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Osroene

Coordinates: 37°09′30″N 38°47′30″E / 37.1583°N 38.7917°E / 37.1583; 38.7917
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This is an old revision of this page, as edited by LouisAragon (talk | contribs) at 15:00, 13 June 2020 (rv failed WP:VER; the sources speaks about Roman Osroene and Mesopotamia: "These joined current provinces of the Syrian ethnos (Coele Syria, Syria Phoenice, and Syria Palestina)". Not a word about its population or whatsoever, and certainly not them being Assyrian.). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

For the Roman province, see Osroene (Roman province).
Kingdom of Osroene
ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܐܘܪܗܝ
132 BC–AD 214[1]
Map includes Osroene as a tributary kingdom of the Armenian Empire under Tigranes the Great
Map includes Osroene as a tributary kingdom of the Armenian Empire under Tigranes the Great
StatusKingdom, vassal state, province
CapitalEdessa
Common languagesSyro-Aramaic (official)
Koine Greek
Nabataean Arabic
GovernmentMonarchy
King 
Historical eraHellenistic Age
• Established
132 BC
• Disestablished
AD 214[1]
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Seleucid Empire
Assyria (Roman province)
Diocese of the East
Mesopotamia (Roman province)
Anatolia in the early 1st century AD with Osroëne as a client state of the Parthian Empire
Roman dependency of Osroëne (as of 31 BC)
Roman province of Osroëne, 120, highlighted within the Roman Empire

Osroene, also spelled Osroëne and Osrhoene (Template:Lang-syc "Kingdom of Urhay"; Ancient Greek: Ὀσροηνή) and sometimes known by the name of its capital city, Edessa (now Şanlıurfa, Turkey), was a historical kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia,[2] which was ruled by the Abgarid dynasty of Arab origin.[3][4][5][6][7][8] Generally allied with the Parthians,[9][10] the Kingdom of Osroene enjoyed semi-autonomy to complete independence from the years of 132 BC to AD 214. Though ruled by a dynasty of Arab origin, the kingdom's population was mainly Aramean with a Greek and Parthian admixture.[11] In addition, though Arab cults were attested at Edessa, the city's cultural setting was fundamentally Aramaic (i.e. Syriac) alongside strong Parthian influences.[12][13]

The ruling Abgarid dynasty was deposed by the Romans during the reign of Roman Emperor Caracalla (r. 211–217), probably in 214, and Osroene was incorporated as a province (colonia).[1] Christianity came early to Osroene. From 318, Osroene was a part of the Diocese of the East. By the 5th century, Edessa had become a center of Syriac literature and learning. In 608, the Sasanian emperor, Khosrow II (r. 590–628), took Osroene. In 638, it fell to the Muslims as part of the Muslim conquests.

Background and context

See also: Abgarid dynasty

Osroene, or Edessa, was one of several states that acquired independence from the collapsing Seleucid Empire through a dynasty of the nomadic Nabataean Arab tribe from Southern Canaan and North Arabia, the Osrhoeni, from 136 BC. Osroene's name either derives from the name of this tribe, or from Orhay, the original Aramaic-Syriac name of Edessa.[14] Arab influence had been strong in the region.[15]

Osroene endured for four centuries, with twenty-eight rulers occasionally named "king" on their coins. Most of the kings of Osroene were called Abgar or Manu and settled in urban centers.[16]

Osroene was generally allied with the Parthian Empire.[17][18] It was absorbed into the Roman Empire in 114 as a semiautonomous vassal state, after a period under the rule of the Parthian Empire, incorporated as a simple Roman province in 214. There is an apocryphal legend that Osroene was the first state to have accepted Christianity as state religion,[19][20] but there is not enough evidence to support that claim.[21][22][23]

Population and culture

Though most of Osroene's rulers were from the Abgarid dynasty of Arab origin, the kingdom's population was mainly Aramean, with a Greek and Parthian admixture.[11] In addition, though Arab cults were attested at Edessa (the twins Monimos and Azizos), its cultural setting was fundamentally Aramaic (i.e. Syriac) alongside strong Parthian influences.[24][13] Thus, according to Maurice Sartre: "It would hence be absurd to regard Edessa as solely an Arab city, for its culture owed very little to the nomadic Arabs of the region".[13] Later, within the Roman Empire, Edessa was the most important center of Syriac civilization.[25] Under the Nabataean dynasties, Osroëne became increasingly influenced by Syriac Christianity[26] and was a centre of national reaction against Hellenism.

In his writings, Pliny the Elder refers to the natives of Osroene and the Kingdom of Commagene as Arabs and the region as Arabia.[27] Abgar II is called "an Arab phylarch" by Plutarch,[28] while Abgar V is described as "king of the Arabs" by Tacitus.[29]

The Edessene onomastic contains a lot of Arabic names.[30] The most common one in the ruling dynasty of Edessa being Abgar, a well-attested name among Arabic groups of antiquity.[31] Some members of the dynasty bore Iranian names, while others had Arab names.[1] J.B. Segal notes that the names ending in "-u" are "undoubtedly Nabatean".[1] The Abgarid dynasts spoke "a form of Aramaic".[1]

It was in the region in which the legend of Abgar V originated.

In his writings, Pliny the Elder refers to the natives of Osroene and the Kingdom of Commagene as Arabs and the region as Arabia.[32] Abgar II is called "an Arab phylarch" by Plutarch,[33] while Abgar V is described as "king of the Arabs" by Tacitus.[34]

In Roman sources

Historical Arab states and dynasties
Ancient Arab states
Kingdom of Qedar 800 BC–300 BC
Kingdom of Lihyan 600 BC–100 BC
Nabataean Kingdom 400 BC–106 AD
Kingdom of Osroene 132 BC–244 AD
Emesene Dynasty 64 BC–300s AD
Kingdom of Hatra 100s–241 AD
Tanukhids 196–1100 AD
Ghassanids 220–638 AD
Salihids 300s–500s AD
Lakhmids 300s–602 AD
Kingdom of Kinda 450 AD–550 AD
Arab empires and caliphates
Rashidun 632–661
Umayyads 661–750
Abbasids 750–1258
Fatimids 909–1171
Eastern dynasties
Emirate of Armenia 654–884
Emirate of Tbilisi 736–1122
Emirate of Crete 824–961
Dulafids 840–897
Habbarids 854–1011
Kaysites 860–964
Shirvanshah 861–1538
Alavids 864–928
Hashimids 869–1075
Hamdanids 890–1004
Rawadids 955–1071
Mazyadids 961–1150
Jarrahids 970–1107
Uqaylids 990–1096
Numayrids 990–1081
Mirdasids 1024–1080
Munqidhites 1025–1157
Ma'nids 1517–1697
Turabays 1480–1677
Harfushs 1517–1865
Shihabs 1697–1842
Western dynasties and caliphates
Salihids710–1019
Fihrid Emirate745-757
Umayyad state of Córdoba756–1031
Muhallabids771–793
Idrisids788–974
Aghlabids800–909
Sulaymanids814–922
Muslim Sicily831–1091
Kanzids1004–1412
Bakrids1012–1051
Tujibids1013–1039
Amirids1020–1086
Abbadids1023–1091
Yahsubids1023–1062
Hammudids1026–1057
Muzaynids1027–1063
Jawharids1031–1091
Hudids1039–1110
Sumadihids1041–1091
Tahirids1049–1078
Nasrids1230–1492
Saadids1554–1659
Senussids1837–1969
Arabian Peninsula
Imamate of Oman 751–1970
Ziyadids 819–1138
Yufirids 847–997
Ukhaidhirds 865–1066
Rassids 897–1962
Qarmatians 899–1077
Wajihids 926–965
Sharifate of Mecca 968–1925
Sulayhids 1047–1138
Sulaymanids 1063–1174
Uyunids 1076–1253
Zurayids 1083–1174
Nabhanids 1154–1624
Mahdids 1159–1174
Rasulids 1229–1454
Usfurids 1253–1320
Jarwanids 1305–1487
Kathirids 1395–1967
Tahirids 1454–1526
Jabrids 1463–1521
Qasimids 1597–1872
Ya'arubids 1624–1742
Upper Yafa 1800–1967
Muscat and Oman 1820–1970
Rashidids 1836–1921
Qu'aitids 1858–1967
Emirate of Beihan 1903–1967
Idrisids 1906–1934
Mutawakkilite Kingdom 1926–1970
East Africa
Makhzumi dynasty (Shewa) 896–1279
Nabahani dynasty (Pate Island) 1203–1894
Mahdali dynasty (Kilwa) 1277–1495
Mazrui dynasty (Mombasa) 1746–1828
Sultanate of Zanzibar 1856–1964
Nabahani dynasty (Wituland) 1858–1895
Tippu Tip's State 1860–1887
Current monarchies
'Alawis (Morocco) 1631–present
Al Qasimi (Ras al Khaymah) 1727–present
Al Qasimi (Sharjah) 1727–present
Al Saud (Saudi Arabia) 1744–present
Al Said (Oman) 1749–present
Al Sabah (Kuwait) 1752–present
Al Nahyan (Abu Dhabi) 1761–present
Al Mualla (Umm al-Quwain) 1775–present
Al Khalifa (Bahrain) 1783–present
Al Nuaimi (Ajman) 1810–present
Al Maktoum (Dubai) 1833–present
Al Thani (Qatar) 1868–present
Al Sharqi (Fujairah) 1900–present
Hashemites (Jordan) 1921–present

The area of the kingdom was perhaps roughly coterminous with that of the Roman province of Osrhoene. The great loop of the Euphrates was a natural frontier to the north and west. In the south Batnae was capital of the semi-autonomous principality of Anthemusia until its annexation by Rome, in AD 115. The eastern boundary is uncertain; it may have extended to Nisibis or even to Adiabene in the first century AD. Ḥarrān, however, only 40 km south of Edessa, always maintained its independent status as a Roman colonia.[35]

Edessa, the capital of the ancient kingdom, was a fortress of considerable strength and a staging post both large and nearest to the Euphrates. It was an important road junction; an ancient highway, along which caravans carried merchandise from China and India to the West, met there a north-south road connecting the Armenian Highlands with Antioch. Inevitably, Edessa figured prominently on the international stage.[36]

In 64 BC, as Pompey waged war on the Parthian Empire, Abgar II of Osrhoene had sided with the Romans when Lucius Afranius occupied Upper Mesopotamia. The king was initially an ally of the Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus in his campaign against the Parthians in 53 BC, but Roman historians allege that he betrayed Crassus by leading him to deviate from his safe route along the river and instead into an open desert, where the troops suffered from the barrenness and thus were vulnerable to cavalry attack. Abgar is said to have met with Surenas, the Parthian general, and informed him of the Roman movements. The enormous and infamous Battle of Carrhae followed and destroyed the entire Roman army. Just prior to the battle, Abgar made a pretext to ride away. However, modern historians have questioned whether Abgar intended to betray the Romans and instead may have simply been leading them along an old Arab trade route.[37] According to a Syriac source, Abgar died later that year.[38]

In the early 2nd century AD, King Abgar VII joined the Emperor Trajan's campaign into Mesopotamia and entertained him at court. The king later rebelled against the Romans, however, which led to the Roman general Lucius Quietus sacking Edessa and putting an end to Osrhoene's independence in 116. In 123, during the reign of Hadrian, the Abgarid dynasty was restored with the installation of Ma'nu VII, and Osroene was established as a client kingdom of the Empire.[39] After the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 under Marcus Aurelius, forts were built and a Roman garrison was stationed in Nisibis (now Nusaybin. In 195, following a civil war in which the kingdom had supported his rival Pescennius Niger, Septimius Severus mounted an invasion and annexed the territory as a new province, making Nisibis the capital.[40] However, the emperor did allow the king, Abgar XI, to retain the city of Edessa and a small territory surrounding it.[41] In 213, the reigning king was deposed by Caracalla, and the remaining territory was incorporated into the Roman province of Osroene.[42]

According to legends (without historical justification), by 201 AD or earlier, under King Abgar the Great, Osroene became the first Christian state.[43][44] It is believed that the Gospel of Thomas emanated from Edessa around 140. Prominent early Christian figures have lived in and emerged from the region such as Tatian the Assyrian, who came to Edessa from Hadiab (Adiabene). He made a trip to Rome and returned to Edessa around 172-173. Tatian was the editor of the Diatessaron, which was the primary sacred text of Syriac-speaking Christianity until in the 5th century the bishops Rabbula and Theodoret suppressed it and substituted a revision of the Old Syriac Canonical Gospels (as in the Syriac Sinaiticus and Curetonian Gospels).[45]

Then, Edessa was again brought under Roman control by Decius and it was made a center of Roman operations against the Sasanian Empire. Amru, possibly a descendant of Abgar, is mentioned as king in the Paikuli inscription, recording the victory of Narseh in the Sassanid civil war of 293. Historians identify that Amru as Amru ibn Adi, the fourth king of the Lakhmids, which was then still based in Harran, not yet moved to al-Hirah in southern Mesopotamia.[46]

Many centuries later, Dagalaiphus and Secundinus duke of Osrhoene, accompanied Julian in his war against the Sasanian emperor, Shapur II, in the 4th century.[47]

Roman province

Main article: Osroene (Roman province)

The independence of the state ended probably in c. 214; during Caracalla's reign the monarchy was abolished by the Roman Empire and Osroene was incorporated it as a province (colonia).[1] It was a frontier province, lying close to the Persian empires with which the Romans were repeatedly at war, and was taken and retaken several times. As it was on the frontier it had a Roman legion stationed there. Legio III Parthica and its Castrum (homebase) may have been Rhesaina, but that is uncertain.

Map showing the Eastern Roman provinces, including Osroene, in the 5th century.

Following Emperor Diocletian's tetrarchy reform during his reign (284-305), it was part of the diocese of the East, in the praetorian prefecture of the same name.

According to the late-4th-century Notitia Dignitatum, it was headed by a governor of the rank of praeses, and it was also the seat of the dux Mesopotamiae, who ranked as vir illustris and commanded (c. 400) the following army units:

  • Equites Dalmatae Illyriciani, garrisoned at Ganaba.
  • Equites Promoti Illyriciani, Callinicum.
  • Equites Mauri Illyriciani, Dabana.
  • Equites Promoti indigenae, Banasam
  • Equites Promoti indigenae, Sina Iudaeorum.
  • Equites Sagittarii indigenae, Oraba.
  • Equites Sagittarii indigenae, Thillazamana.
  • Equites Sagittarii indigenae Medianenses, Mediana.
  • Equites Primi Osrhoeni, Rasin.
  • Praefectus legionis quartae Parthicae, Circesium.
  • (an illegible command, possibly Legio III Parthica), Apatna.

as well as, 'on the minor roll', apparently auxiliaries:

  • Ala Septima Valeria Praelectorum, Thillacama.
  • Ala Prima Victoriae, Tovia -contra Bintha.
  • Ala Secunda Paflagonum, Thillafica.
  • Ala Prima Parthorum, Resaia.
  • Ala Prima nova Diocletiana, inter Thannurin et Horobam.
  • Cohors Prima Gaetulorum, Thillaamana.
  • Cohors Prima Eufratensis, Maratha.
  • Ala Prima Salutaria, Duodecimo constituta.

According to Sozomen's Ecclesiastical History, "there were some very learned men who formerly flourished in Osroene, as for instance Bardaisan, who devised a heresy designated by his name, and his son Harmonius. It is related that this latter was deeply versed in Grecian erudition, and was the first to subdue his native tongue to meters and musical laws; these verses he delivered to the choirs" and that Arianism, a more successful heresy, met with opposition there.

Rulers

Main article: Abgarid dynasty

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Segal 1982, pp. 210–213. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFSegal1982 (help)
  2. ^ Dupuy, Richard Ernest; Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt (1970). The Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present. Harper & Row. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-06-011139-7.
  3. ^ Bowman, Alan; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521301992.
  4. ^ https://www.britannica.com/place/Osroene
  5. ^ Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael (2007). Encyclopaedia Judaica. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 9780028659435.
  6. ^ Roberts, John Morris; Westad, Odd Arne (2013). The History of the World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199936762.
  7. ^ "ABGAR – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org.
  8. ^ Laet, Sigfried J. de; Herrmann, Joachim (1996). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. UNESCO. ISBN 9789231028120.
  9. ^ Segal, J.B. (1982). "ABGAR". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 2. pp. 210–213. This victory of the Parthians secured their supremacy in the region, and for the next two centuries the kings of Edessa were to favor the Parthians rather than Rome.
  10. ^ Lieu, Samuel (1997). "EDESSA". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 2. pp. 174–175. Edessa became the capital of a small kingdom, ruled by the so-called "Abgar dynasty," generally allied with the Parthians, and under strong Parthian cultural influence.
  11. ^ a b Drower, Gray & Sherwin-White 2012.
  12. ^ Lieu, Samuel (1997). "EDESSA". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 2. pp. 174–175. Edessa became the capital of a small kingdom, ruled by the so-called "Abgar dynasty," generally allied with the Parthians, and under strong Parthian cultural influence.
  13. ^ a b c Sartre 2005, p. 500.
  14. ^ Mango 1991.
  15. ^ Lieu 1997, pp. 174–175. sfn error: multiple targets (5×): CITEREFLieu1997 (help)
  16. ^ Fortescue, Adrian (1923). The uniate Eastern churches: the Byzantine rite in Italy, Sicily, Syria and Egypt. Burns, Oates & Washbourne, ltd. p. 22.
  17. ^ Lieu, Samuel (1997). "EDESSA". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 2. pp. 174–175. Edessa became the capital of a small kingdom, ruled by the so-called "Abgar dynasty," generally allied with the Parthians, and under strong Parthian cultural influence.
  18. ^ Segal, J.B. (1982). "ABGAR". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 2. pp. 210–213. This victory of the Parthians secured their supremacy in the region, and for the next two centuries the kings of Edessa were to favor the Parthians rather than Rome.
  19. ^ Ball, W (2001). Rome in the East: the transformation of an empire. Routledge. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-415-24357-5.
  20. ^ Frankfurter, David (1998). Pilgrimage and Holy Space in Late Antique Egypt. BRILL. p. 383. ISBN 90-04-11127-1.

    It was around 200 CE that Abgar IX adopted Christianity, thus enabling Edessa to become the first Christian state in history whose ruler was officially and openly a Christian.
  21. ^ "Osroene" at Encyclopædia Iranica

    The fame of Edessa in history rests, however, mainly on its claim to have been the first kingdom to adopt Christianity as its official religion. According to the legend current for centuries throughout the civilized world, Abgar Ukkama wrote to Jesus, inviting him to visit him at Edessa to heal him from sickness. In return he received the blessing of Jesus and subsequently was converted by the evangelist Addai. There is, however, no factual evidence for Christianity at Edessa before the reign of Abgar the Great, 150 years later. Scholars are generally agreed that the legend has confused the two Abgars. It cannot be proved that Abgar the Great adopted Christianity; but his friend Bardaiṣan was a heterodox Christian, and there was a church at Edessa in 201. It is testimony to the personality of Abgar the Great that he is credited by tradition with a leading role in the evangelization of Edessa.
  22. ^ Young, Frances; Ayres, Lewis; Louth, Andrew (April 2004). The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-521-46083-5.

    Modern scholars have taken basically two very different approaches to this legend (which obviously reflects the general search for apostolic origins, characteristics of the fourth century). Some would dismiss it totally, while others prefer to see it as a retrojection into the first century of the conversion of the local king at the end of the second century. In other words Abgar (V) the Black of the legend in fact represents Abgar (VIII) the Great (c. 177-212), contemporary of Badaisan. Attractive though this second approach might seem, there are serious objections to it, and the various small supportive evidence that Abgar (VIII) the Great became Christian disappears on closer examination.
  23. ^ Ball, Warwick (2000). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Psychology Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-415-11376-2.

    More significant than Bardaisan's conversion to Christianity was the conversion -reported by Bardaisan - of Abgar the Great himself." The conversion is controversial, but whether or not he became a Christian, Abgar had the wisdom to recognise the inherent order and stability in Christianity a century before Constantino did. Ho encouraged it as essential for maintaining Edessa's precarious balance between Rome and Iran. Thus, it is Abgar the Great who lays claim to being the world's first Christian monarch and Edessa the first Christian state. More than anything else, a major precedent had been set for the conversion of Rome itself. // The stories of the conversions of both Abgar V and Abgar VIII may not be true, and have been doubted by a number of Western authorities (with more than a hint at unwillingness to relinquish Rome's and St Peter's own primogeniture?). But whether true or not. the stories did establish Edessa as one of the more important centres for early Christendom."
  24. ^ Lieu, Samuel (1997). "EDESSA". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 2. pp. 174–175. Edessa became the capital of a small kingdom, ruled by the so-called "Abgar dynasty," generally allied with the Parthians, and under strong Parthian cultural influence.
  25. ^ Keser-Kayaalp & Drijvers 2018.
  26. ^ Harrak, Amir (1992). "The Ancient Name of Edessa". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 51 (3): 209–214. JSTOR 545546.
  27. ^ H. I. MacAdam, N. J. Munday, "Cicero's Reference to Bostra (AD Q. FRAT. 2. 11. 3)", Classical Philology, pp.131-136, 1983.
  28. ^ Ring, Steven. "History of Syriac texts and Syrian Christianity - Table 1". www.syriac.talktalk.net. Archived from the original on 2018-02-27. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
  29. ^ Guscin, Mark (2016). The Tradition of the Image of Edessa. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 13.
  30. ^ Drijvers, H. J. W. (1980). Cults and Beliefs at Edessa. Brill Archive. p. 153."In Edessene onomastic there are a great many Arabic names ; most of them are paralleled in the onomastic of Palmyra, Hatra and the Nabataeans."
  31. ^ Retso, Jan (2013). The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads. Routledge. p. 419."Abgar, is a well-known name among Arabic-speaking groups in antiquity, the Nabataeans included."
  32. ^ H. I. MacAdam, N. J. Munday, "Cicero's Reference to Bostra (AD Q. FRAT. 2. 11. 3)", Classical Philology, pp.131-136, 1983.
  33. ^ Ring, Steven. "History of Syriac texts and Syrian Christianity - Table 1". www.syriac.talktalk.net. Archived from the original on 2018-02-27. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
  34. ^ Guscin, Mark (2016). The Tradition of the Image of Edessa. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 13.
  35. ^ J. B. Segal, “Abgar,” Encyclopædia Iranica, I/2, pp. 210-213; http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abgar-dynasty-of-edessa-2nd-century-bc-to-3rd-century-ad
  36. ^ J. B. Segal, “Abgar,” Encyclopædia Iranica, I/2, pp. 210-213; http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abgar-dynasty-of-edessa-2nd-century-bc-to-3rd-century-ad
  37. ^ Sheldon, Mary Rose, "Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome: Trust in the Gods But Verify", pg. 92
  38. ^ J. B. Segal, “Abgar,” Encyclopædia Iranica, I/2, pp. 210-213; http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abgar-dynasty-of-edessa-2nd-century-bc-to-3rd-century-ad
  39. ^ Ball, W (2001). Rome in the East: the transformation of an empire. Routledge. p. 90.
  40. ^ Southern, Pat, "The Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen", 2009: pg. 36
  41. ^ Birley, Anthony, "Septimius Severus: The African Emperor", 1999: pg. 115
  42. ^ Sinclair, T.A., "Eastern Turkey: An Architectural & Archaeological Survey, Volume IV: pg. 196
  43. ^ Cheetham, Samuel (1905). A History of the Christian Church During the First Six Centuries. Macmillan and Co. p. 58.
  44. ^ Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Apostles of the Bible. Zondervan. p. 260. ISBN 0310280117.
  45. ^ L.W. Barnard, The Origins and Emergence of the Church in Edessa during the First Two Centuries A.D., Vigiliae Christianae, pp.161-175, 1968 (see pp. 162,165,167,169).
  46. ^ A. T. Olmstead, "The Mid-Third Century of the Christian Era. II", Classical Philology (1942): 398-420 (see p. 399)
  47. ^ E. Gibbon, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Vol. I, Chapter XXIV [1] Archived 2007-02-04 at the Wayback Machine.

Sources

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Osroene".

37°09′30″N 38°47′30″E / 37.1583°N 38.7917°E / 37.1583; 38.7917

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