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American Red Cross
FormationMay 21, 1881; 143 years ago (1881-05-21)
FounderClara Barton
Legal statusFoundation
PurposeHumanitarian aid
HeadquartersWashington, D.C., U.S.
Region served
United States
President
Gail J. McGovern[1]
Main organ
Board of Governors
Revenue
US$2,974,133,836 (2014)[2]
Websitewww.redcross.org

The American Red Cross (ARC), also known as the American National Red Cross,[3] is a humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief and education in the United States. It is the designated US affiliate of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.

The organization offers services in four other areas: communications services and comfort for military service and family members; the collection, processing and distribution of blood and blood products; educational programs on preparedness, health and safety; and international relief and development programs.[4]

The group was issued a corporate charter by the United States Congress under Title 36 of the United States Code, Section 3001. It is governed by volunteers and supported by community donations, income from health and safety training and products and income from blood products. The group is headquartered in Washington, D.C. In 2016 the Board Chair was Bonnie McElveen-Hunter and the President and Chief Executive Officer was Gail J. McGovern.

History and organization

See also: American Red Cross National Headquarters

Founders

The American Red Cross National Headquarters in Washington, D.C. is a National Historic Landmark.

ARC was established in Washington, D.C. on May 21, 1881, by Clara Barton. She became its first president. Barton organized a meeting on May 12 of that year at the home of Senator Omar D. Conger (R, MI).[5] Fifteen people were present at this first meeting, including Barton, Conger and Representative William Lawrence (R, OH) (who became the first vice-president[6]). The first local chapter was established in 1881 at the English Evangelical Lutheran Church of Dansville at Dansville, New York.[7]

Jane Delano (1862–1919) founded the American Red Cross Nursing Service on January 20, 1910. [citation needed]

Clara Barton

Main article: Clara Barton

Clara Barton (1821–1912) founded the American chapter after learning of the Red Cross in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1869, she went to Europe and became involved in the work of the International Red Cross during the Franco-Prussian War. She determined to bring the organization to America.[8]

Clara Barton, founder of the American Red Cross

Barton became President of the American branch of the society, known as the American National Red Cross in May 1881 in Washington. The first chapters opened in upstate New York, where she had connections.[9] Ultimately, John D. Rockefeller, Lars Kovala and three others donated money to help create a national headquarters near the White House.[10]

American Red Cross Administrative Headquarters in Washington, D.C.
American National Red Cross

Barton led one of the group's first major relief efforts, a response to the September 4–6, 1881 Great Fire of 1881 (Thumb Fire) in the Thumb region of Michigan. Over 5,000 people were left homeless. The next major disaster was the Johnstown Flood, which occurred on May 31, 1889. Over 2,209 people died and thousands more were injured in or near Johnstown, Pennsylvania in one of the worst disasters in United States history.

Progressive reform

Barton was unable to build up a staff she trusted and her fundraising was lackluster. She was forced out in 1904. Professional social work experts took control and made the group a model of Progressive Era scientific reform.[11] New leader Mabel Thorp Boardman constantly consulted with senior government officials, military officers, social workers and financiers. William Howard Taft was especially influential. They imposed an ethos of "managerialism", transforming the agency from Barton's cult of personality to an "organizational humanitarianism" ready for expansion.[12]

Organization

ARC is a nationwide network of more than 650 chapters and 36 blood service regions. Approximately 500,000 Red Cross volunteers, including FemaCorps and AmeriCorps members, and 30,000 employees annually mobilize relief to people affected by more than 67,000 disasters, train almost 12 million people in necessary medical skills and exchange more than a million emergency messages for U.S. military service personnel and their family members. ARC is the largest supplier of blood and blood products to more than 3,000 hospitals and assists victims of international disasters and conflicts worldwide. In 2006 the organization had over $6 billion in total revenues. Revenue from blood and blood products alone were over $2 billion.

Chairpersons

Leadership

Recent presidents and CEOs include Gail McGovern, Elizabeth Dole, Bernadine Healy, Mary S. Elcano, Mark W. Everson and John F. McGuire.[1] In 2007, U.S. legislation clarified the role for the Board of Governors and that of the senior management in the wake of difficulties following Hurricane Katrina.[13]

Ranking

In 1994, the Chronicle of Philanthropy, an industry magazine, released the results of the largest study of charitable and non-profit organization popularity and credibility. The study showed that ARC was ranked as the third "most popular charity/non-profit in America" of over 100 charities researched with 48% of Americans over the age of 12 choosing "Love", and "Like A lot" to describe the Red Cross.[14]

Blood services

Blood donation

ARC supplies roughly 40% of the donated blood in the United States, which it sells to hospitals and regional suppliers.[15] Community-based blood centers supply 50% and 6% is collected directly by hospitals. In December 2004, ARC completed its largest blood processing facility in the United States in Pomona, California, on the campus grounds of the California State Polytechnic University, Pomona.

Tissue services

For more than 50 years, ARC provided allograft tissue for transplant through sales in its Tissue Services Program. It cared for thousands of donor families who gave the gift of tissue donation and sold donated tissue to more than 1 million transplant recipients in need of this life saving or life-enhancing gift of tissue. At the end of January 2005, ARC ended its Tissue Services program in order to focus on its primary missions of Disaster Relief and Blood Services.

Plasma services

A leader in the plasma industry, ARC provides more than one quarter of the nation's plasma products. Red Cross Plasma Services provides plasma products that are reliable, cost-effective and as safe as possible.

In February 1999, ARC completed its "Transformation", a $287 million program that: re-engineered Red Cross Blood Services' processing, testing and distribution system; and established a new management structure.

As of 2011 ARC was no longer in the Plasma Services industry. The Red Cross supplies Baxter BioSciences with plasma for the manufacturing of plasma products.[16]

Nucleic acid testing

On March 1, 1999, ARC became the first U.S. blood bank to implement a Nucleic acid testing (NAT) study. This process is different from traditional testing because it looks for the genetic material of HIV and hepatitis C (HCV), rather than the body's response to the disease.

The NAT tests for HIV and HCV have been licensed by the U.S.Food and Drug Administration (FDA). These tests detect the genetic material of a transfusion-transmitted virus like HIV without waiting for the body to form antibodies, potentially offering an important time advantage over current techniques.

Leukoreduction

Leukocytes (white blood cells) help fight off foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses and abnormal cells. When transfused leukocytes do not benefit the recipient. In fact, these foreign leukocytes in transfused red blood cells and platelets are often not well tolerated and have been associated with some types of transfusion complications. Leukocytes in stored blood products can have a variety of biological effects, including depression of immune function, which can result in organ failure and death.[17] Because whole blood is rarely used for transfusion and not kept in routine inventory, leukoreduced red blood supplies are critical. After collection the whole blood is separated into red cells and plasma by centrifugation. A preservative solution is mixed with the red cells and the component is filtered with a leukoreduction filter. Shelf life for this product is 42 days.

ARC is moving toward system-wide universal prestorage leukocyte reduction to improve patient care. From 1976 through 1985, the FDA received reports of 355 fatalities associated with transfusion, 99 of which were excluded from further review because they were unrelated to transfusion or involved hepatitis or acquired immune deficiency syndrome.[18] While the FDA has not yet made a leukoreduction a requirement, ARC took a leading role in implementing this procedure with a goal of leukoreducing all blood products. More than 70 percent of ARC red blood cell components undergo prestorage leukoreduction, a filtering process that is done soon after blood is donated.

Research

ARC operates the Jerome H. Holland blood laboratory in Rockville, Maryland. Each year,Template:Ehen the Red Cross invests more than $25 million in research activities at the Holland Laboratory and in the field.

Cellular therapies

ARC offers cellular therapies; this treatment involves collecting and treating blood cells from a patient or other blood donor. The treated cells are then introduced into a patient to help revive normal cell function, replace cells that are lost as a result of disease, accidents or aging, or to prevent illnesses from appearing.

Health and safety services

ARC provides first aid, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), automated external defibrillator (AED), water safety and lifeguarding, babysitting, disaster preparedness and home safety training throughout the United States. Training programs are primarily aimed at laypersons, workplaces and aquatic facilities. ARC teaches around 12 million Americans these skills annually, ranging from youth to professional rescuers. ARC co-led the 2005 Guidelines for First Aid, which aims to provide up-to-date and peer-reviewed first aid training materials. Many American Red Cross chapters also have for sale first aid kits, disaster kits, and similar, related equipment. Many chapters of ARC offer pet first aid courses to prepare pet owners and pet professionals for emergency situations. ARC also offers a pet first aid reference guide. This guide includes a 50-minute DVD that informs viewers about safety procedures and instructs on dealing with medical emergencies.

Disaster services

American Red Cross providing assistance during the 1994 Northridge earthquake
An American Red Cross vehicle distributing food to Grand Forks, North Dakota victims of the 1997 Red River flood
Satellite communications after tropical strom Debby in Lake City, Florida, 2012

Each year, ARC responds to more than 70,000 disasters, including house or apartment fires (making up the majority), hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, hazardous materials spills, transportation accidents, explosions and other natural and man-made disasters.

Although ARC is not a government agency, its authority to provide disaster relief was formalized when, in 1905, it was granted a congressional charter to "carry on a system of national and international relief in time of peace and apply the same in mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great national calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same." The charter is not only a grant of power, but also an imposition of duties and obligations to the nation, to disaster victims and to the people who support its work with their donations.

Disaster relief focuses on emergency disaster-caused needs. When a disaster threatens or strikes, ARC provides shelter, food and health and mental health services (Psychological First Aid) to address basic human needs. The core of Red Cross disaster relief is assistance to individuals and families to enable them to resume their normal daily activities. The organization provides translation and interpretation when necessary, and maintains a database of multilingual volunteers.[19]

At the local level, ARC chapters operate volunteer-staffed Disaster Action Teams.

ARC feeds emergency workers of other agencies, handles inquiries from concerned family members outside the disaster area, provides blood and blood products to disaster victims and helps those affected by disaster to access other resources. It is a member of National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (VOAD) and works closely with other agencies such as Salvation Army and Amateur Radio Emergency Service with whom it has memorandums of understanding.

ARC works to encourage preparedness by providing important literature on readiness. Many chapters also offer free classes to the general public.

A major misconception among the general public is that ARC provides medical facilities, engages in search and rescue operations or deploys ambulances. Instead, first responder roles are left to government agencies as dictated by the National Response Framework. Red Cross societies outside the U.S. may provide such functions; for example, the Cruz Roja Mexicana (Mexican Red Cross) runs a national ambulance service. Furthermore, American Red Cross Emergency Response Vehicles (ERVs) look similar to ambulances. These ERVs instead are designed for bulk distribution of relief supplies, such as meals, drinks and other relief supplies. Although ARC shelters usually assign a nurse to the facility, they are not equipped to provide medical care beyond first aid.

Disaster Services Workforce

The Disaster Services Workforce (DSW) system enrolls volunteers from ARC chapters into a national database of responders, classified by their ability to serve in one or more activities within groups. Services include feeding and sheltering ("mass care") to warehousing, damage assessment, accounting, communications, public affairs and counseling. Responders complete training requirements specific to the services they want to offer, backgrounds, and first aid training.

National Response Framework

As a National Response Framework support agency, ARC shelters, feeds and provides other types of emergency relief to victims of disasters. ARC is a co-lead with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for the mass care portion of Emergency Support Function 6. ARC and FEMA share responsibility for planning and coordinating mass care services with FEMA. ARC has responsibilities for other Emergency Support Functions, such as providing health and mental health services.[20][21]

Disaster responses

2005 hurricanes

Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the Houston Astrodome, following Hurricane Katrina.

Forecasting a major disaster before the landfall of Hurricane Katrina, ARC enlisted 2,000 volunteers to be on a "stand by" deployment list.

According to ARC, during and after hurricanes Katrina, Wilma and Rita, they opened 1,470 shelters and registered 3. 8 million overnight stays. 300,000 Red Cross workers (82% unpaid) provided sheltering, casework, communication and assessment services throughout these events. In addition, 346,980 comfort kits (which contain hygiene essentials such as toothpaste, soap, washclothes and toys for children) and 205,360 cleanup kits (containing brooms, mops and bleach) were distributed. The organization served 68 million snacks and meals. Disaster Health services provided 596,810 contacts, and Disaster Mental Health services 826,590 contacts. Emergency financial assistance was provided to 1.4 million families, including 4 million people. Katrina was the first natural disaster in the United States that ARC utilized their "Safe and Well" family location website.[22][23]

Comair Flight 5191

Following the crash of commuter aircraft Comair Flight 5191, the Bluegrass Area Chapter and ARC Critical Response Team (CRT) members were dispatched. This was the worst air disaster within the United States since American Airlines Flight 587. Family and Friends reception centers were established near the arrival and departure airports and in Cincinnati, site of the Comair headquarters. Local chapters in Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky and California provided health and mental health services to family and friends not present in Lexington. Volunteers also staffed the local Emergency Operations Center (EOC) in Lexington, Kentucky.[24]

2007 tornadoes

ARC is set up in a community hard hit by the tornadoes, Florida, 2007

Florida

In response to the Central Florida Tornado of February 2007, ARC began a large scale disaster relief operation. At least seven shelters were opened. 40,000 pre-packaged meals were sent by ARC, and across the nation, almost 400 Red Cross volunteers were deployed to assist with local relief efforts. The organization deployed more than 30 Emergency Response Vehicles for community food and supply distribution.[25][26]

Kansas

ARC immediately responded to the May 2007 Tornado Outbreak in central Kansas by setting up emergency shelters for displaced residents and started the distribution of food, water and relief supplies.[27]

Minneapolis Bridge collapse

Following the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge, the Twin Cities Area Chapter responded with their Disaster Action Team to provide food, information and comfort. A family service center was set up, and mental health counselors deployed to numerous locations.[28] Donations contributed for this cause totaled US$138,368 and covered the cost of services[29] but not $65,000 in unexpected expenses.[30] Weather and the collapse placed 70% of Minnesota counties in federal primary or contiguous disaster areas during that August.[31]

International services

ARC, as part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and its nearly 100 million volunteers, educates and mobilizes communities to overcome life-threatening vulnerabilities. ARC International Services Department focuses on global health, disaster preparedness and response, Restoring Family Links and international humanitarian law dissemination. ARC is involved with international projects such as the measles Initiative, malaria programs in Africa, disaster response and relief efforts in response to the 2004 South Asia Tsunami.

Disaster preparedness and response

ARC international disaster response and preparedness programs provide relief and development assistance to millions of people annually who suffer as a result of natural and human-made disasters. To respond quickly and effectively, ARC has pre-positioned emergency relief supplies in three warehouses managed by the International Federation in Dubai, Malaysia and Panama that are used to respond to disasters. An Emergency Response Unit (ERU) is another method with which ARC responds to international emergencies. An ERU is made up of trained personnel and pre-packaged equipment that is crucial in responding to sudden, large-scale disasters and emergencies in remote locations. American Red Cross ERUs specialize in providing emergency relief supplies and IT and Telecommunications for Red Cross response operations.[32]

Haiti

On January 12, 2010, a magnitude 7.0 Mw earthquake struck the Haitian coast 10 miles from the capital of Port-au-Prince, causing massive damage, more than 200,000 deaths and displacing nearly 2 million people.

As of March 2011, ARC announced it had allocated $314 million for Haiti earthquake relief and recovery. ARC funded recovery projects to provide transitional homes, health services, disaster preparedness, water and sanitation improvements and livelihoods development. It provided funds for school fees for affected families. As of June 2011, ARC had raised approximately $484 million for Haiti relief and recovery efforts.[33]

Global health

ARC International Services global health initiatives focus on preventing and combating infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and measles on a large scale. Through cost-effective, community-based health interventions, ARC targets people in need and focuses on accessibility and equity of care, community participation and integration with other community development initiatives, such as water and sanitation projects and food and nutrition programs.

An example of ARC International Services health programming is the Measles Initiative, launched in 2001, as a partnership committed to reducing measles deaths globally. The initiative provides technical and financial support to governments and communities on vaccination campaigns and disease surveillance worldwide. Leading these efforts are ARC, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the United Nations Foundation, UNICEF and the World Health Organization. The Measles Initiative has supported vaccination campaigns in more than 60 countries, mostly in Africa and Asia. Since 2001, the initiative has helped vaccinate one billion children in more than 60 developing countries.[34] The initiative supported the distribution of more than 37 million insecticide-treated mosquito nets for malaria prevention, 81 million doses of de-worming medicine, 95 million doses of polio vaccine, and 186 million doses of Vitamin A.

On December 2006, ARC became a founding partner of the Malaria No More campaign. The campaign was formed by leading non-governmental organizations to inspire individuals, institutions and organizations in the private sector to support a comprehensive approach to end malaria, a devastating but preventable disease. ARC supported local Red Cross and Red Crescent volunteers in Africa who educated families and communities about malaria prevention and treatment, such as proper and consistent use of insecticide-treated bed nets. ARC provided technical assistance and capacity-building support to its partners in difficult-to-reach communities.

International tracing requests

ARC handles international tracing requests and searches for families who have been separated. This service attempts to re-establish contact between separated family members. Restoring Family Links services provides the exchange of hand-written Red Cross Messages between individuals and their relatives who may be refugees or prisoners of war. At any given time, ARC Restoring Family Links program is handling the aftermath of 20–30 wars and conflicts. The worldwide structure of Red Cross and Red Crescent National Societies and the International Committee of the Red Cross make this service possible. When new information from former Soviet Union archives became available in the 1990s, a special unit was created to handle World War II and Holocaust tracing services.

International humanitarian law

ARC International Services educates the American public about the guiding principles of international humanitarian law (IHL) for conduct in warfare as set forth by the Geneva Conventions of 1949. In doing so, ARC International Services provides support to ARC chapters in their IHL dissemination efforts, offering courses and providing instructor training.

Service to the Armed Forces

A World War II-era poster encouraged American women to volunteer for the Red Cross as part of the war effort.

ARC provides emergency and non-emergency services to the United States military. The most notable service is emergency family communications, where families can contact the Red Cross to send important family messages (such as a death in the family, or new birth). ARC can also act as a verifying agency.[35] The agency operates call centers to provide these services.[36] ARC works closely with other military societies, such as the Department of Veterans Affairs, to provide other services to service members and their families. ARC is not involved with prisoners of war; these are monitored by the International Committee of the Red Cross, an international body.

Carney Airfield, Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands Red Cross girl, August 1944

One criticism of Red Cross services to the military stems from stories about ARC charging troops during the Second World War and Korean War token fees for "comfort items" such as toothpaste, coffee, donuts, and cigarettes and for off-base food and lodging. The fee suggestion had been made in a letter dated March 1942 from the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to Norman H. Davis, the chairman of ARC. The suggestion was that Allied soldiers were being charged money so Americans should be charged too so as to "ensure an equitable distribution among all service personnel of Red Cross resources".[37] The Red Cross adopted the Secretary's suggestion as policy.[38]

In a June 18, 1945, address to Congress, General Dwight D. Eisenhower said of the Red Cross service in World War II, "The Red Cross, with its clubs for recreation, its coffee and doughnuts in the forward areas, its readiness to meet the needs of the well and to help minister to the wounded has often seemed the friendly hand of this nation, reaching across the sea to sustain its fighting men."[39] An account of one World War II American Red Cross Girl is recorded in Destination Unknown by Kathleen Cox; her mother, LeOna Cox, was recruited to Red Cross Service by a fellow teacher at Allegheny College.[40] Another account of an American Red Cross World War II worker is related in letters by Evelyn Merritt Welden, compiled in the book How to Play During a War: A Free Spirit's Life in Letters, by her son, Lynne Whelden.

Great Lakes Naval Hospital 1966, Jennie and Terrie Frankel perform for wounded soldiers. The frequent visits by the early Doublemint Twins were arranged through the American National Red Cross (see Red Cross letters of thanks to twins, posted on Wikimedia Commons).
File:Great Lakes Naval Hospital - American Red Cross October 24, 1966 Letter of thanks to Jennie and Terrie Frankel for entertaining wounded servicemen.jpg
Great Lakes Naval Hospital - American Red Cross October 24, 1966 Letter of thanks to Jennie and Terrie Frankel for entertaining wounded servicemen.

During the Vietnam War 627 American women served in the ARC Supplemental Recreation Overseas Program. At the invitation of the United States Army the "Donut Dollies" provided morale-boosting games to soldiers. Due to the mobility of the UH-1 Iroquois, Vietnam Donut Dollies were able to visit troops in forward operating positions. The 2008 documentary film A Touch of Home: The Vietnam War's Red Cross Girls tells the story of these women. ARC also provided services to entertain wounded soldiers at the Great Lakes Naval Hospital during the Vietnam War. Twins Jennie and Terrie Frankel, known for their portrayal of the "Doublemint Twins," made several visits to the hospital in the late 1960s to perform with their accordions and sing folk songs with their guitar and received letters of thanks from Hospital Field Director, Carolyn F. Norton and Recreation Supervisor, Edna R. Schweitzer.

In 2011, the Service to the Armed Forces (SAF) unit was reorganized and it began receiving $24 million per year from Congress for operating expenses. Along with being downsized there was a consolidation into four regional locations (San Diego, CA, Ft. Sill, OK, Louisville, KY, and Springfield, MA), yet what ruined SAF was having the job itself change from being an emergency communications operation to a non-emergency business call center. SAF was now driven by metrics rather than customer service, and this was evident in the once 15–20 minutes it took for a good, complete intake being limited to eight minutes. Countless emergency communications messages that would have taken an hour or so began taking days, weeks, and months to complete due to dozens of problems associated with pursuing metrics. In 2012, Channel 10 (KGTV/ABC),[41] and the San Diego Union-Tribune [42] broke the first stories. In January 2013, Rep. Duncan Hunter (R, CA 52) was quoted in the Union-Tribune concerning how Red Cross is spending that $24 million.[43] That was followed up less than a week later with a Union-Tribune editorial.[44] In early 2013, there was a major investigation by National Headquarters (The Brewer Report) and the results and recommendations were quashed by CEO Gail McGovern. (Red Cross had replaced a car engine with a boat engine.) In March and June 2015, Military Times published stories highlighting some of the problems.[45][46] In April 2015, Channel 10 reported that San Diego and Springfield were closing because an online option for families was being implemented.[47] In December 2015, Stars & Stripes published an op-ed and it was captured by the GOP Briefing Room before being deleted.[48] In May 2016, 22 News (WWLP.com) reported that Springfield opened a new call center (it never closed) to be one of only three in the country doing this work.[49] What happened with Springfield may not confirm the rumor that San Diego was closed in retaliation for questioning the results of the reorganization, but it doesn't hurt. The problems with the Service to the Armed Forces unit are the same as those in Disaster Response Services, which have been reported on by ProPublica in an extensive series on the growing concerns of poor management.[50] By now hundreds of thousands of military families have been negatively impacted by this change.

Controversies

Johnson & Johnson suit over Red Cross image

Further information: Emblems of the Red Cross § Johnson & Johnson v. American Red Cross
The red cross flag.

On August 7, 2007,[51] Johnson & Johnson (J&J) filed suit against ARC over its sublicensing of the Red Cross image for the production of first aid kits and similar products, which it alleged competed with the company's products. The suit also asked for the destruction of all non-Johnson & Johnson Red Cross Emblem bearing products and demanded that ARC pay punitive damages and J&J's legal fees.

The Red Cross' position was that it had licensed its name to first aid kit makers in an effort to encourage readiness for disasters and that license revenues supported humanitarian work.[52] J&J claimed that the Red Cross's commercial ventures were outside the scope of historically well-agreed usage and were in direct violation of federal statutes.[53]

On May 14, 2008, a federal judge ruled against J&J.[54] In June 2008, the two organizations announced a settlement had been reached allowing both parties to use the symbol.[55]

The FDA took court action against ARC in response to deficiencies in their procedures for ensuring blood supply safety. The resulting consent decree outlines violations of federal law that ARC engaged in before 1993.[56] ARC paid millions of dollars in fines.

ARC Biomedical Services instituted a standardized computer system to maintain the blood donor database; five National Testing Laboratories (NTLs) that test some six million units of blood annually;[57] the Charles Drew Biomedical Institute, which provides training and other educational resources to Red Cross Blood Services' personnel; a Quality Assurance/Regulatory Affairs Department, which helps to ensure regulatory compliance; and, a centrally managed blood inventory system.

The Consent Decree was amended in 2003 with penalties for specific violations.

The FDA could impose penalties after April 2003 up to the following maximum amounts:

  • $10,000 per event (and $10,000 per day) for any violation of an ARC standard operating procedure (SOP), the law, or consent decree requirement and timeline
  • $50,000 for preventable release of each unit of blood for which the FDA finds a reasonable probability of serious adverse health consequences
    • $5,000 for the release of each unit that may cause temporary problems, up to a maximum of $500,000 per event
  • $50,000 for the improper re-release of each unsuitable blood unit that was returned to ARC inventory
  • $10,000 for each donor inappropriately omitted from the National Donor Deferral Registry, a list of all unsuitable donors

The FDA continued to apply pressure and fines to ARC in order to enforce compliance with regulations, including a $1.7 million fine in June 2008.[58]

ARC worked closely with the FDA to develop a more robust system. The systems resulted in a five-year period of sustained compliance that led to the release from the Consent Decree as of December 4, 2015.[59]

September 11 controversy

In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, ARC and other charitable organizations solicited funds and blood donations. Dr. Bernadine Healy, the president of ARC, appeared on telethons urging individuals to give generously.[citation needed] However, according to America's Blood Centers, the non-profit consortium that provides the other 50% of the United States blood supply, no national blood drive was needed, since localized blood drives in the affected areas would be sufficient to meet the demand. ARC felt that the terrorist attacks were a sign of increased instability and urged people to donate blood, even though it was not needed at that time. In the end, some of the unused blood was destroyed.[60]

ARC created a "Liberty Fund" that was ostensibly designed for relief for victims of the terrorist attacks. However, when the fund was closed in October, after exceeding the goals of donations, only 30% of the $547 million received was spent as the standard disaster relief guidelines for meeting victims needs had been supplied to them. Dr. Healy announced that the majority of the remainder of the money would be used to increase blood supply, improve telecommunications and prepare for future terror attacks.

In February 2002, The New Yorker magazine carried a column claiming that ARC representatives were visiting upscale apartment buildings in wealthy Manhattan neighborhoods and distributing donated money (up to three months' rent or mortgage payments) to New Yorkers who had been "displaced, traumatized, or merely inconvenienced" by the terrorist attacks, without regard to whether the recipients were in financial need.[61]

Many donors felt that they had donated specifically to the victims of the September 11 attacks and objected to Healy's official plan for the diversion of funds. Survivors complained of the bureaucratic process involved in requesting funds and the slow delivery of the checks to meet immediate needs. Congressional hearings were held and New York State Attorney General Eliot Spitzer investigated the organization. In the end, ARC appointed former US senator George Mitchell to handle distribution of funds. Healy was forced to resign and the Red Cross pledged that all funds would go to directly benefit attack victims.[62] Healy received a severance payment of $1,569,630.[63]

Blood donation controversy

Main article: MSM blood donor controversy

ARC faced criticism from lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) advocacy organizations for prohibiting men who have sex with men (MSM) from donating blood. This policy was an FDA requirement for all blood collection companies and organizations in the United States. Specifically, the FDA instructs blood collection organizations to "defer for 12 months from the most recent sexual contact, a man who has had sex with another man during the past 12 months".[64] Consequently, ARC was legally unable to collect blood from such men. In 2006, along with the AABB and America's Blood Centers, ARC petitioned the FDA to remove the requirement from blood donations, citing better screening technologies.[65][66] As of September 2016, ARC reported that the organization did not accept blood donations from men who have had sex with men since 1977, because putting the FDA's 12-month deferral into effect continues to require training and computer upgrades for which several months are needed.[67] The FDA's authorization of a 12-month deferral period for MSM began in December 2015. Some blood organizations in the United States implemented it.

Volunteer background and credit check controversy

In 2006, ARC imposed a new policy requiring mandatory checks of all volunteers' backgrounds, including credit check and "mode of living" investigations. Objections were raised over the intrusive nature of the checks and the lack of limits on the use of the information gathered.[citation needed]

As a result, many longtime volunteers discontinued their association with ARC. Amateur radio operators especially resisted, complaining that volunteers who brought hundreds or thousands of dollars in communications and computer equipment to an event have more to worry about from the ARC than the ARC does from them. Some of these transferred their activity to the Salvation Army and its SATERN disaster radio network.[citation needed]

In response, ARC extended the deadline for compliance, and announced that the credit and "mode of living" checks would not be required. However, the updated application forms continued to include an authorization for these checks, listing them only as a "consumer investigative report", according to the American Radio Relay League.[68]

Political influence controversy

As president, Elizabeth Dole overruled professional staff and ordered an HIV/AIDS prevention manual to be rewritten to make references to homosexuality, premarital sex and condom use more responsive to conservative critics, according to The Nation, which claimed that she allowed politics to affect many Red Cross policies.[69]

Hurricane Katrina controversy

In March 2006, investigations of allegations of fraud and theft by volunteers and contractors within ARC Katrina operations were launched by the Louisiana Attorney-General and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).[70] In response, ARC increased its internal and external education of the organization's fraud and waste hotline for confidential reporting to a third party agency.[citation needed] The organization also elected to implement a background check policy for all volunteers and staff, starting in 2006.[71]

In April 2006, an unnamed former ARC official leaked reports made by the International Committee of the Red Cross and the British Red Cross. Such reports are typical in a large-scale disaster relief operation involving other national Red Cross societies to solicit their input, but are usually confidential and not released to the general public. These particular reports were particularly critical of ARC operations in Katrina-affected regions, although the British Red Cross report strongly praised ARC volunteers in their efforts.

Storms controversy (Hurricane Sandy, Isaac, other major storms)

In October 2014, independent public interest news broadcasters NPR and ProPublica published investigative reports on the Red Cross's handling of US East Coast Hurricanes Sandy and Isaac, citing internal Red Cross documents and interviews with former Red Cross and government officials. It criticized the organization's response in failing to meet the immediate needs of victims. It also described "an organization so consumed with public relations that it hindered the charity's ability to provide disaster services."[72][73][74]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "Leaders of the American Red Cross". American Red Cross. Retrieved August 22, 2011.
  2. ^ "American Red Cross 2014 Tax Return" (PDF).
  3. ^ "Congressional Charter of the American Red Cross" (PDF). May 2007. Retrieved October 2016. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  4. ^ "What We Do | Red Cross | Disaster Relief, Emergency Management". American Red Cross. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
  5. ^ The Federal Charter of the American Red Cross, American Red Cross. Retrieved April 18, 2007
  6. ^ McCormick, K. Todd A Brief History of Logan County, Ohio, Logan County Museum. Retrieved April 18, 2007
  7. ^ "Cultural Resource Information System (CRIS)" (Searchable database). New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation. Retrieved November 1, 2015.[permanent dead link] Note: This includes Virginia L. Bartos (March 2013). "National Register of Historic Places Registration Form: English Evangelical Lutheran Church of Dansville" (PDF). Retrieved November 1, 2015. and Accompanying photographs
  8. ^ "The Story of My Childhood". World Digital Library. 1907. Retrieved October 9, 2013.
  9. ^ Marks, Mary Jo. "Clara Barton in Dansville, 1866 and 1876–1886". Dansville Historical Society. Retrieved July 1, 2009.
  10. ^ "Article". Cheney Sentinel. Cheney, Washington. September 13, 1889. p. 1.
  11. ^ Little, Branden (August 2013). "Review of Jones, Marian Moser. The American Red Cross from Clara Barton to the New Deal". H-SHGAPE, H-Net Reviews.
  12. ^ Moser Jones, Marian (2013), The American Red Cross from Clara Barton to the New Deal, pp. 117, 137
  13. ^ Strom, Stephanie (April 18, 2007). "American Red Cross Announces New Chief". The New York Times. Retrieved April 18, 2007.
  14. ^ "The Charities Americans Like Most And Least," The Chronicle of Philanthropy, December 13, 1996
  15. ^ Murphy, Heather (September 11, 2006). "Does the Red Cross sell blood?". Slate.com. Retrieved March 8, 2012.
  16. ^ "Baxter and the American National Red Cross Agree to Terminate Contract Manufacturing Arrangement for Plasma Products". Baxter.com (Press release). March 1, 2005. Archived from the original on November 1, 2012. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
  17. ^ Barrington, K.; Fergusson, D.; Hebert, P.; Joseph, L.; Lee, S.; Walker, R. (2003). "Clinical Outcomes Following Institution of Universal Leukoreduction of Blood Transfusions for Premature Infants". JAMA. 16 (289): 1950–56. doi:10.1001/jama.289.15.1950.
  18. ^ Grimes; Kaler; Obezrz; Sazama; Shriver (2003). "Reports of 355 Transfusion-Associated Deaths: 1976 Through 1985". Transfusion. 30 (7): 583–90. doi:10.1046/j.1537-2995.1990.30790385515.x.
  19. ^ "American Red Cross – Community Services". American Red Cross. Archived from the original on August 25, 2007. Retrieved April 18, 2008.
  20. ^ "FEMA And American Red Cross Partnership Will Strengthen Mass Care During A Disaster". Federal Emergency Management Agency. October 22, 2010. Archived from the original on January 8, 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ "National Response Framework". Federal Emergency Management Agency. Archived from the original on August 20, 2011. Retrieved August 18, 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ A Year of Healing The American Red Cross, August 2006. Retrieved April 18, 2007
  23. ^ Hurricane Season 2005, American Red Cross website, 2006-06-30. Retrieved April 18, 2007.
  24. ^ Lawson, Katie (August 26, 2006). "Red Cross Responds to Commercial Jet Crash in Kentucky". American Red Cross. Retrieved April 18, 2007.
  25. ^ "American Red Cross Mobilizes Resources in Central Florida: List Your Loved Ones on Safe And Well Website". RedCross.org. Archived from the original on December 22, 2008. Retrieved October 27, 2015. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ Hackett, Alexandra. "Volunteers descend on Central Florida", tampabays10.com. Retrieved April 18, 2007.
  27. ^ "American Red Cross responding to Midwest Tornadoes". RedCross.org (Press release). May 5, 2007. Archived from the original on December 11, 2007. Retrieved October 27, 2015. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ Boone, Beth (August 3, 2007). "Red Cross Chapter Serves as Focal Point of Response Efforts". The American National Red Cross. Archived from the original on August 11, 2007. Retrieved August 28, 2007. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help) and "Red Cross on Scene of Minneapolis I-35W Bridge Collapse" (Press release). The American National Red Cross. August 2, 2007. Archived from the original on August 18, 2007. Retrieved August 28, 2007. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ O'Connor, Debra (August 24, 2007). "How to give wisely after Minnesota's disasters". Pioneer Press. MediaNews Group, Inc. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007. Retrieved August 25, 2007. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ Louwagie, Pam (September 10, 2007). "Bridge Disaster Fund tops $564,000". Star Tribune. Avista Capital Partners. Archived from the original on November 1, 2007. Retrieved September 10, 2007. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Minnesota designated counties are found in three places: Farm Service Agency Public Affairs Staff (August 7, 2007). "USDA Designates 24 Minnesota Counties as Primary Natural Disaster Areas" (Press release). Farm Service Agency, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Retrieved August 25, 2007. and Preston, Steven C. (August 22, 2007). "Disaster Declaration #10991" (PDF). U.S. Small Business Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007. Retrieved August 25, 2007. and "Designated Counties for Minnesota Severe Storms and Flooding (Disaster Summary For FEMA-1717-DR, Minnesota)" (Press release). Federal Emergency Management Agency. August 23, 2007 [updated August 28, 2007]. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved August 28, 2007. {{cite press release}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ "Types of ERU – IFRC". Retrieved August 18, 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  33. ^ "June 2011 Progress Report for the Red Cross Response" (PDF). Retrieved August 18, 2011.
  34. ^ "UN Foundation – The Measles Initiative Vaccinates One Billion Children". Retrieved August 18, 2011.[permanent dead link]
  35. ^ McDonald, Jeff (January 19, 2013). "Military notification funds spent other ways Red Cross programs that got funding included Bike-O-Rama, Starbucks giveaway". San Diego Union Tribune. Retrieved January 21, 2013.
  36. ^ Jowers, Karen (June 4, 2015). "Red Cross begins to address hotline problems". Military Times. Gannett Company. Retrieved June 12, 2015.
  37. ^ "The Milwaukee Journal – Google News Archive". Google. April 10, 1946. Retrieved March 8, 2012.
  38. ^ "Red Cross Charges for Assistance". Snopes.com. Retrieved March 8, 2012.
  39. ^ Cox, Leona; Cox, Kathleen (2009). Destination Unknown. ISBN 9781466412484.
  40. ^ Cox, Kathleen (April 26, 2013). "Book Presentation Webcast".
  41. ^ http://www.10news.com/news/team-10/red-cross-attention-to-military-members-needs-questioned
  42. ^ http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/2012/nov/13/military-call-hubs-now-handle-disasters-too/
  43. ^ http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/watchdog/sdut-military-call-center-funds-go-elsewhere-red-cross-2013jan19-htmlstory.html
  44. ^ http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/2013/jan/25/red-cross-emergency-military-verification-service/
  45. ^ http://www.militarytimes.com/story/military/benefits/2015/03/19/red-cross-transforming-emergency-services/24979413/
  46. ^ http://www.militarytimes.com/story/military/benefits/2015/06/02/technical-difficulties-shut-down-red-cross-military-hotline/28368883/
  47. ^ http://www.10news.com/news/investigations/american-red-cross-to-close-san-diego-emergency-call-center-for-military-families
  48. ^ http://www.gopbriefingroom.com/index.php?topic=187383.0
  49. ^ http://wwlp.com/2016/05/24/red-cross-grand-opening-of-financial-center-for-military-members/
  50. ^ https://www.propublica.org/series/red-cross
  51. ^ "J&J (NYSE: JNJ) Sues Red Cross Over Use of Red Cross Emblem". Archived from the original on March 7, 2008.
  52. ^ Foley, Stephen (August 10, 2007). "Johnson & Johnson sues the Red Cross". The Independent. London. Retrieved April 23, 2010.
  53. ^ Johnson & Johnson Press Release. Statement on Civil Complaint Against The American National Red Cross. August 9, 2007.
  54. ^ "Opinion and order by U.S. District Court Judge Jed S. Rakoff". Docs.justia.com. Retrieved March 8, 2012.
  55. ^ Claim Over Red Cross Symbol Is Settled, New York Times, June 18, 2008.
  56. ^ Consent Decree Notification, U.S. Food and Drug Administration website, (2003-04-13). Retrieved on April 18, 2007.
  57. ^ "American Red Cross > Blood Services > National Testing Laboratories". Archived from the original on May 18, 2008. Retrieved July 3, 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  58. ^ Harris, Gardiner (June 10, 2008). "Red Cross Is Fined For Blood Violations". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 27, 2008.
  59. ^ Red Cross Gets Blood Consent Decree Lifted, The Nonprofit Times website, (2015-12-15). Retrieved on December 22, 2015.
  60. ^ "Myths and Legends about the American Red Cross". Redcross.org. Retrieved March 8, 2012.
  61. ^ Paumgarten, Nick (February 18, 2002). "Free Money : Trumperty Below Canal". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
  62. ^ Williams, Grant (October 26, 2001). "Red Cross President Resigns Under Pressure From Board". The Chronicle of Philanthropy. Retrieved April 18, 2007.
  63. ^ American Red Cross report, Better Business Bureau Wise Giving Alliance, May 2003. Retrieved April 18, 2007.
  64. ^ "Revised Recommendations for Reducing the Risk of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transmission by Blood and Blood Products" (PDF).
  65. ^ "Red Cross calls for end to ban on gay blood donors". Advocate.com. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  66. ^ "American Red Cross Fights Ban on Gays' Blood". NPR.org. May 30, 2007. Retrieved March 8, 2012.
  67. ^ "Eligibility Criteria by Topic".
  68. ^ "ARRL Position on the American Red Cross Background Check Policy", ARRL.org, American Radio Relay League, March 13, 2007, archived from the original on December 6, 2008, retrieved March 15, 2011 {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  69. ^ Heller, Linda (September 21, 2005). "The Red Cross: A Question of Competence". The Nation. Retrieved March 4, 2011.
  70. ^ "Red Cross probed on Katrina fraud", BBC News Online, 2006-03-27. Retrieved April 18, 2007.
  71. ^ Background Check Fact Sheet, PlainsRedCross.org, July 2006.
  72. ^ "Red Cross 'Diverted Assets' During Storms' Aftermath To Focus On Image". NPR.org. October 29, 2014.
  73. ^ "Red Cross defends response to Hurricane Sandy two years on". PBS.org. October 29, 2014. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
  74. ^ Elliott, Justin; Eisinger, Jesse; Sullivan, Laura (October 29, 2014). "The Red Cross' Secret Disaster". Propublica.org. ProPublica and NPR. Retrieved October 27, 2015.

Further reading

  • Dulles, Foster Rhea. The American Red Cross: A History. New York: Harper and Brothers.
  • Irwin, Julia. Making the World Safe: The American Red Cross and a Nation's Humanitarian Awakening. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  • Irwin, Julia F., "Teaching 'Americanism with a World Perspective': The Junior Red Cross in the U.S. Schools from 1917 to the 1920s". History of Education Quarterly 53 (Aug. 2013), 255–79.
  • Jones, Marian Moser. The American Red Cross From Clara Barton to the New Deal. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2013.
  • Whelden, Lynne Merritt. How to Play During a War: A Free Spirit's Life in Letters. Canton, PA: Lynne Whelden Productions; 2007.
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