Honam don't vote for GNP in most elections.

Regional stereotypes, like regional dialects, have been breaking down under the influence of centralized education, nationwide media, and the several decades of population movement since the Korean War. Stereotypes remain important, however, in the eyes of many South Koreans. For example, the people of Gyeonggi-do, surrounding Seoul, are often described as being cultured, and Chungcheong people, inhabiting the region embracing Chungcheongbuk-do and Chungcheongnam-do provinces, are thought to be mild-mannered, manifesting true yangban virtues. The people of Gangwon-do in the northeast were viewed as farmers in a rural, countryside area, while Koreans from the northern provinces of Pyongan, Hwanghae, and Hamgyong, now in North Korea, are perceived as being diligent and aggressive. Jeju-do is known for its strong-minded and independent women.

Culture

North Korea and South Korea share a common heritage, but the political division since 1945 has resulted in some divergence of modern culture.

Language

The language of the Korean people is the Korean language, which uses Hangul as its main writing system. There are more than 78 million speakers of the Korean language worldwide.^[6]

North Korea data

Estimating the size, growth rate, sex ratio, and age structure of North Korea's population has been extremely difficult. Until release of official data in 1989, the 1963 edition of the North Korea Central Yearbook was the last official publication to disclose population figures. After 1963 demographers used varying methods to estimate the population. They either totaled the number of delegates elected to the Supreme People's Assembly (each delegate representing 50,000 people before 1962 and 30,000 people afterward) or relied on official statements that a certain number of persons, or percentage of the population, was engaged in a particular activity. Thus, on the basis of remarks made by President Kim Il Sung in 1977 concerning school attendance, the population that year was calculated at 17.2 million persons. During the 1980s, health statistics, including life expectancy and causes of mortality, were gradually made available to the outside world.

In 1989 the Central Statistics Bureau released demographic data to the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA) in order to secure the UNFPA's assistance in holding North Korea's first nationwide census since the establishment of the state in 1948. Although the figures given to the United Nations might have been distorted, it appears that in line with other attempts to open itself to the outside world, the North Korean regime has also opened somewhat in the demographic realm. Although the country lacks trained demographers, accurate data on household registration, migration, and births and deaths are available to North Korean authorities. According to the United States scholar Nicholas Eberstadt and demographer Judith Banister, vital statistics and personal information on residents are kept by agencies on the ri (“village”, the local administrative unit) level in rural areas and the dong (“district” or “block”) level in urban areas.

Korean diaspora

Large-scale emigration from Korea began as early as the mid-1860s, mainly into the Russian Far East and Northeast China; these populations would later grow to nearly three million Koreans in China and several hundred thousand Koryo-saram (ethnic Koreans in Central Asia).^[32]^[33] During the Colonial Korea of 1910–1945, Koreans were often recruited and or forced into labour service to work in mainland Japan, Karafuto Prefecture, and Manchukuo; the ones who chose to remain in Japan at the end of the war became known as Zainichi Koreans, while the roughly 40 thousand who were trapped in Karafuto after the Soviet invasion are typically referred to as Sakhalin Koreans.^[34]^[35] Korean emigration to America was known to have begun as early as 1903, but the Korean American community did not grow to a significant size until after the passage of the Immigration Reform Act of 1965; as of 2007, roughly 2 million Koreans emigrants and people of Korean descent live in the United States.^{[citation needed]}

The Los Angeles and New York City metropolitan areas in the United States contain the largest populations of ethnic Koreans outside of Korea. Significant Korean populations are present in China, Japan, and Canada as well. There are also Korean communities in Latin American countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico. During the 1990s and 2000s, the number of Koreans in the Philippines and Koreans in Vietnam have also grown significantly.^[36]^[37] Koreans in the United Kingdom now form Western Europe's largest Korean community, albeit still relatively small; Koreans in Germany used to outnumber those in the UK until the late 1990s.

The Korean population in the United States is a small share of the US economy, but it has a disproportionately favorable impact. Korean Americans have a savings rate double that of the average American and also graduate from college at a rate double that of the average American, providing a highly skilled and educated addition to the U.S. workforce. According to the U.S. Census Bureau's Census 2000 data, mean household earnings for Koreans in the U.S. were $59,981, approximately 5.1% higher than the U.S. average of $56,604.^[38]

Gallery

Hanbok dress
Korean dressed as a Joseon Queen

Notes

^ Population of South Korea 2010
^ Preliminary results of the 2008 Census of Population of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea conducted on 1-15 October 2008
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac 재외동포현황/Current Status of Overseas Compatriots. South Korea: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 2009. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
^ Note that the 2006 American Community Survey gave a much smaller figure of 1,520,703. See S0201. Selected Population Profile in the United States. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
^ The 2002 Russian census gave a figure of 148,556. See "Население по национальности и владению русским языком по субъектам Российской Федерации" (Document) (in Russian). Федеральная служба государственной статистики. {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |format= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)
^ ^a ^b "Korean". ethnologue. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2008 – Korea, Republic of". U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 22 January 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2009.
^ state.gov
^ Korean Peninsula (50 million + 24 million) + Korean diaspora (6.8 million)
^ Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues – Page 40 by Pyong Gap Min
^ www.unish.org/unish/DOWN/PDF/912.pdf
^ "South Korea". US Department of State. 10 December 2010. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
^ Nelson, Sarah M. The Archaeology of Korea.
^ "Korean people(한민족)". Naver Encyclopedia (in Korean). Retrieved 9 March 2007. {{cite web}}: External link in |work= (help)
^ "Korean people(한민족)". Encyclopedia Britannica Korea (in Korean). Retrieved 9 March 2007. {{cite web}}: External link in |work= (help)
^ The Rise of Civilization in East Asia: the Archaeology of China, Korea and Japan, pp. 165
^ 뿌리 깊은 한국사, 샘이 깊은 이야기: 고조선, 삼국, pp. 44–45
^ http://www.springerlink.com/content/p604310l152202g4/
^ Hong Shi, Yong-li Dong, Bo Wen et al., "Y-Chromosome Evidence of Southern Origin of the East Asian–Specific Haplogroup O3-M122," Am. J. Hum. Genet. 77:408–419, 2005
^ Bo Wen, Hui Li, Daru Lu et al., "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture," Nature, Vol 431, 16 September 2004
^ Han-Jun Jin, Kyoung-Don Kwak, Michael F. Hammer, Yutaka Nakahori, Toshikatsu Shinka, Ju-Won Lee, Feng Jin, Xuming Jia, Chris Tyler-Smith and Wook Kim, "Y-chromosomal DNA haplogroups and their implications for the dual origins of the Koreans," Human Genetics (2003)
^ ^a ^b Yali Xue, Tatiana Zerjal, Weidong Bao et al., "Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times," Genetics 172: 2431–2439 (April 2006). DOI: 10.1534/genetics.105.054270 Cite error: The named reference "Xue2006" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Han-Jun Jin, Chris Tyler-Smith, and Wook Kim (2009), "The Peopling of Korea Revealed by Analyses of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosomal Markers," PLoS ONE 4(1): e4210. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210 Cite error: The named reference "Jin2009" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ Hammer, Michael F.; Karafet, Tatiana M.; Park, Hwayong; Omoto, K; Harihara, S; Stoneking, M; Horai, S; et al. (2006). "Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes". Journal of Human Genetics. 51 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0. PMID 16328082. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first3= (help)
^ Shin, Dong Jik et al 2001, Y-Chromosome multiplexes and their potential for the DNA profiling of Koreans
^ Kim W, Yoo T-K, Kim S-J, Shin D-J, Tyler-Smith C, et al. (2007) Lack of Association between Y-Chromosomal Haplogroups and Prostate Cancer in the Korean Population. PLoS ONE 2(1): e172. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000172
^ ^a ^b ^c Qing-Peng Kong, Yong-Gang Yao, Mu Liu et al., "Mitochondrial DNA sequence polymorphisms of five ethnic populations from northern China," Hum Genet (2003) 113 : 391–405. DOI 10.1007/s00439-003-1004-7
^ Sung‐Soo Hong, Satoshi Horai & Chung‐Choo Lee. (2010). Distribution of the 9‐bp deletion in COII/ tRNA^Lys intergenic region of mitochondrial DNA is relatively homogeneous in EastAsian populations Korean Journal of Biological Sciences.
^ ^a ^b "Gene Flow between the Korean Peninsula and Its Neighboring Countries". PLoS ONE: accelerating the publication of peer-reviewed science. Retrieved 29 July 2010. {{cite web}}: External link in |work= (help)
^ "Mapping Human Genetic Diversity in Asia ,,". Science Magazine. Retrieved 11 December 2009. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help)
^ http://humpopgenfudan.cn/p/A/A1.pdf
^ Lee Kwang-kyu (2000). Overseas Koreans. Seoul: Jimoondang. ISBN 89-88095-18-9.
^ Kim, Si-joong (2003). "The Economic Status and Role of Ethnic Koreans in China" (PDF). The Korean Diaspora in the World Economy. Institute for International Economics. pp. Ch. 6: 101–131. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
^ Ban, Byung-yool (22 September 2004). "Koreans in Russia: Historical Perspective". Korea Times. Retrieved 20 November 2006.
^ NOZAKI, Yoshiki. "Legal Categories, Demographic Change and Japan's Korean Residents in the Long Twentieth Century". Japan Focus. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Kelly, Tim (18 September 2006). "Ho Chi Minh Money Trail". Forbes. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
^ Meinardus, Ronaldo (15 December 2005). ""Korean Wave" in Philippines". The Korea Times. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
^ http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF4_U_QTP33&-reg=DEC_2000_SF4_U_QTP33:001%7C023&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF4_U&-_lang=en&-format=&-CONTEXT=qt

References

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This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Wikipedia:Copyrights for more information.

서의식 and 강봉룡. 뿌리 깊은 한국사, 샘이 깊은 이야기: 고조선, 삼국, ISBN 89-8133-536-2
Barnes, Gina. The Rise of Civilization in East Asia: the Archaeology of China, Korea and Japan, ISBN 05-0027-974-8

External links

[1] Population of South Korea 2010

[2] Preliminary results of the 2008 Census of Population of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea conducted on 1-15 October 2008

[MOFAT-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac 재외동포현황/Current Status of Overseas Compatriots. South Korea: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 2009. Retrieved 21 May 2009.

[Census2006-4] Note that the 2006 American Community Survey gave a much smaller figure of 1,520,703. See S0201. Selected Population Profile in the United States. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 22 September 2007.

[5] The 2002 Russian census gave a figure of 148,556. See "Население по национальности и владению русским языком по субъектам Российской Федерации" (Document) (in Russian). Федеральная служба государственной статистики. {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |format= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)

[ethnologue.com-6] "Korean". ethnologue. Retrieved 20 April 2007.

[7] "International Religious Freedom Report 2008 – Korea, Republic of". U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 22 January 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2009.

[8] state.gov

[9] Korean Peninsula (50 million + 24 million) + Korean diaspora (6.8 million)

[10] Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues – Page 40 by Pyong Gap Min

[11] www.unish.org/unish/DOWN/PDF/912.pdf

[12] "South Korea". US Department of State. 10 December 2010. Retrieved 16 February 2011.

[13] Nelson, Sarah M. The Archaeology of Korea.

[14] "Korean people(한민족)". Naver Encyclopedia (in Korean). Retrieved 9 March 2007. {{cite web}}: External link in |work= (help)

[15] "Korean people(한민족)". Encyclopedia Britannica Korea (in Korean). Retrieved 9 March 2007. {{cite web}}: External link in |work= (help)

[16] The Rise of Civilization in East Asia: the Archaeology of China, Korea and Japan, pp. 165

[17] 뿌리 깊은 한국사, 샘이 깊은 이야기: 고조선, 삼국, pp. 44–45

[18] ttp://www.springerlink.com/content/p604310l152202g4/

[Shi2005-19] Hong Shi, Yong-li Dong, Bo Wen et al., "Y-Chromosome Evidence of Southern Origin of the East Asian–Specific Haplogroup O3-M122," Am. J. Hum. Genet. 77:408–419, 2005

[Wen2004-20] Bo Wen, Hui Li, Daru Lu et al., "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture," Nature, Vol 431, 16 September 2004

[Jin2003-21] Han-Jun Jin, Kyoung-Don Kwak, Michael F. Hammer, Yutaka Nakahori, Toshikatsu Shinka, Ju-Won Lee, Feng Jin, Xuming Jia, Chris Tyler-Smith and Wook Kim, "Y-chromosomal DNA haplogroups and their implications for the dual origins of the Koreans," Human Genetics (2003)

[Xue2006-22] Yali Xue, Tatiana Zerjal, Weidong Bao et al., "Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times," Genetics 172: 2431–2439 (April 2006). DOI: 10.1534/genetics.105.054270 Cite error: The named reference "Xue2006" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[Jin2009-23] Han-Jun Jin, Chris Tyler-Smith, and Wook Kim (2009), "The Peopling of Korea Revealed by Analyses of Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosomal Markers," PLoS ONE 4(1): e4210. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004210 Cite error: The named reference "Jin2009" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[Hammer2006-24] Hammer, Michael F.; Karafet, Tatiana M.; Park, Hwayong; Omoto, K; Harihara, S; Stoneking, M; Horai, S; et al. (2006). "Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes". Journal of Human Genetics. 51 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0. PMID 16328082. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first3= (help)

[Shin2001-25] Shin, Dong Jik et al 2001, Y-Chromosome multiplexes and their potential for the DNA profiling of Koreans

[Kim2008-26] Kim W, Yoo T-K, Kim S-J, Shin D-J, Tyler-Smith C, et al. (2007) Lack of Association between Y-Chromosomal Haplogroups and Prostate Cancer in the Korean Population. PLoS ONE 2(1): e172. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000172

[Kong2003-27] Qing-Peng Kong, Yong-Gang Yao, Mu Liu et al., "Mitochondrial DNA sequence polymorphisms of five ethnic populations from northern China," Hum Genet (2003) 113 : 391–405. DOI 10.1007/s00439-003-1004-7

[28] Sung‐Soo Hong, Satoshi Horai & Chung‐Choo Lee. (2010). Distribution of the 9‐bp deletion in COII/ tRNA^Lys intergenic region of mitochondrial DNA is relatively homogeneous in EastAsian populations Korean Journal of Biological Sciences.

[plosone.org-29] "Gene Flow between the Korean Peninsula and Its Neighboring Countries". PLoS ONE: accelerating the publication of peer-reviewed science. Retrieved 29 July 2010. {{cite web}}: External link in |work= (help)

[30] "Mapping Human Genetic Diversity in Asia ,,". Science Magazine. Retrieved 11 December 2009. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help)

[31] ttp://humpopgenfudan.cn/p/A/A1.pdf

[LeeKK-32] Lee Kwang-kyu (2000). Overseas Koreans. Seoul: Jimoondang. ISBN 89-88095-18-9.

[SJKim-33] Kim, Si-joong (2003). "The Economic Status and Role of Ethnic Koreans in China" (PDF). The Korean Diaspora in the World Economy. Institute for International Economics. pp. Ch. 6: 101–131. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)

[Byong-34] Ban, Byung-yool (22 September 2004). "Koreans in Russia: Historical Perspective". Korea Times. Retrieved 20 November 2006.

[35] NOZAKI, Yoshiki. "Legal Categories, Demographic Change and Japan's Korean Residents in the Long Twentieth Century". Japan Focus. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[Forbes-36] Kelly, Tim (18 September 2006). "Ho Chi Minh Money Trail". Forbes. Retrieved 27 March 2007.

[Meinardus-37] Meinardus, Ronaldo (15 December 2005). ""Korean Wave" in Philippines". The Korea Times. Retrieved 16 February 2007.

[U.S._Census_2000,Summary_File_4,_Sample_Data-38] ttp://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF4_U_QTP33&-reg=DEC_2000_SF4_U_QTP33:001%7C023&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF4_U&-_lang=en&-format=&-CONTEXT=qt

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