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=== Neo-pagan movements ===
=== Neo-pagan movements ===
The history of Indo-Europeans plays significant role in various [[Modern_Paganism|neo-Pagan]] movements.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=10}}
The history of Indo-Europeans plays significant role in various [[Modern_Paganism|neo-Pagan]] movements.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=10}}
==== Russian neo-paganism ====
==== Russian neo-paganism ====
The [[Slavophilia|Russian Slavophile movements]] borrowed various discrete ideas of a presumed "prestigious Aryan origin" of Europeans from the Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8129.2008.00329.x|journal=[[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]]|title=Alternative identity, alternative religion? Neo-paganism and the Aryan myth in contemporary Russia|first=Marlene|last=Laruella|volume=14|issue=2|date=10 April 2008|via=[[Wiley_(publisher)#Wiley_Online_Library|Wiley Online Library]]|doi-access=free|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8129.2008.00329.x}}</ref>{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=10}} Although the [[Russian Orthodoxy]] played the primary religious influence among the nationalistic individuals, the [[Papal_primacy|primacy of Christianity]] raised skepticism among these groups, who later began searching for an ancient text to rationalize a "return to the origins".{{sfn|Laruella|2008|pp=284-285}} Various authors in the newspaper ''Zhar-Ptitsa'' began showing interest in a so-called manuscript—the [[Book of Veles]]—which supposedly dated to the first century BCE.{{sfn|Laruella|2008|p=285}} F. A. Izenbek, an [[White Army]] officer, alleged the discovery of this manuscript during the [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]]; however one of Izenbek's friends, Iurii Miroliubov, forged the manuscript and deceivingly used the term "Vedism" to describe the Russian neo-pagamisn, who later appropriated the Indian religious text, the Vedas, to aggrandize the text.{{sfn|Laruella|2008|p=285}}
The [[Slavophilia|Russian Slavophile movements]] borrowed various discrete ideas of a presumed "prestigious Aryan origin" of Europeans from the Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8129.2008.00329.x|journal=[[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]]|title=Alternative identity, alternative religion? Neo-paganism and the Aryan myth in contemporary Russia|first=Marlene|last=Laruella|volume=14|issue=2|date=10 April 2008|via=[[Wiley_(publisher)#Wiley_Online_Library|Wiley Online Library]]|doi-access=free|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8129.2008.00329.x}}</ref>{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=10}} Although the [[Russian Orthodoxy]] played the primary religious influence among the nationalistic individuals, the [[Papal_primacy|primacy of Christianity]] raised skepticism among these groups, who later began searching for an ancient text to rationalize a "return to the origins".{{sfn|Laruella|2008|pp=284-285}} Various authors in the newspaper ''Zhar-Ptitsa'' began showing interest in a so-called manuscript—the [[Book of Veles]]—which supposedly dated to the first century BCE.{{sfn|Laruella|2008|p=285}} F. A. Izenbek, an [[White Army]] officer, alleged the discovery of this manuscript during the [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]]; however one of Izenbek's friends, Iurii Miroliubov, forged the manuscript and deceivingly used the term "Vedism" to describe the Russian neo-pagamisn, who later appropriated the Indian religious text, the Vedas, to aggrandize the text.{{sfn|Laruella|2008|p=285}}
==== Goddess movement====
With the rise of [[first-wave feminism]], various authors of the [[Goddess movement]] casted the ancient Indo-Europeans as a "patriachal, warlike invaders who destroyed a utopian prehistoric world of feminine peace and beauty" in various [[Historical_drama|archaeological dramas]].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=10}}


== See also ==
== See also ==

Revision as of 11:43, 13 April 2022

This article is about the historical race concept. For identity of ancient Indo-Iranians, see Aryan. For the ideology, see Aryanism. For other uses, see Aryan (disambiguation).

The fourth edition of Meyers Konversationslexikon (Leipzig, 1885–1890) shows the Caucasian race (in shades of grayish blue-green) as comprising Aryans, Semites, and Hamites. Aryans are subdivided into European Aryans and Indo-Aryans (for those now called Indo-Iranians).[citation needed]
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The Aryan race is an obsolete historical race concept which emerged in the late 19th-century to describe people of Proto-Indo-European heritage as a racial grouping.[1][2] Anthropological, historical and archaeological evidence does not support the validity of this concept.[3][4]

The concept derives from the notion that the original speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) were distinct progenitors of a superior race,[5] and their descendants up to the present day constitute either a distinctive race or a sub-race of the Caucasian race alongside the Semitic race and the Hamitic race.[6] This taxonomic approach to categorizing human population groups is now considered to be misguided and biologically meaningless due to the close genetic similarity and complex interrelationships between these groups.[7][8][9]

The term was adopted by various racist and antisemitic writers during the nineteenth century, including Arthur de Gobineau, Richard Wagner and Houston Stewart Chamberlain,[10] whose scientific racism influenced later Nazi racial ideology.[11] By the 1930s, the concept had been associated with Nazism and Nordicism,[12] and used to support the white supremacist ideology of Aryanism which portrayed the Aryan race as a "master race",[13] with non-Aryans as racially inferior (Untermensch) and an existential threat to be exterminated.[14] Under Nazi rule, these ideas formed an essential part of the state ideology that led to the Holocaust.[15][16]

History

Debates on linguistic homeland

In the late 18th century, Proto-Indo-European (PIE) was constructed as the hypothesized common proto-language of the Indo-European languages.[17][18] Sir William Jones, who was acclaimed as the "most respected linguist in Europe" for his Grammar of the Persian Language (1771), was appointed one of the three justices of the Supreme Court of Bengal.[19] Jones, who arrived in Calcutta and began his study of Sanskrit and the Rig Veda, was astonished by the lexical similarities between Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages such as Persian, Gothic, Greek, and Latin, and concluded that Sanskrit—as a descendant language—belonged to the same proto- or parent-language in the language family, that is PIE, as the other Indo-European languages.[20] However, the linguistic homeland of the original speakers of Proto-Indo-European was a politicized debate among the archaeologists and comparative historical linguists since the start, entangling in chauvinistic causes.[21][22][23][24] Some European nationalists and dictators, most notably the Nazis, later attempted to identify the Proto-Indo-European homeland in their country or region as racially superior.[22][25]

Romanticism and Darwinism

See also: Romantic nationalism and German nationalism § Romantic nationalism

The influence of Romanticism in Germany saw a revival of the intellectual quest for "the German language and traditions" and a desire to "discard the cold, artificial logic of Enlightenment".[26] After Darwin's 1859 publication of On the Origin of Species and publicization of the theorized model of Proto-Indo-European languages, the Romantics convicted that language was a defining factor in national identity, combined with the new ideas of Darwinism.[27] The German nationalists misemployed the scientific theory of natural selection for the rationalization of the supposed fitness of some races over others, although Darwin himself never applied his theory of fitness to vague entities such as races or languages.[27] The "unfit" races were suggested as a source of genetic weakness, and a threat that might contaminate the superior qualities of the "fit" races.[27] The misleading mixture of pseudoscience and Romanticism produced new racial ideologies which used distorted Social Darwinist interpretations of race to explain "the superior biological-spiritual-linguistic essence of the Northern Europeans" in self-congratulatory studies.[28][29] Subsequently, the German Romantics' quest for a "pure" national heritage led to the interpretation of the ancient speakers of Proto-Indo-European languages as the distinct progenitors of a "racial-linguistic-national stereotype".[30][31] The now-discredited and chronologically reconstructed North European hypothesis was endorsed by German nationalists in the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries, which was later used by the Nazis to condone their genocidal and racist state policies.[32][23]

Invention of the Aryan race

Racial association of the term

"Proto-Indo-European", originally a linguistic category, became associated with a new, imagined biological category: "a tall, light-complexioned, blonde, blue-eyed race".[33] Aryan, originally an ethnocultural self-designative identity of Indo-Iranians, was applied to this racial grouping.[33] According to David W. Anthony, the word Aryan was specifically chosen because the authors of the oldest known religious texts in Sanskrit and Avestan—the Rig Veda and Avesta—called themselves Aryans, and lived in ancient India and Iran.[34] However, the Aryan identity as asserted in the Rig Veda was cultural, religious, and lingustic, not racial; nor do the Vedas contemplate racial purity.[35][36][37] The racial interpretation of Aryans stems from the now-pseudoscientific culture-historical archaeology theory of Gustaf Kossinna, who asserted a one-to-one correspondence between archaeological culture and archaeological race.[38][39] According to Kossinna, the continuity of a "culture" exposits the continuity of a "race" which lived continuously in the same area, and the resemblance of a culture in a younger layer to a culture from an older layer indicates that the autochthonous tribe from the homeland had migrated.[40]

Earliest utilization by linguists and race theorists

Max Müller is often identified as the first writer to mention an Aryan race in English,[41] and began the racial interpretation of the Vedic passages based upon his editing of the Rigveda from 1849 to 1874.[42] In his Lectures on the Science of Language (1861),[43] Müller referred to the Aryans as a "race of people". At the time, the term race had the meaning of "a group of tribes or peoples, an ethnic group".[44] Müller postulated a small Aryan clan living on a high elevation in central Asia, speaking a proto-language ancestral to later Indo-European languages, which later branched off in two directions: one moved towards Europe and the other migrated to Iran, eventually splitting again with one group invading north-western India and conquering the dark-skinned dasas of Scythian origin who lived there.[45] The northern Aryans of Europe became energetic and combative and they invented the idea of a nation, while the southern Aryans of Iran and India were passive and meditative and focussed on religion and philosophy.[46]

Though he occasionally used the term "Aryan race" afterward, Müller later objected to the mixing of the linguistic and racial categories, and in his 1888 lecture at Oxford, he stated that "[the] science of Language and the science of Man cannot be kept too much asunder... it would be as wrong to speak of Aryan blood as of dolichocephalic grammar",[47] and in his Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas (1888), he writes, "[the] ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes, and hair, is a great sinner as a linguist [...]".[48] However, Müller's concept of Aryan was later construed to imply a biologically distinct sub-group of humanity by writers such as Arthur de Gobineau, who argued that the Aryans represented a superior branch of humanity.[43] Gobineau attempted to identify the races of Europe as Aryan and associated them with the sons of Noah, emphasizing superiority, and categorized non-Aryan as an intrusion of the Semitic race.[46]

While the Aryan race theory remained popular, particularly in Germany, some authors opposed it, in particular Otto Schrader, Rudolph von Jhering and the ethnologist Robert Hartmann (1831–1893), who proposed to ban the notion of Aryan from anthropology.[43] Helena Blavatsky advocated the idea of root-races in which each cyclical rise and fall of seven consecutive root-races in the scale of spiritual development, each of which was divided into seven sub-races before ascending progressively superior root-races; in her cosmogony, the Aryan race was the fifth root-race, proceeded by the Atlanteans, and emphasized the principle of elitism and racial hierarchy.[49][clarification needed]

Aryanism and racism

Theories of racial supremacy

The term Aryan was adopted by various racists and antisemetic writers during the nineteenth century for the promotion of scientific racism, spawning ideologies such as Nordicism and Aryanism.[50][51] The connotation of the term Aryan was detached from its proper geographic and lingustic confinement as a Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European language family by this time.[33]

In 1853, Arthur de Gobineau published An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races, in which he identified the Aryan race as the white race, and the only civilized one. Further, he hypothesized that the northern Europeans had migrated across the world and founded the major civilizations, before being diluted through racial mixing with indigenous populations described as racially inferior, leading to the progressive decay of the ancient Aryan civilizations.[2] In 1899, Houston Stewart Chamberlain published what is described as "one of the most important proto-Nazi texts", The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, in which he theorized an existential struggle to the death between a superior German-Aryan race and a destructive Jewish-Semitic race.[52]

In 1916, Madison Grant published The Passing of the Great Race, a polemic against interbreeding between "Aryan" Americans with immigrant "inferior races", which according to him were, Poles, Czechs, Jews, and Italians. The book was a best-seller at the time.[33] In 1920, H. G. Wells's bestseller The Outline of History,[53] used the term in the plural ("the Aryan peoples"). In 1922, in A Short History of the World, Wells depicted a highly diverse group of various "Aryan peoples" learning "methods of civilization" and then, by means of different uncoordinated movements that Wells believed were part of a larger dialectical rhythm of conflict between settled civilizations and nomadic invaders that also encompassed Aegean and Mongol peoples inter alia, "subjugat[ing]" – "in form" but not in "ideas and methods" – "the whole ancient world, Semitic, Aegean and Egyptian alike".[54]

The Aryan race in Nazi Germany

Main article: Nazi racial theories
See also: Racial policy of Nazi Germany

Subhumans and racial laws

The racial policies of Nazi Germany, the 1935 Nuremberg Laws, and the racist doctrines of Adolf Hitler considered Jews and Slavs, including Poles, Czechs, Russians, Roma and Serbs, "racially inferior sub-humans" (German: Untermensch, lit. 'sub-human');[55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62] the term was also applied to mixed race and black people.[63][62] However, a definition of Aryan that included all non-Jewish Europeans was deemed unacceptable, and the Expert Committee on Questions of Population and Racial Policy of 1933 bought together important Nazi intellectuals Alfred Ploetz, Fritz Thyssen, and Ernst Rüdin to plan the course of Nazi racial policy, defining an Aryan as one who was "tribally related to the German blood and descendant of a Volk".[64][65] Historical revisionism around race was disseminated through Ahnenerbe, a Nazi think tank.[66][51] Nazi scholars situated the Proto-Indo-European homeland in northern Europe in an effort to prove PIE was originally spoken by an "Aryan master race", and associated the Semitic languages with "inferior races".[22] Hitler regularly invoked Social Darwinist concepts of higher evolution (German: Höherentwicklung), struggle for existence (German: Existenzkampf), evolution (German: Entwicklung), and the theories of Ernst Haeckel in his Nazi racial ideology, which is the central theme in the chapter "Nation and Race" of Mein Kampf.[67]

Nazi eugenics and Nordic supremacy

See also: Nordicism

In 1938, the Reich Ministry of Education released the German biology curriculum which reflected the curriculum developed by the National Socialist Teachers League and emphasized the Social Darwinst interpretation of the evolution of human races.[68] Hans Weinert, who had joined the SS and worked for the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology publishing theories of Nazi eugenics and racial evolution, claimed the Nordic race as a highly evolved race, and Aboriginal Australians as being the lowest rank in the racial hierarchy.[69] Hans F. K. Günther was considered to be the most influential Nazi anthropologist, although he was not professionally trained.[70] Günther's racist writings on Nordicism was suffused with the ideas of Gobineau, who believed the Nordic race had originated in northern Europe and spread through conquest;[69] this had expressed approval of the Nazi eugenics policies, and had critical influence on scientific racism.[70] Günther's theories gained acclamation from Hitler, who later included his books as a recommended reading material for the Nazi Party members.[71] Nazi racial theories considered the "purest stock of Aryans" the Nordic people, identified by physical anthropological features such as tallness, white skin, blue eyes, narrow and straight noses, doliocephalic skulls, prominent chins, and blond hair, including Scandinavians, Germans, English and French.[72][73] After the Nazis came to power, selective breeding for supposed Aryan traits such as athleticism, blond hair and blue eyes was encouraged, while the "inferior races" and people with physical or mental illness were deemed "lives unworthy of life" (German: lebensunwertes Leben, lit. 'lives unworthy of life') and many were interned in concentration camps.[74]

Ethnic cleansing and the Holocaust

Main articles: The Holocaust and Final Solution
See also: Extermination through labour, Generalplan Ost, and Porajmos

The culmination of Nazi eugenicist and racial hygiene programs of sterilization and extermination aimed at creating an "Aryan master race" and eliminating "inferior non-Aryan types" such as Jews, Slavs, Poles, Roma, homosexuals, and the disabled.[13][75] Nazi Germany introduced the Anti-Jewish legislation that systemically discriminated against Jews by requiring Aryan certification for a German Reich citizen.[76][77] After Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany, the public policies of Nazi Germany became increasingly hostile towards supposed "inferior types",[78] particularly Jews, who were considered to be the highest manifestation of the Semitic race,[79] and segregation of Jews in ghettos culminated in the policy of extermination the Nazis called the Final Solution to the Jewish Question.[80] The state-sponsored persecution systematically murdered over six million Jews,[81] 5.7 million Slavs,[82] 1.8-3 million Poles,[83] disabled people,[84] including children through mass shooting, gas chamber, gas van, and concentration camps, in the process known as the Holocaust.[85][86] The Aryan race belief was used by the Nazis to justify the persecution, depicting the victims as the "antipode and eternal enemy of the Aryans".[78]

White supremacy

Main article: White supremacy
See also: White nationalism and White pride

Many white supremacist neo-Nazi groups and prison gangs, notably in the United States, view themselves as part of an Aryan race, including the Aryan Brotherhood, Aryan Nations, Aryan Guard, Aryan Republican Army, White Aryan Resistance, Aryan Circle, Aryan Brotherhood of Texas, and others.[87][88]

Neo-pagan movements

The history of Indo-Europeans plays significant role in various neo-Pagan movements.[24]

Russian neo-paganism

The Russian Slavophile movements borrowed various discrete ideas of a presumed "prestigious Aryan origin" of Europeans from the Nazi Germany.[89][24] Although the Russian Orthodoxy played the primary religious influence among the nationalistic individuals, the primacy of Christianity raised skepticism among these groups, who later began searching for an ancient text to rationalize a "return to the origins".[90] Various authors in the newspaper Zhar-Ptitsa began showing interest in a so-called manuscript—the Book of Veles—which supposedly dated to the first century BCE.[91] F. A. Izenbek, an White Army officer, alleged the discovery of this manuscript during the Civil War; however one of Izenbek's friends, Iurii Miroliubov, forged the manuscript and deceivingly used the term "Vedism" to describe the Russian neo-pagamisn, who later appropriated the Indian religious text, the Vedas, to aggrandize the text.[91]

Goddess movement

With the rise of first-wave feminism, various authors of the Goddess movement casted the ancient Indo-Europeans as a "patriachal, warlike invaders who destroyed a utopian prehistoric world of feminine peace and beauty" in various archaeological dramas.[24]

See also

References

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Bibliography

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