Mark Twain: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] --> |
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| name = Mark Twain |
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| image = Mark Twain, Brady-Handy photo portrait, Feb 7, 1871, cropped.jpg |
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| imagesize = 200px |
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| caption = Mark Twain, detail of photo by [[Mathew Brady]], February 7, 1871 |
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| birth_name = Samuel Langhorne Clemens |
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| pseudonym = Mark Twain |
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| birth_date = {{birth date|mf=yes|1835|11|30}} |
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| birth_place = [[Florida, Missouri]], U.S. |
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| death_date = {{death date and age|mf=yes|1910|4|21|1835|11|30}} |
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| death_place = [[Redding, Connecticut]], U.S. |
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| occupation = [[Writer]], [[lecture]]r |
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| nationality = American |
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| signature = Mark Twain Signatures-2.svg |
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| notableworks = ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'', ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' |
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| spouse = {{marriage |[[Olivia Langdon Clemens]]| 1870 |1904}} |
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| children = Langdon, [[Susy Clemens|Susy]], [[Clara Clemens|Clara]], [[Jean Clemens|Jean]] |
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| influenced = [[Jeff Smith (cartoonist)|Jeff Smith]]<ref name=TheCartoonist>{{cite AV media|people = Ken Mills (Director) |title =[[The Cartoonist: Jeff Smith, BONE and the Changing Face of Comics]]|medium = Documentary|publisher = Mills James Productions|date = July 21, 2009}}</ref> |
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}} |
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[[File:Samuel L Clemens4 1940 Issue-10c.jpg|thumb|right|Samuel L. Clemens stamp, 1940]] |
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'''Samuel Langhorne Clemens''' (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marktwainhouse.org/theman/bio.shtml |title= The Mark Twain House Biography |accessdate=2006-10-24 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061016074753/http://www.marktwainhouse.org/theman/bio.shtml <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2006-10-16}}</ref> better known by his [[pen name]] '''Mark Twain''', was an American author and [[humorist]]. He wrote ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' (1876) and its [[sequel]], ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'' (1885),<ref>{{cite news|title=Mark Twain remembered by Google with a doodle|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/news/internet/Mark-Twain-remembered-by-Google-with-a-doodle/articleshow/10928674.cms|accessdate=30 November 2011|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=30 November 2011}}</ref> the latter often called "the [[Great American Novel]]." |
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Twain grew up in [[Hannibal, Missouri]], which provided the setting for ''Huckleberry Finn'' and ''Tom Sawyer''. After an apprenticeship with a printer, he worked as a typesetter and contributed articles to the newspaper of his older brother [[Orion Clemens]]. He later became a riverboat pilot on the [[Mississippi River]] before heading west to join Orion in Nevada. He referred humorously to his singular lack of success at mining, turning to journalism for the [[Virginia City]] ''[[Territorial Enterprise]]''.<ref>Thomson, David, In Nevada: The Land, The People, God, and Chance, New York: Vintage Books, 2000. ISBN 0-679-77758-X p. 35</ref> In 1865, his humorous story, "[[The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County]]," was published, based on a story he heard at [[Angels Hotel]] in [[Angels Camp, California]], where he had spent some time as a miner. The short story brought international attention, and was even translated into classic Greek.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=ld_3LPm8FKkC Mark Twain, ''The Jumping Frog: In English, Then in French, and Then Clawed Back into a Civilized Language Once More by Patient, Unremunerated Toil'', illustrated by F. Strothman, New York and London, Harper & Brothers, Publishers, MCMIII, pp. 64–66].</ref> His wit and satire, in prose and in speech, earned praise from critics and peers, and he was a friend to [[President of the United States|presidents]], artists, industrialists, and European royalty. |
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Though Twain earned a great deal of money from his writings and lectures, he invested in ventures that lost a great deal of money, notably the [[Paige Compositor]], which failed because of its complexity and imprecision. In the wake of these financial setbacks, he filed for protection from his creditors via bankruptcy, and with the help of [[Henry Huttleston Rogers]] eventually overcame his financial troubles. Twain chose to pay all his pre-bankruptcy creditors in full, though he had no legal responsibility to do so. |
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Twain was born shortly after a visit by [[Halley's Comet]], and he predicted that he would "go out with it," too. He died the day following the comet's subsequent return. He was lauded as the "greatest American humorist of his age,"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://marktwainclassics.com/marktwain/obituary-new-york-times/ |title=Obituary (New York Times) |accessdate=2009-12-27}}</ref> and [[William Faulkner]] called Twain "the father of [[American literature]]."<ref name="faulkner">{{cite book |last=Jelliffe |first=Robert A. |title=Faulkner at Nagano |year=1956 |publisher=Kenkyusha, Ltd |location=Tokyo}}</ref> |
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==Early life== |
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Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born in [[Florida, Missouri]], on November 30, 1835. He was the son of Jane (née Lampton; 1803–1890), a native of Kentucky, and [[John Marshall Clemens]] (1798–1847), a Virginian by birth. His parents met when his father moved to Missouri and were married several years later, in 1823.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-twain.html "Inventing Mark Twain"]. 1997. ''New York Times''.</ref><ref name="singular">{{cite book |last = Kaplan |first = Fred |title = The Singular Mark Twain |date=October 2007 |publisher = Doubleday |isbn = 0-385-47715-5 |chapter = Chapter 1: The Best Boy You Had 1835–1847}}. Cited in {{cite web |url = http://classiclit.about.com/library/weekly/aafpr113003b.htm |title = Excerpt: ''The Singular Mark Twain'' |publisher = About.com: Literature: Classic |accessdate = 2006-10-11}}</ref> He was the sixth of seven children, but only three of his siblings survived childhood: his brother [[Orion Clemens|Orion]] (1825–1897), Henry, who died in a riverboat explosion (1838–1858), and Pamela (1827–1904). His sister Margaret (1833–1839) died when he was three, and his brother Benjamin (1832–1842) died three years later. Another brother, Pleasant (1828–1829), died at six months.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://marktwainhouse.org/theman/twain_tree.pdf |format=PDF|title=Mark Twain's Family Tree |accessdate=2007-01-01}}</ref> Twain was born two weeks after the closest approach to Earth of [[Halley's Comet]]. |
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When he was four, Twain's family moved to [[Hannibal, Missouri]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95nov/twain.html |title=Mark Twain, American Author and Humorist |accessdate=2006-10-25}}</ref> a port town on the [[Mississippi River]] that inspired the fictional town of St. Petersburg in ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' and ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url= http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_701509634/Adventures_of_Huckleberry_Finn_The.html |title=Adventures of Huckleberry Finn |accessdate=2006-11-11 |last=Lindborg |first=Henry J. |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kx7x1BXR |archivedate=2009-11-01 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> Missouri was a [[slave state]] and young Twain became familiar with the [[History of slavery in the United States|institution of slavery]], a theme he would later explore in his writing. Twain's father was an attorney and judge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.twainquotes.com/ClemensJM.html |title=Mark Twain quotations – father – John Marshall Clemens |publisher=Twainquotes.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-30}}</ref> The [[Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad]] was organized in his office in 1846. The railroad connected the second and third largest cities in the state and was the westernmost United States railroad until the completion of the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|Transcontinental Railroad]]. It delivered mail to and from the [[Pony Express]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abandonedrails.com/Hannibal_and_Saint_Joseph_Railroad |title=The Hannibal and Saint Joseph Railroad |publisher=Abandoned Rails |date=2010-10-08 |accessdate=2010-12-30}}</ref> |
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[[File:Mark Twain by GH Jones, 1850 - retouched.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Samuel Clemens, age 15]] |
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In 1847, when Twain was 11, his father died of [[pneumonia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://shs.umsystem.edu/famousmissourians/writers/clemens/jmclemens.html |title=John Marshall Clemens |
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|publisher=State Historical Society of Missouri |accessdate=2007-10-29}}</ref> The next year, he became a printer's apprentice. In 1851, he began working as a [[typeset]]ter and contributor of articles and humorous sketches for the ''Hannibal Journal'', a newspaper owned by his brother Orion. When he was 18, he left Hannibal and worked as a printer in New York City, [[Philadelphia]], [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], and [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]]. He joined the newly formed [[International Typographical Union]], the printers [[trade union|union]], and [[autodidact|educated himself]] in [[public library|public libraries]] in the evenings, finding wider information than at a conventional school.<ref>Philip S. Foner, ''Mark Twain: Social Critic'' (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 13, cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in the ''[[International Socialist Review (1997)|International Socialist Review]]'' 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65, at [http://www.marxists.de/culture/twain/noteach.htm#n2]</ref> Clemens came from St. Louis on the packet ''Keokuk'' in 1854<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark |first=Daniel G. |url=http://muscatinejournal.com/betwixt-and-be-twain/article_f16c1d51-4fa9-5748-bc42-2e94a7ffeb29.html |title=Betwixt and be Twain |publisher=Muscatinejournal.com |date=2002-01-14 |accessdate=2012-02-07}}</ref> and lived in Muscatine during part of the summer of 1855. The Muscatine newspaper published eight stories, which amounted to almost 6,000 words.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://muscatinejournal.com/news/opinion/editorial/columns/journal-editorial-that-other-famous-muscatine-resident/article_7bfb22ae-222d-11df-a6de-001cc4c03286.html |title=Journal editorial: That other famous Muscatine resident |publisher=Muscatinejournal.com |date=2010-02-25 |accessdate=2012-02-07}}</ref> |
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On a voyage to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] down the Mississippi, [[steamboat]] pilot Horace E. Bixby inspired Twain to become a pilot himself. As Twain observed in ''Life on the Mississippi'', the pilot surpassed a steamboat's captain in prestige and authority; it was a rewarding occupation with wages set at $250 per month.<ref>''Life on the Mississippi'', chapter 15</ref> A steamboat pilot needed to know the ever-changing river to be able to stop at the hundreds of ports and wood-lots. Twain studied 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of the Mississippi for more than two years before he received his steamboat pilot license in 1859. This occupation gave him his pen name, Mark Twain, from "mark twain," the cry for a measured river depth of two fathoms. While training, Samuel convinced his younger brother Henry to work with him. Henry was killed on June 21, 1858, when the steamboat he was working on, the ''[[Pennsylvania Steamboat|Pennsylvania]]'', exploded. Twain had foreseen this death in a dream a month earlier,<ref name="autov1">{{cite book |title=Autobiography of Mark Twain: Volume 1 |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Harriet Elinor |year=2010 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-26719-0}}</ref>{{rp|275}} which inspired his interest in [[parapsychology]]; he was an early member of the [[Society for Psychical Research]].<ref>For a further account of Twain's involvement with parapsychology, see Blum, Deborah, ''Ghost Hunters: William James and the Search for Scientific Proof of Life After Death" (Penguin Press, (2006).</ref> Twain was guilt-stricken and held himself responsible for the rest of his life. He continued to work on the river and was a river pilot until the [[American Civil War]] broke out in 1861 and traffic along the Mississippi was [[Mississippi River campaigns in the American Civil War|curtailed]]. |
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At the start of the Civil War, Twain enlisted briefly in a Confederate local unit. He then left for Nevada to work for his brother, a senior official in the Federal government.<ref>{{cite book|author=J.r. Lemaster|title=The Mark Twain Encyclopedia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zW1k-XS6XLEC&pg=PA147|year=1993|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=147|isbn=9780824072124}}</ref> Twain later wrote a sketch, "[[The Private History of a Campaign That Failed]]," which told how he and his friends had been Confederate volunteers for two weeks before disbanding their company.<ref name="Hannibal">{{cite web |title =Mark Twain Biography |work = |publisher =The Hannibal Courier-Post |url =http://www.marktwainhannibal.com/twain/biography/ |accessdate = 2008-11-25 }}</ref> |
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==Travels== |
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[[File:Twain House first floor library HABS CONN,2-HARF,16-63.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Library of [[Mark Twain House|Twain House]], with hand-stenciled paneling, fireplaces from India, embossed wallpapers, and hand-carved mantel purchased in Scotland]] |
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Twain joined Orion, who in 1861 became secretary to [[James W. Nye]], the governor of [[Nevada Territory]], and headed west. Twain and his brother traveled more than two weeks on a [[stagecoach]] across the [[Great Plains]] and the [[Rocky Mountains]], visiting the [[Mormon pioneers|Mormon community]] in [[Salt Lake City]]. |
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Twain's journey ended in the silver-mining town of [[Virginia City, Nevada]], where he became a [[mining|miner]] on the [[Comstock Lode]].<ref name="Hannibal"/> Twain failed as a miner and worked at a Virginia City newspaper, the ''[[Territorial Enterprise]]''.<ref>''Comstock Commotion: The Story of the Territorial Enterprise and Virginia City News,'' Chapter 2.</ref> Working under writer and friend [[Dan DeQuille]], here he first used his pen name. On February 3, 1863, he signed a humorous travel account ''"Letter From Carson – re: Joe Goodman; party at Gov. Johnson's; music"'' with "Mark Twain."<ref name=MT_quotes>{{cite web |title = Mark Twain quotations |url = http://www.twainquotes.com/teindex.html}}</ref> |
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{{Further|Mark Twain in Nevada}} |
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His experiences in the [[American West]] inspired ''[[Roughing It]]'' and his experiences in Angels Camp, California in Calaveras County provided material for "[[The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County]]". |
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Twain moved to [[San Francisco, California]] in 1864, still as a journalist. He met writers such as [[Bret Harte]] and [[Artemus Ward]]. The young poet [[Ina Coolbrith]] may have romanced him.<ref>The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco. Samuel Dickson. [http://www.sfmuseum.org/bio/isadora.html ''Isadora Duncan (1878–1927)''.] Retrieved on July 9, 2009.</ref> |
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His first success as a writer came when his humorous [[tall tale]], "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County," was published in a New York weekly, ''[[The Saturday Press (literary newspaper)|The Saturday Press]]'', on November 18, 1865. It brought him national attention. A year later, he traveled to the [[Hawaiian Islands|Sandwich Islands]] (present-day Hawaii) as a reporter for the ''[[Sacramento Union]]''. His travelogues were popular and became the basis for his first lectures.<ref name="PBS">{{cite web |title =Samuel Clemens |publisher =PBS:The West |url =http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/a_c/clemens.htm |doi = |accessdate = 2007-08-25 }}</ref> |
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In 1867, a local newspaper funded a trip to the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]. During his tour of Europe and the Middle East, he wrote a popular collection of travel letters, which were later compiled as ''[[The Innocents Abroad]]'' in 1869. It was on this trip that he met his future brother-in-law, Charles Langdon. Both were passengers aboard the ''Quaker City'' on their way to the Holy Land. Langdon showed a picture of his sister [[Olivia Langdon Clemens|Olivia]] to Twain; Twain claimed to have fallen in love at first sight. |
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Upon returning to the United States, Twain was offered honorary membership in the secret society [[Scroll and Key]] of [[Yale University]] in 1868.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EWvU21-vV8EC&pg=PA281|title=Mark Twain's Letters: 1867–1868|author=Mark Twain, Edgar Marquess Branch, Michael B. Frank, Kenneth M. Sanderson |publisher=Books.google.com |date=1990-01-01|isbn=9780520906075 }}</ref> Its devotion to "fellowship, moral and literary self-improvement, and charity" suited him well. |
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==Marriage and children== |
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[[File:Mark Twain by Abdullah Frères, 1867.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|right|Twain in 1867]] |
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Throughout 1868, Twain and [[Olivia Langdon]] corresponded but she rejected his first marriage proposal. Two months later, they were engaged. In February 1870, Twain and Langdon were married in [[Elmira, New York]],<ref name="PBS"/> where he had courted her and overcome her father's initial reluctance.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Concerning Mark Twain|journal=The Week : a Canadian journal of politics, literature, science and arts|date=14 Feb 1884|volume=1|issue=11|page=171|url=http://archive.org/stream/weekcanadianjour01toro#page/n86/mode/1up|accessdate=26 April 2013}}</ref> She came from a "wealthy but liberal family," and through her he met [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionists]], "socialists, principled atheists and activists for [[women's rights]] and [[social equality]]," including [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]] (his next-door neighbor in [[Hartford, Connecticut]]), [[Frederick Douglass]], and the writer and [[utopian socialism|utopian socialist]] [[William Dean Howells]],<ref name="helen-scott">{{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=Helen |contribution=The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school |
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|title=International Socialist Review |volume=10 |date=Winter 2000 |pages=61–65 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> who became a long-time friend. The couple lived in [[Buffalo, New York]] from 1869 to 1871. Twain owned a stake in the ''[[Buffalo Courier-Express|Buffalo Express]]'' newspaper and worked as an editor and writer. While living in Buffalo, their son Langdon died of [[diphtheria]] at age 19 months. They had three daughters: [[Susy Clemens|Susy]] (1872–1896), [[Clara Clemens|Clara]] (1874–1962)<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Mrs. Jacques Samossoud Dies; Mark Twain's Last Living Child; Released 'Letters From Earth' |url= |quote=[[San Diego, California]], Nov. 20 (UPI) Mrs. Clara Langhorne Clemens Samossoud, the last living child of Mark Twain, died last night in Sharp Memorial Hospital. She was 88 years old. |publisher=New York Times |date=November 21, 1962}}</ref> and [[Jean Clemens|Jean]] (1880–1909). The couple's marriage lasted 34 years, until Olivia's death in 1904. All of the Clemens family are buried in Elmira's [[Woodlawn Cemetery (Elmira, New York)|Woodlawn Cemetery]]. |
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Twain moved his family to [[Hartford, Connecticut]], where starting in 1873 he arranged the building of [[Mark Twain House|a home]] (local admirers saved it from demolition in 1927 and eventually turned it into a museum focused on him). |
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In the 1870s and 1880s, Twain and his family summered at [[Quarry Farm]], the home of Olivia's sister, Susan Crane.<ref name=Elmira>{{cite web |url= http://www.elmira.edu/academics/distinctive_programs/twain_center/quarry_farm |title=Twain's Home in Elmira |publisher=[[Elmira College]] Center for Mark Twain Studies |accessdate=May 1, 2011}}</ref><ref name=Cresset>{{cite web |url=http://www.valpo.edu/cresset/2010/Advent/Bush_A10.html |title=A Week at Quarry Farm |author=Hal Bush |publisher=''The Cresset'', A review of literature, the arts, and public affairs, [[Valparaiso University]] |date=Advent-Christmas 2010 |accessdate=May 1, 2011}}</ref> In 1874,<ref name=Elmira/> Susan had a study built apart from the main house so that her brother-in-law would have a quiet place in which to write. Also, Twain smoked pipes constantly, and Susan Crane did not wish him to do so in her house. During his seventeen years in Hartford (1874–1891) and over twenty summers at Quarry Farm, Twain wrote many of his classic novels, among them ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' (1876), ''The Prince and the Pauper'' (1881), ''Life on the Mississippi'' (1883), ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (1885) and ''[[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court]]'' (1889). |
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Twain made a second tour of Europe, described in the 1880 book ''[[A Tramp Abroad]]''. His tour included a stay in [[Heidelberg]] from May 6 until July 23, 1878, and a visit to London. |
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==Love of science and technology== |
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[[File:Twain in Tesla's Lab.jpg|thumb|Twain in the lab of [[Nikola Tesla]], early 1894]] |
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Twain was fascinated with science and scientific inquiry. He developed a close and lasting friendship with [[Nikola Tesla]], and the two spent much time together in Tesla's laboratory. |
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Twain patented three inventions, including an "Improvement in Adjustable and Detachable Straps for Garments" (to replace [[suspenders]]) and a history trivia game.<ref>{{Cite book | last=J. Niemann | first=Paul | title=Invention Mysteries (Invention Mysteries Series) | date= November 2004| publisher=Horsefeathers Publishing Company | location= | isbn=0-9748041-0-X | pages=53–54 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=TFjBk0tn9A4C&pg=PA52}}</ref> Most commercially successful was a self-pasting scrapbook; a dried adhesive on the pages only needed to be moistened before use. |
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His book ''A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court'' features a [[time travel]]er from the contemporary US, using his knowledge of science to introduce modern technology to [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] England. This type of storyline would later become a common feature of a [[science fiction]] sub-genre, [[alternate history]]. |
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In 1909, [[Thomas Edison]] visited Twain at his home in Redding, Connecticut and filmed him. Part of the footage was used in ''The Prince and the Pauper'' (1909), a two-reel short film. It is said to have been the only known existing film footage of Twain.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gonzalez|first=Robert|title=The only existing video footage of Mark Twain, as filmed by Thomas Edison|url=http://io9.com/5931709/the-only-existing-video-footage-of-mark-twain-as-filmed-by-thomas-edison|publisher=io9|accessdate=7 December 2013}}</ref> |
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==Financial troubles== |
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[[File:Mark Twain Vanity Fair 1908-05-13.jpeg|right|thumb|Twain caricatured by [[Leslie Ward|Spy]] for [[Vanity Fair (British magazine)|Vanity Fair]], 1908]] |
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Twain made a substantial amount of money through his writing, but he lost a great deal through investments, mostly in new inventions and technology, particularly the [[Paige Compositor|Paige typesetting machine]]. It was a beautifully engineered mechanical marvel that amazed viewers when it worked, but it was prone to breakdowns. Twain spent $300,000 (equal to ${{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|300000|1894|r=-5}}}} in inflation-adjusted terms {{Inflation-fn|US}}) on it between 1880 and 1894;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marktwainhouse.org/themuseum/archivist.shtml |title=Mark Twain House website – Paige Compositor page |publisher=Marktwainhouse.org |date= |accessdate=2010-12-30}}</ref> but, before it could be perfected, it was made obsolete by the [[Linotype machine|Linotype]]. He lost not only the bulk of his book profits but also a substantial portion of his wife's inheritance.<ref name="c-a-kirk">{{Cite book |last=Kirk |first=Connie Ann |authorlink = Connie Ann Kirk |title=Mark Twain – A Biography |location=Connecticut |
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|publisher=Greenwood Printing |year=2004 |isbn=0-313-33025-5 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> |
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Twain also lost money through his [[publishing house]], which enjoyed initial success selling the memoirs of [[Ulysses S. Grant]] but went broke soon after, losing money on a biography of [[Pope Leo XIII]]; fewer than two hundred copies were sold.<ref name="c-a-kirk" /> |
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Twain's writings and lectures, combined with the help of a new friend, enabled him to recover financially.<ref>Lauber, John. ''The Inventions of Mark Twain: a Biography''. New York: Hill and Wang, 1990.</ref> In 1893, he began a 15-year-long friendship with financier [[Henry H. Rogers|Henry Huttleston Rogers]], a principal of [[Standard Oil]]. Rogers first made Twain file for [[bankruptcy]]. Then Rogers had Twain transfer the [[copyright]]s on his written works to his wife, Olivia, to prevent creditors from gaining possession of them. Finally, Rogers took absolute charge of Twain's money until all the creditors were paid. |
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Twain accepted an offer from [[Robert Sparrow Smythe]]<ref name=adb> |
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{{Australian Dictionary of Biography |
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|first=M. |last=Shillingsburg |
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|title=Smythe, Robert Sparrow (1833–1917) |
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|id2=smythe-robert-sparrow-8568 |
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|accessdate=30 August 2013}}</ref> and embarked on a year-long, around-the-world lecture tour in July 1895<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.twainquotes.com/SpeechIndex.html |title=Chronology of Known Mark Twain Speeches, Public Readings, and Lectures |author=Barbara Schmidt |publisher=marktwainquotes.com |accessdate=February 7, 2010}}</ref> to pay off his creditors in full, although he was no longer under any legal obligation to do so.<ref>Cox, James M. ''Mark Twain: The Fate of Humor''. Princeton University Press, 1966.</ref> It would be a long, arduous journey and he was sick much of the time, mostly from a cold and a [[carbuncle]]. The itinerary took him to [[Hawaii]], [[Fiji]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[India]], [[Mauritius]], [[South Africa]] and [[England]]. Twain's three months in India became the centerpiece of his 712-page book ''[[Following the Equator]]''. He joined the [[Anti-Imperialist League]] in 1898, in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}} |
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In mid-1900, he was the guest of newspaper proprietor [[Hugh Gilzean-Reid]] at [[Dollis Hill House]], located on the north side of [[London]], UK. In regard to Dollis Hill, Twain wrote that he had "never seen any place that was so satisfactorily situated, with its noble trees and stretch of country, and everything that went to make life delightful, and all within a biscuit's throw of the metropolis of the world."<ref name=dollishill>{{cite news |url= http://www.dollishillhouse.co.uk/history.htm |title=History of Dollis Hill House |publisher=Dollis Hill House Trust |year=2006 |accessdate=2007-07-03 }}</ref> He then returned to America in 1900, having earned enough to pay off his debts. |
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==Speaking engagements== |
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Twain was in demand as a featured speaker, performing solo humorous talks similar to what would become [[stand-up comedy]].<ref>Judith Yaross Lee, "Mark Twain as a Stand-up Comedian," ''The Mark Twain Annual'' (2006) #4 pp 3–23</ref> He gave paid talks to many men's clubs, including the [[Authors' Club]], [[Beefsteak Club]], Vagabonds, [[White Friars]], and Monday Evening Club of Hartford. In the late 1890s, he spoke to the [[Savage Club]] in London and was elected honorary member. When told that only three men had been so honored, including the [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Prince of Wales]], he replied "Well, it must make the Prince feel mighty fine."<ref>Paine, A. B., Mark Twain: A Biography, Harper, 1912 p. 1095</ref> In 1897, Twain spoke to the Concordia Press Club in Vienna as a special guest, following diplomat [[Charlemagne Tower, Jr.]]. In German, to the great amusement of the assemblage, Twain delivered the speech "''[[The Awful German Language|Die Schrecken der deutschen Sprache]]''" ("The Horrors of the German Language").<ref>LeMaster J. R., ''The Mark Twain Encyclopedia'', Taylor & Francis, 1993 p. 50</ref> In 1901, Twain was invited to speak at [[Princeton University]]'s [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society|Cliosophic Literary Society]], where he was made an honorary member.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.twainquotes.com/19010510.html |title=Mark Twain at Princeton |publisher=Twainquotes.com |date= |accessdate=2013-12-07}}</ref> |
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==Later life and death== |
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{{rquote|right|...the report is greatly exaggerated|Mark Twain when it was reported he had died<ref>"Chapters from My Autobiography", The North American Review, 21 September 1906, p. 160. Mark Twain</ref>}} |
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[[File:Mark Twain Sarony.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Mark Twain in 1895 by [[Napoleon Sarony]]]] |
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Twain passed through a period of deep [[depression (mood)|depression]] that began in 1896 when his daughter Susy died of [[meningitis]]. Olivia's death in 1904 and Jean's on December 24, 1909, deepened his gloom.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.marktwainhouse.org/theman/bio.shtml |title=The Mark Twain House |accessdate=2006-11-17 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061016074753/http://www.marktwainhouse.org/theman/bio.shtml <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2006-10-16}}</ref> On May 20, 1909, his close friend Henry Rogers died suddenly. |
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In 1906, Twain began his [[autobiography]] in the ''[[North American Review]]''. In April, Twain heard that his friend Ina Coolbrith had lost nearly all she owned in the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]], and he volunteered a few autographed [[portrait]] photographs to be sold for her benefit. To further aid Coolbrith, [[George Wharton James]] visited Twain in New York and arranged for a new portrait session. Initially resistant, Twain admitted that four of the resulting images were the finest ones ever taken of him.<ref>TwainQuotes.com [http://www.twainquotes.com/Bradley/bradley.html ''The Story Behind the A. F. Bradley Photos''], Retrieved on July 10, 2009.</ref> |
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Twain formed a club in 1906 for girls he viewed as surrogate granddaughters, the Angel Fish and Aquarium Club. The dozen or so members ranged in age from 10 to 16. Twain exchanged letters with his "Angel Fish" girls and invited them to concerts and the theatre and to play games. Twain wrote in 1908 that the club was his "life's chief delight."<ref>LeMaster J. R., The Mark Twain Encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, 1993 p. 28</ref> In 1907 Twain met Dorothy Quick (then aged 11) on a transatlantic crossing, beginning "a friendship that was to last until the very day of his death".<ref>''[[New York Times]]'', 16 March 1962, [http://www.twainquotes.com/19620316.html DOROTHY QUICK, POET AND AUTHOR: Mystery Writer Dies – Was Friend of Mark Twain]</ref> |
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[[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] awarded Twain an honorary doctorate in letters ([[D.Litt.]]) in 1907. |
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[[File:SamuelC Grave.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Mark Twain headstone in [[Woodlawn Cemetery (Elmira, New York)|Woodlawn Cemetery]].]] |
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In 1909, Twain is quoted as saying:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/t/twain/mark/paine/ |title=Mark Twain, a Biography |author=Albert Bigelow Paine |accessdate=2006-11-01}}</ref> |
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{{quote|"I came in with [[Halley's Comet]] in 1835. It is coming again next year, and I expect to go out with it. It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don't go out with Halley's Comet. The Almighty has said, no doubt: 'Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together."}} |
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His prediction was accurate—Twain died of a [[heart attack]] on April 21, 1910, in [[Redding, Connecticut]], one day after the comet's closest approach to Earth. |
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Upon hearing of Twain's death, President [[William Howard Taft]] said:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://classiclit.about.com/cs/profileswriters/p/aa_marktwain.htm |title=Mark Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens) |accessdate=2006-11-01 |author=Esther Lombardi, [[about.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Mark Twain is Dead at 74. End Comes Peacefully at His New England Home After a Long Illness. |url= |quote=[[Danbury, Connecticut]], April 21, 1910. Samuel Langhorne Clemens, "Mark Twain," died at 22 minutes after 6 to-night. Beside him on the bed lay a beloved book – it was Carlyle's " French Revolution" – and near the book his glasses, pushed away with a weary sigh a few hours before. Too weak to speak clearly, "Give me my glasses," he had written on a piece of paper. |work=The New York Times |date=April 22, 1910}}</ref> |
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:"Mark Twain gave pleasure – real intellectual enjoyment – to millions, and his works will continue to give such pleasure to millions yet to come ... His humor was American, but he was nearly as much appreciated by Englishmen and people of other countries as by his own countrymen. He has made an enduring part of [[American literature]]." |
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Twain's funeral was at the "Old Brick" Presbyterian Church in New York.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.twainquotes.com/19100424a.html |title=Mark Twain's funeral |publisher=Twainquotes.com |date= |accessdate=2008-12-04}}</ref> He is buried in his wife's family plot at [[Woodlawn Cemetery (Elmira, New York)|Woodlawn Cemetery]] in [[Elmira, New York]]. The Langdon family plot where he is buried is marked by a 12-foot (two fathoms, or "mark twain") monument, placed there by his surviving daughter, Clara.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.go-new-york.com/Elmira |title=Elmira Travel Information |publisher=Go-new-york.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-30}}</ref> There is also a smaller headstone. Although he expressed a preference for cremation (for example in ''[[Life on the Mississippi]]''), he acknowledged that his surviving family would have the last word. |
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Officials in Connecticut and New York estimated the value of Twain's estate at $471,000 (${{Inflation|US|471,000|1910|fmt=c}} today); his manuscripts were given no monetary value, and his copyrights given little and decreasing value.<ref>http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60711F73F5517738DDDAC0994DF405B818DF1D3 "Mark Twain Estate About Half Million," New York Times, 1911-07-15. Retrieved 2014-05-08.</ref> |
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==Writing== |
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===Overview=== |
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[[File:Mark Twain DLitt.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Mark Twain in his gown (scarlet with grey sleeves and facings) for his [[D.Litt.]] degree, awarded to him by [[Oxford University]]]] |
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Twain began his career writing light, humorous verse, but evolved into a chronicler of the vanities, hypocrisies and murderous acts of mankind. At mid-career, with ''Huckleberry Finn'', he combined rich humor, sturdy narrative and social criticism. Twain was a master at rendering [[colloquialism|colloquial speech]] and helped to create and popularize a distinctive American literature built on American themes and language. Many of Twain's works have been suppressed at times for various reasons. ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'' has been repeatedly restricted in American high schools, not least for its frequent use of the word "[[nigger]]," which was in common usage in the pre-Civil War period in which the novel was set. |
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A complete bibliography of his works is nearly impossible to compile because of the vast number of pieces written by Twain (often in obscure newspapers) and his use of several different pen names. Additionally, a large portion of his speeches and lectures have been lost or were not written down; thus, the collection of Twain's works is an ongoing process. Researchers rediscovered published material by Twain as recently as 1995.<ref name="c-a-kirk" /> |
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===Early journalism and travelogues=== |
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[[File:Mark Twain Cabin Exterior MVC-082X.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Cabin where Twain wrote "Jumping Frog of Calaveras County," Jackass Hill, [[Tuolumne County, California|Tuolumne County]]. Click on [[:Image:Mark Twain Cabin Marker (Close-up) MVC-068X.jpg|historical marker]] and [[:Image:Mark Twain Cabin Interior MVC-073X.jpg|interior view]].]] |
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While writing for the Virginia City newspaper, the ''[[Territorial Enterprise]]'' in 1863, Clemens met lawyer [[Thomas Fitch (politician)|Tom Fitch]], editor of the competing newspaper ''Virginia Daily Union'' and known as the "silver-tongued orator of the Pacific."<ref name=baskin>{{Cite book | last1 = Baskin | first1 = R. N. (Robert Newton) | last2 = Madsen | first2 = Brigham D. | title = Reminiscences of early Utah : with, Reply to certain statements by O. F. Whitne | year = 2006 | publisher = Signature Books | location = Salt Lake City | isbn = 978-1-56085-193-6 | page = 281 }}</ref>{{rp|51}} He credited Fitch with giving him his "first really profitable lesson" in writing. In 1866, Clemens presented his lecture on the Sandwich Islands to a crowd in Washoe City, Nevada.<ref>{{cite book |title=Twain in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Drawn from Recollections, Interviews, and Memoirs by Family, Friends, and Associates |work=Writers in Their Own Time |editor= Gary Scharnhorst |page=290 |publisher= University Of Iowa Press |edition=first |date=November 28, 2010 |isbn= 978-1-58729-914-8}}</ref> Clemens commented that, "When I first began to lecture, and in my earlier writings, my sole idea was to make comic capital out of everything I saw and heard." Fitch told him, "Clemens, your lecture was magnificent. It was eloquent, moving, sincere. Never in my entire life have I listened to such a magnificent piece of descriptive narration. But you committed one unpardonable sin—the unpardonable sin. It is a sin you must never commit again. You closed a most eloquent description, by which you had keyed your audience up to a pitch of the intensest interest, with a piece of atrocious anti-climax which nullified all the really fine effect you had produced."<ref name=dequille>{{cite web |url=http://www.nevadaobserver.com/Reading%20Room%20Documents/reporting_with_mark_twain_1893.htm |title=Reporting With Mark Twain |first=Dan |last=DeQuille |first2=Mark |last2=Twain |publisher=The Californian Illustrated Magazine |date=July 1893}}</ref> It was in these days that Twain became a writer of the [[Sagebrush School]], and was known later as the most notable within this literary genre.<ref name="unr.edu2009">{{cite web|url=http://knowledgecenter.unr.edu/libraries/support/writers_hof/sagebrushschool.html|title=The Sagebrush School Nevada Writers Hall of Fame 2009|date=October 28, 2009|publisher=[[University of Nevada, Reno]]|accessdate=26 February 2012}}</ref> |
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Twain's first important work, "[[The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County]]," was first published in the ''[[New York Saturday Press]]'' on November 18, 1865. The only reason it was published there was that his story arrived too late to be included in a book [[Artemus Ward]] was compiling featuring sketches of the [[American Old West|wild American West]]. |
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After this burst of popularity, the ''[[Sacramento Union]]'' commissioned Twain to write letters about his travel experiences. The first journey he took for this job was to ride the steamer ''Ajax'' in its maiden voyage to Hawaii, referred to at the time as the [[Hawaiian Islands|Sandwich Islands]]. These humorous letters proved the genesis to his work with the San Francisco ''[[The Daily Alta California|Alta California]]'' newspaper, which designated him a traveling correspondent for a trip from San Francisco to New York City via the [[Panama Canal|Panama isthmus]]. All the while, Twain was writing letters meant for publishing back and forth, chronicling his experiences with his burlesque humor. On June 8, 1867, Twain set sail on the pleasure cruiser ''Quaker City'' for five months. This trip resulted in ''[[The Innocents Abroad|The Innocents Abroad or The New Pilgrims' Progress]].'' |
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{{quote|This book is a record of a pleasure trip. If it were a record of a solemn scientific expedition it would have about it the gravity, that profundity, and that impressive incomprehensibility which are so proper to works of that kind, and withal so attractive. Yet not withstanding it is only a record of a picnic, it has a purpose, which is, to suggest to the reader how he would be likely to see Europe and the East if he looked at them with his own eyes instead of the eyes of those who traveled in those countries before him. I make small pretense of showing anyone how he ought to look at objects of interest beyond the sea—other books do that, and therefore, even if I were competent to do it, there is no need.}} |
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In 1872, Twain published a second piece of travel literature, ''[[Roughing It]]'', as a semi-sequel to ''Innocents''. ''Roughing It'' is a semi-autobiographical account of Twain's journey from Missouri to Nevada, his subsequent life in the [[Western United States|American West]], and his visit to Hawaii. The book lampoons American and Western society in the same way that ''Innocents'' critiqued the various countries of Europe and the Middle East. Twain's next work kept ''Roughing It'''s focus on American society but focused more on the events of the day. Entitled ''[[The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today]]'', it was not a travel piece, as his previous two books had been, and it was his [[debut novel|first attempt at writing a novel]]. The book is also notable because it is Twain's only collaboration; it was written with his neighbor [[Charles Dudley Warner]]. |
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Twain's next two works drew on his experiences on the Mississippi River. ''[[Old Times on the Mississippi]]'', a series of sketches published in the ''[[Atlantic Monthly]]'' in 1875, featured Twain's disillusionment with [[Romanticism]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=YaODPFP-1AQC&pg=PA29 Reading the American Novel 1865 – 1914] G. R. Thompson; John Wiley & Sons, Feb 7, 2012; 462 pages; p. 29</ref> ''Old Times'' eventually became the starting point for ''[[Life on the Mississippi]].'' |
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===''Tom Sawyer'' and ''Huckleberry Finn''=== |
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Twain's next major publication was ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'', which drew on his youth in Hannibal. [[Tom Sawyer]] was modeled on Twain as a child, with traces of two schoolmates, John Briggs and Will Bowen. The book also introduced in a supporting role Huckleberry Finn, based on Twain's boyhood friend Tom Blankenship. |
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''[[The Prince and the Pauper]]'', despite a [[Plot (narrative)|storyline]] that is omnipresent in film and literature today, was not as well received. Telling the story of two boys born on the same day who are physically identical, the book acts as a social commentary as the prince and pauper switch places. ''Pauper'' was Twain's first attempt at historical fiction, and blame for its shortcomings is usually put on Twain for having not been experienced enough in English society, and also on the fact that it was produced after a massive hit. In between the writing of ''Pauper,'' Twain had started ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (which he consistently had problems completing<ref>{{cite book | last = Powers | first = Ron | authorlink = Ron Powers | title = Mark Twain: A Life | publisher = Free Press | year = 2005 | location = New York | pages = 471–473 | isbn = 978-0-7432-4899-0}}</ref>) and started and completed another travel book, ''[[A Tramp Abroad]]'', which follows Twain as he traveled through central and southern Europe. |
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Twain's next major published work, ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'', solidified him as a noteworthy American writer. Some have called it the first [[Great American Novel]], and the book has become required reading in many schools throughout the United States. ''Huckleberry Finn'' was an offshoot from ''Tom Sawyer'' and had a more serious tone than its predecessor. The main premise behind ''Huckleberry Finn'' is the young boy's belief in the right thing to do though most believed that it was wrong. Four hundred manuscript pages of ''Huckleberry Finn'' were written in mid-1876, right after the publication of ''Tom Sawyer.'' Some accounts have Twain taking seven years off after his first burst of creativity, eventually finishing the book in 1883. Other accounts have Twain working on ''Huckleberry Finn'' in tandem with ''The Prince and the Pauper'' and other works in 1880 and other years. The last fifth of ''Huckleberry Finn'' is subject to much controversy. Some say that Twain experienced, as critic [[Leo Marx]] puts it, a "failure of nerve." [[Ernest Hemingway]] once said of ''Huckleberry Finn'': |
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<blockquote>If you read it, you must stop where the Nigger Jim is stolen from the boys. That is the real end. The rest is just cheating.</blockquote> |
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Hemingway also wrote in the same essay: |
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<blockquote>All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called ''Huckleberry Finn''.<ref>from Chapter 1 of [[The Green Hills of Africa]]</ref></blockquote> |
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Near the completion of ''Huckleberry Finn,'' Twain wrote ''Life on the Mississippi,'' which is said to have heavily influenced the former book.<ref name="c-a-kirk"/> The work recounts Twain's memories and new experiences after a 22-year absence from the Mississippi. In it, he also states that "Mark Twain" was the call made when the boat was in safe water – two [[fathom]]s ({{convert|12|ft|m|disp=or}}). |
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===Later writing=== |
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After his great work, Twain began turning to his business endeavors to keep them afloat and to stave off the increasing difficulties he had been having from his writing projects. Twain focused on President [[Ulysses S. Grant]]'s ''[[Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant|Memoirs]]'' for his fledgling publishing company, finding time in between to write "The Private History of a Campaign That Failed" for ''[[The Century Magazine]]''. This piece detailed his two-week stint in a [[Confederate army|Confederate militia]] during the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]]. The name of his publishing company was ''Charles L. Webster & Company'', which he owned with Charles L. Webster, his nephew by marriage.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/grant/peopleevents/p_twain.html |title=American Experience – People & Events: Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 1835–1910 |publisher=PBS |accessdate=2007-11-28 }}</ref> |
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[[File:Twain1909.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Twain in his later years]] |
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Twain next focused on ''[[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court]]'', which featured him making his first big pronouncement of disappointment with politics. Written with the same [[historical fiction]] style of ''[[The Prince and the Pauper]]'', ''A Connecticut Yankee'' showed the absurdities of political and social norms by setting them in the court of [[King Arthur]]. The book was started in December 1885, then shelved a few months later until the summer of 1887, and eventually finished in the spring of 1889. |
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Twain had begun to furiously write articles and commentary, with diminishing returns, to pay the bills and keep his business projects afloat, but it was not enough. He filed for bankruptcy in 1894. |
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His next large-scale work, ''[[Pudd'nhead Wilson]]'', was written rapidly, as Twain was desperately trying to stave off the bankruptcy. From November 12 to December 14, 1893, Twain wrote 60,000 words for the novel.<ref name="c-a-kirk"/> Critics have pointed to this rushed completion as the cause of the novel's rough organization and constant disruption of continuous plot. There were parallels between this work and Twain's financial failings, notably his desire to escape his current constraints and become a different person. |
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Like ''The Prince and the Pauper'', this novel also contains the tale of two boys born on the same day who switch positions in life. Considering the circumstances of Twain's birth and Halley's Comet, and his strong belief in the paranormal, it is not surprising that these "mystic" connections recur throughout his writing. |
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The actual title is not clearly established. It was first published serially in ''[[Century Magazine]]'', and when it was finally published in book form, ''Pudd'nhead Wilson'' appeared as the main title; however, the disputed "subtitles" make the entire title read: ''The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson and the Comedy of The Extraordinary Twins''.<ref name="c-a-kirk"/> |
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Twain's next venture was a work of straight fiction that he called ''[[Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc]]'' and dedicated to his wife. Twain had long said that this was the work he was most proud of, despite the criticism he received for it. The book had been a dream of his since childhood. He claimed he had found a manuscript detailing the life of [[Joan of Arc]] when he was an adolescent.<ref name="c-a-kirk" /> This was another piece Twain was convinced would save his publishing company. His financial adviser, Henry Huttleston Rogers, quashed that idea and got Twain out of that business altogether, but the book was published nonetheless. |
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During this time of dire financial straits, Twain published several literary reviews in newspapers to help make ends meet. He famously derided [[James Fenimore Cooper]] in his article detailing Cooper's "[[Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses|Literary Offenses]]." He became an extremely outspoken critic not only of other authors, but also of other critics, suggesting that before praising Cooper's work, [[Thomas Lounsbury]], [[Brander Matthews]], and [[Wilkie Collins]] "ought to have read some of it."<ref name=offenses>Twain, Mark. [http://etext.virginia.edu/railton/projects/rissetto/offense.html Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses]. From Collected Tales, Sketches, Speeches and Essays, from 1891–1910. Edited by Louis J. Budd. New York: Library of America, 1992.</ref> |
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Other authors to fall under Twain's attack during this time period (beginning around 1890 until his death) were [[George Eliot]], [[Jane Austen]], and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]].<ref name=Feinstein>{{cite journal|last=Feinstein|first=George W|title=Twain as Forerunner of Tooth-and-Claw Criticism|journal=Modern Language Notes|date=January 1948|volume=63|issue=1|pages=49–50|jstor=2908644|doi=10.2307/2908644}}</ref> In addition to providing a source for the "tooth and claw" style of literary criticism, Twain outlines in several letters and essays what he considers to be "quality writing." He places emphasis on concision, utility of word choice, and realism (he complains that Cooper's ''[[Deerslayer]]'' purports to be realistic but has several shortcomings). Ironically, several of his works were later criticized for lack of continuity (''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'') and organization (''Pudd'nhead Wilson''). |
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Twain's wife died in 1904 while the couple were staying at the [[Villa di Quarto]] in [[Florence]]; and, after an appropriate period of time, Twain allowed himself to publish some works that his wife, a ''[[de facto]]'' editor and censor throughout his life, had looked down upon. Of these works, ''[[The Mysterious Stranger]]'', depicting various visits of [[Satan]] to the Earth, is perhaps the best known. This particular work was not published in Twain's lifetime. There were three versions found in his manuscripts, made between 1897 and 1905: the Hannibal, Eseldorf, and Print Shop versions. Confusion among the versions led to an extensive publication of a jumbled version, and only recently have the original versions as Twain wrote them become available. |
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Twain's last work was [[Mark Twain's Autobiography|his autobiography]], which he dictated and thought would be most entertaining if he went off on whims and tangents in non-chronological order. Some archivists and compilers have rearranged the biography into more conventional forms, thereby eliminating some of Twain's humor and the flow of the book. The first volume of autobiography, over 736 pages, was published by the University of California in November 2010, 100 years after his death, as Twain wished.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/after-keeping-us-waiting-for-a-century-mark-twain-will-finally-reveal-all-1980695.html "After keeping us waiting for a century, Mark Twain will finally reveal all" The Independent 23 May 2010] Retrieved 29 May 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/10/books/10twain.html?ref=arts "Dead for a Century, He's Ready to Say What He Really Meant" The New York Times 9 July 2010]. Retrieved 9 July 2010.</ref> It soon became an unexpected<ref>{{cite news | newspaper = NY Times | date = November 26, 2010 | title = Mark Twain's Big Book|url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/27/opinion/27sat4.html |
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| quote = an enormous hit, apparently much to the surprise of its publisher |accessdate = 2010-11-27}}</ref> best seller,<ref>{{cite news | publisher = NY Times | title = Hardcover Nonfiction – List |url =http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/14/books/bestseller/besthardnonfiction.html | first=Jennifer | last=Schuessler}}</ref> making Twain one of very few authors publishing new best-selling volumes in all three of the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries. |
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===Censorship=== |
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Twain’s works have been subjected to censorship efforts. According to Stuart (2013) “Leading these banning campaigns, generally, were religious organizations or individuals in positions of influence – not so much working librarians, who had been instilled with that American “library spirit” which honored intellectual freedom (within bounds of course). In 1905, the [[Brooklyn Public Library]] banned both ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' and ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' from the children's department because of their language.<ref>Murray, Stuart A. P. “The Library: An Illustrated History.” New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2012, p. 189.</ref> |
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==Views== |
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Twain's views became more radical as he grew older. He acknowledged that his views changed and developed over his life, referring to one of his favorite works: |
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{{quotation|When I finished [[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]]'s ''[[The French Revolution (Carlyle)|French Revolution]]'' in 1871, I was a [[Girondin]]; every time I have read it since, I have read it differently—being influenced and changed, little by little, by life and environment ... and now I lay the book down once more, and recognize that I am a [[Sansculotte]]! And not a pale, characterless Sansculotte, but a [[Jean-Paul Marat|Marat]].<ref>Frederick Anderson, ed., A Pen Warmed Up in Hell: Mark Twain in Protest (New York: Harper, 1972), p. 8, cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in ''International Socialist Review'' 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65</ref>}} |
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===Anti-imperialist=== |
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In the ''[[New York Herald]]'', October 15, 1900, he describes his transformation and political awakening, in the context of the [[Philippine-American War]], from being "a red-hot imperialist": |
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{{quotation|I wanted the American eagle to go screaming into the Pacific ... Why not spread its wings over the Philippines, I asked myself? ... I said to myself, Here are a people who have suffered for three centuries. We can make them as free as ourselves, give them a government and country of their own, put a miniature of the [[American Constitution]] afloat in the Pacific, start a brand new republic to take its place among the free nations of the world. It seemed to me a great task to which we had addressed ourselves. |
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But I have thought some more, since then, and I have read carefully the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|treaty of Paris]] [which ended the [[Spanish-American War]]], and I have seen that we do not intend to free, but to subjugate the people of the Philippines. We have gone there to conquer, not to redeem. |
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It should, it seems to me, be our pleasure and duty to make those people free, and let them deal with their own domestic questions in their own way. And so I am an anti-imperialist. I am opposed to having the eagle put its talons on any other land.<ref>From Andrew Jay Hoffman, ''Inventing Mark Twain: The Lives of Samuel Langhorne Clemens'' (New York: William Morrow, 1997), cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in ''International Socialist Review'' 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65</ref>}} |
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Before 1899 Twain was an ardent imperialist. In the late 1860s and early 1870s he spoke out strongly in favor of American interests in the Hawaiian Islands.<ref>David Zmijewski, "The Man in Both Corners: Mark Twain the Shadowboxing Imperialist," ''Hawaiian Journal of History,'' 2006, Vol. 40, pp. 55–73</ref> In the mid-1890s he explained later, he was "a red-hot imperialist. I wanted the American |
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eagle to go screaming over the Pacific."<ref>quoted in Everett Emerson, ''The Authentic Mark Twain: A Literary Biography of Samuel L. Clemens'' (1984) p. 234</ref> He said the war with Spain in 1898 was "the worthiest" war ever fought.<ref>Paine, ed. ''Letters'' 2:663; Ron Powers, ''Mark Twain: a life'' (2005) p. 593</ref> In 1899 he reversed course, and from 1901, soon after his return from Europe, until his death in 1910, Twain was vice-president of the [[American Anti-Imperialist League]],<ref name=zwick>''Mark Twain's Weapons of Satire: Anti-Imperialist Writings on the Philippine-American War.'' (1992, Jim Zwick, ed.) ISBN 0-8156-0268-5</ref> which opposed the annexation of the [[Philippines]] by the United States and had "tens of thousands of members."<ref name="helen-scott"/> He wrote many [[pamphlet|political pamphlets]] for the organization. The ''Incident in the Philippines'', posthumously published in 1924, was in response to the [[Moro Crater Massacre]], in which six hundred [[Moro people|Moros]] were killed. Many of his neglected and previously uncollected writings on anti-imperialism appeared for the first time in book form in 1992.<ref name=zwick/> |
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Twain was critical of imperialism in other countries as well. In ''[[Following the Equator]]'', Twain expresses "hatred and condemnation of imperialism of all stripes."<ref name="helen-scott"/> He was highly critical of [[Colonial empire|European imperialism]], notably of [[Cecil Rhodes]], who greatly expanded the [[British Empire]], and of [[Leopold II of Belgium|Leopold II]], King of the [[Belgium|Belgians]].<ref name="helen-scott"/> ''[[King Leopold's Soliloquy]]'' is a stinging [[political satire]] about his private colony, the [[Congo Free State]]. Reports of outrageous exploitation and grotesque abuses led to widespread international protest in the early 1900s, arguably the first large-scale [[human rights]] movement. In the soliloquy, the King argues that bringing [[Christianity]] to [[Congo Free State|the country]] outweighs a little starvation. Leopold's [[rubber]] gatherers were tortured, maimed and slaughtered, until the movement forced [[Brussels]] to call a halt.<ref>{{cite book |title=King Leopold's ghost : a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa |author=Adam Hochschild |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-395-75924-0 |oclc=39042794}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |newspaper=New York Times |title=Into Africa |author=Jeremy Harding |date=September 20, 1998 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1998/09/20/books/into-africa.html }}</ref> |
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During the [[Philippine-American War]], Twain wrote a short [[pacifism|pacifist]] story entitled ''[[The War Prayer]]'', which makes the point that humanism and Christianity's preaching of love are incompatible with the conduct of war. It was submitted to ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'' for publication, but on March 22, 1905 the magazine rejected the story as "not quite suited to a [[women's magazine|woman's magazine]]." Eight days later, Twain wrote to his friend [[Daniel Carter Beard]], to whom he had read the story, "I don't think the prayer will be published in my time. None but the dead are permitted to tell the truth." Because he had an exclusive contract with [[Harper & Brothers]], Twain could not publish ''The War Prayer'' elsewhere; it remained unpublished until 1923. It was republished as campaigning material by [[Opposition to the Vietnam War|Vietnam War protesters]].<ref name="helen-scott"/> |
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Twain acknowledged he originally sympathized with the more moderate [[Girondins]] of the [[French Revolution]] and then shifted his sympathies to the more radical [[Sansculottes]], indeed identifying as "a [[Jean-Paul Marat|Marat]]." Twain supported the [[Russian Revolution (1905)|revolutionaries in Russia]] against the reformists, arguing that the [[Tsar]] must be got rid of, by violent means, because peaceful ones would not work.<ref>Maxwell Geismar, ed., ''Mark Twain and the Three Rs: Race, Religion, Revolution and Related Matters'' (Indianapolis: Bobs-Merrill, 1973), p. 169, cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in ''International Socialist Review'' 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65</ref> He summed up his views of revolutions in the following statement: |
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{{quotation|I am said to be a revolutionist in my sympathies, by birth, by breeding and by principle. I am always on the side of the revolutionists, because there never was a revolution unless there were some oppressive and intolerable conditions against which to revolute.<ref>Maxwell Geismar, ed., Mark Twain and the Three Rs: Race, Religion, Revolution and Related Matters (Indianapolis: Bobs-Merrill, 1973), p. 159</ref> }} |
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===Civil rights=== |
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Twain was an adamant supporter of the abolition of slavery and emancipation of slaves, even going so far to say "[[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]'s [[Emancipation Proclamation|Proclamation]] ... not only set the black slaves free, but set the white man free also."<ref>Philip S. Foner, ''Mark Twain: Social Critic'' (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 200</ref> He argued that non-whites did not receive justice in the United States, once saying "I have seen Chinamen abused and maltreated in all the mean, cowardly ways possible to the invention of a degraded nature ... but I never saw a Chinaman righted in a court of justice for wrongs thus done to him."<ref>Maxwell Geismar, ed., ''Mark Twain and the Three Rs: Race, Religion, Revolution and Related Matters'' (Indianapolis: Bobs-Merrill, 1973), p. 98</ref> He paid for at least one black person to attend [[Yale Law School]] and for another black person to attend a southern university to become a minister.<ref>Paine, A. B., Mark Twain: A Biography, Harper, 1912 p. 701</ref> |
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Twain's views on race were not reflected in his early sketches of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. Of them, Twain wrote in 1870: {{quotation|His heart is a cesspool of falsehood, of treachery, and of low and devilish instincts. With him, gratitude is an unknown emotion; and when one does him a kindness, it is safest to keep the face toward him, lest the reward be an arrow in the back. To accept of a favor from him is to assume a debt which you can never repay to his satisfaction, though you bankrupt yourself trying. The scum of the earth!<ref name=indian_hater> |
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{{cite web | url = http://www.bluecorncomics.com/twain.htm | title = Mark Twain, Indian Hater | accessdate = 2008-07-09 | author = | last = | first = | date = 2001-05-28 | publisher = Blue Corn Comics}}</ref>}} |
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As counterpoint, Twain's essay on "The Literary Offenses of Fenimore Cooper" offers a much kinder view of Indians.<ref name=offenses/> "No, other Indians would have noticed these things, but Cooper's Indians never notice anything. Cooper thinks they are marvelous creatures for noticing, but he was almost always in error about his Indians. There was seldom a sane one among them."<ref>Twain, Mark, In defense of Harriet Shelley and Other Essays, Harper & Brothers, 1918. p. 68</ref> In his later travelogue ''[[Following the Equator]]'' (1897), Twain observes that in colonized lands all over the world, "savages" have always been wronged by "[[White people|whites]]" in the most merciless ways, such as "robbery, humiliation, and slow, slow murder, through poverty and the white man's whiskey"; his conclusion is that "there are many humorous things in this world; among them the white man's notion that he is less savage than the other savages.".<ref>Twain, Mark. 2008. ''Following the Equator''. pp. 94–98</ref> In an expression that captures his Indian experiences, he wrote, “So far as I am able to judge nothing has been left undone, either by man or Nature, to make India the most extraordinary country that the sun visits on his rounds. Where every prospect pleases, and only man is vile.”<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amritt.com/india-business-guide/mark-twain-india/ |publisher=Amritt |title=Mark Twain in India|date=2009}}</ref> |
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Twain was also a staunch supporter of [[women's rights]] and an active campaigner for [[History of women's suffrage in the United States|women's suffrage]]. His "[[Votes for Women (speech)|Votes for Women]]" speech, in which he pressed for the granting of voting rights to women, is considered one of the most famous in history.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.famousquotes.me.uk/speeches/Mark_Twain/ |title=The Votes for Women Speech by Mark Twain |publisher=Famousquotes.me.uk |date=2007-05-25 |accessdate=2009-10-16}}</ref> |
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[[Helen Keller]] benefited from Twain's support, as she pursued her college education and publishing, despite her disabilities and financial limitations. |
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===Labor=== |
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Twain wrote glowingly about [[trade union|unions]] in the river boating industry in ''[[Life on the Mississippi]]'', which was read in union halls decades later.<ref>Philip S. Foner, ''Mark Twain: Social Critic'' (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 98</ref> He supported the [[labor movement]], especially one of the most important unions, the [[Knights of Labor]].<ref name="helen-scott"/> In a speech to them, he said: |
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{{quote|Who are the oppressors? The few: the King, the capitalist, and a handful of other overseers and superintendents. Who are the oppressed? The many: the nations of the earth; the valuable personages; the workers; they that make the bread that the soft-handed and idle eat.<ref>Philip S. Foner, ''Mark Twain: Social Critic'' (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 169, cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in ''International Socialist Review'' 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65</ref>}} |
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===Vivisection=== |
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Twain was opposed to the [[vivisection]] practices of his day. His objection was not on a scientific basis but rather an [[ethic]]al one. He specifically cited the pain caused to the animal as his basis of his opposition.<ref>{{cite web |title = Mark Twain Quotations – Vivisection |url=http://www.twainquotes.com/Vivisection.html|accessdate = 2006-10-24}}</ref> |
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<blockquote>I am not interested to know whether vivisection produces results that are profitable to the human race or doesn't. ... The pain which it inflicts upon unconsenting animals is the basis of my enmity toward it, and it is to me sufficient justification of the enmity without looking further.</blockquote> |
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===Religion=== |
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Although Twain was a [[Presbyterian]], he was sometimes critical of [[organized religion]] and certain elements of [[Christianity]] through his later life. He wrote, for example, "Faith is believing what you know ain't so," and "If Christ were here now there is one thing he would not be—a Christian."<ref name="Huberman">{{cite book| title = The Quotable Atheist| edition = | last =Huberman| first =Jack| coauthors = | year =2007| publisher =Nation Books| isbn = 978-1-56025-969-5| pages = 303–304}}</ref> Nonetheless, as a mature adult he engaged in religious discussions and attended services, his theology developing as he wrestled with the deaths of loved ones and his own mortality.<ref name="199.236.117.33">Dempsey, Terrell, [http://199.236.117.33/twainweb/reviews/phipps.html BOOK REVIEW: Mark Twain's Religion. William E. Phipps] 2004 Mark Twain Forum</ref> His own experiences and suffering within his family made him particularly critical of "[[faith healing]]," such as espoused by [[Mary Baker Eddy]] and [[Christian Science]].{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} |
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Twain generally avoided publishing his most [[Heresy|heretical]] opinions on religion in his lifetime, and they are known from essays and stories that were published later. In the essay ''Three Statements of the Eighties'' in the 1880s, Twain stated that he believed in an almighty God, but not in any messages, [[revelation]]s, [[holy scripture]]s such as the [[Bible]], [[Divine Providence|Providence]], or retribution in the [[afterlife]]. He did state that "the goodness, the justice, and the mercy of God are manifested in His works," but also that "[[deism|the universe is governed by strict and immutable laws]]," which determine "small matters," such as who dies in a pestilence.<ref>Twain, Mark, ed. by Paul Baender. 1973. What is man?: and other philosophical writings. p. 56</ref> At other times he wrote or spoke in ways that contradicted a strict deist view, for example, plainly professing a belief in Providence.<ref>Phipps, William E., [http://books.google.com/books?id=x2HBYrytvRoC&printsec Mark Twain's Religion], pp. 263–266, 2003 Mercer Univ. Press</ref> In some later writings in the 1890s, he was less optimistic about the [[theodicy|goodness of God]], observing that "if our Maker ''is'' all-powerful for good or evil, He is not in His right mind." At other times, he conjectured sardonically that perhaps God had created the world with all its tortures for some purpose of His own, but was otherwise indifferent to humanity, which was too petty and insignificant to deserve His attention anyway.<ref>Twain, Mark, ed. by Paul Baender. 1973. What is man?: and other philosophical writings. pp.10, 486</ref> |
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'''{{Main|Twain-Ament Indemnities Controversy}}''' |
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In 1901 Twain criticized the actions of [[missionary]] Dr. [[William Scott Ament]] (1851–1909) because Ament and other missionaries had collected indemnities from Chinese subjects in the aftermath of the [[Boxer Uprising]] of 1900. Twain's response to hearing of Ament's methods was published in the ''North American Review'' in February 1901: ''[[To the Person Sitting in Darkness]]'', and deals with examples of [[imperialism]] in China, South Africa, and with the U.S. occupation of the Philippines.<ref>Mark Twain, "To the Person Sitting in Darkness," ''The North American Review'' 182:531 (February 1901):161–176; [http://www.antiimperialist.com/templates/Flat/img/pdf2/PersonSittinginDarkness.pdf AntiImperialist.com]</ref> A subsequent article, "To My Missionary Critics" published in ''The North American Review'' in April 1901, unapologetically continues his attack, but with the focus shifted from Ament to his missionary superiors, the [[American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions]].<ref>Mark Twain, "To My Missionary Critics," ''The North American Review'' 172 (April 1901):520–534; [http://www.antiimperialist.com/templates/Flat/img/pdf2/ToMissCritics.pdf AntiImperialist.com]</ref> |
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After his death, Twain's family suppressed some of his work that was especially irreverent toward conventional religion, notably ''[[Letters from the Earth]]'', which was not published until his daughter [[Clara Clemens|Clara]] reversed her position in 1962 in response to [[Soviet propaganda]] about the withholding.<ref name="NYTimes1962">{{Cite news | issn = 0362-4331 | title = Anti-Religious Work by Twain, Long Withheld, to Be Published | periodical = [[The New York Times]] | page = 23 | date = August 24, 1962 | publication-date = August 24, 1962 | place = | last1 = Gelb | first1 = Arthur | authorlink = Arthur Gelb |
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| url = http://www.twainquotes.com/19620824.html | accessdate = 2008-04-22 | postscript = <!-- Bot retrieved archive -->}}</ref> The anti-religious ''[[The Mysterious Stranger]]'' was published in 1916. ''Little Bessie'', a story ridiculing Christianity, was first published in the 1972 collection ''Mark Twain's Fables of Man''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mark Twain's Fables of Man |last=Twain |first=Mark |editor=John S. Tuckey (ed.), Kenneth M. Sanderson (ed.), Bernard L. Stein (ed.), Frederick Anderson (ed.) |year=1972 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=California |isbn=978-0-520-02039-9 | chapter=Little Bessie | chapterurl=http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/twainbes.htm }}</ref> |
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Despite these views, he raised money to build a [[Presbyterian Church]] in Nevada in 1864, although it has been argued that it was only by his association with his Presbyterian brother that he did that.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/02/us/02twain.html?fta=y |title=Church Aided by Twain Is in a Demolition Dispute |agency=[[Associated Press]] |work=The New York Times |date=April 2, 2006 |accessdate=2008-10-05}}</ref> |
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Twain created a reverent portrayal of [[Joan of Arc]], a subject over which he had obsessed for forty years, studied for a dozen years and spent two years writing.<ref name="The Adventures of Mark Twain">Paine, Albert Bigelow, [http://books.google.com/books?id=93o7_0oICWMC&pg The Adventures of Mark Twain], p. 281, Kessinger 2004</ref> In 1900 and again in 1908, he stated, "I like ''Joan of Arc'' best of all my books, it is the best." <ref name="The Adventures of Mark Twain"/><ref>Goy-Blanquet, Dominique, [http://books.google.com/books?id=4QkSZ7cHy38C&pg Joan of Arc, a saint for all reasons: studies in myth and politics], p. 132, 2003 [[Ashgate Publishing]]</ref> |
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Those who knew Twain well late in life recount that he dwelt on the subject of the afterlife, his daughter Clara saying: "Sometimes he believed death ended everything, but most of the time he felt sure of a life beyond."<ref>Phipps, William E., [http://books.google.com/books?id=x2HBYrytvRoC&printsec Mark Twain's Religion], p. 304, 2003 Mercer Univ. Press</ref> |
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Twain's frankest views on religion appeared in his final work ''[[Autobiography of Mark Twain]]'', the publication of which started in November 2010, 100 years after his death. In it, he said:<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/entertainment/july-dec10/twain_07-07.html| title = Mark Twain's Autobiography Set for Unveiling, a Century After His Death| author = [[PBS NewsHour]]| date = July 7, 2010| accessdate = July 7, 2010}}</ref>{{Quotation|There is one notable thing about our Christianity: bad, bloody, merciless, money-grabbing, and predatory as it is—in our country particularly and in all other Christian countries in a somewhat modified degree—it is still a hundred times better than the Christianity of the Bible, with its prodigious crime—the invention of Hell. Measured by our Christianity of to-day, bad as it is, hypocritical as it is, empty and hollow as it is, neither the Deity nor his Son is a Christian, nor qualified for that moderately high place. Ours is a terrible religion. The fleets of the world could swim in spacious comfort in the innocent blood it has spilled.}} |
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Twain was a [[Freemason]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mertsahinoglu.com/research/samuel-langhorne-clemens/ |title= Grand Master of Missouri Lecture}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msana.com/twainaward/about.html#about_twain |title=Mark Twain Masonic Awareness Award: About The Award}}</ref> He belonged to Polar Star Lodge No. 79 A.F.&A.M., based in St. Louis. He was initiated an [[Entered Apprentice]] on May 22, 1861, passed to the degree of [[Fellow Craft]] on June 12, and raised to the degree of [[Master Mason]] on July 10. |
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==Pen names== |
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Twain used different [[pen name]]s before deciding on "'Mark Twain". He signed humorous and imaginative sketches as "Josh" until 1863. Additionally, he used the pen name "Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass" for a series of humorous letters.<ref>''Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass'', (Charles Honce, James Bennet, ed.), Pascal Covici, Chicago, 1928</ref> |
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He maintained that his primary pen name came from his years working on Mississippi riverboats, where two [[fathom]]s, a depth indicating safe water for passage of boat, was measured on the [[sounding line]]. Twain is an [[archaism|archaic]] term for "two", as in "The veil of the temple was rent in twain." <ref>{{cite web|url=http://bible.cc/matthew/27-51.htm |title=Matthew 27:51 At that moment the curtain of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom. The earth shook, the rocks split |publisher=Bible.cc |date= |accessdate=2013-12-07}}</ref> The riverboatman's cry was "mark twain" or, more fully, "by the mark twain", meaning "according to the mark [on the line], [the depth is] two [fathoms]," that is, "The water is {{convert|12|ft|m}} deep and it is safe to pass." |
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Twain claimed that his famous pen name was not entirely his invention. In ''Life on the Mississippi'', he wrote: |
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<blockquote>[[Isaiah Sellers|Captain Isaiah Sellers]] was not of literary turn or capacity, but he used to jot down brief paragraphs of plain practical information about the river, and sign them "MARK TWAIN," and give them to the ''[[Times-Picayune|New Orleans Picayune]]''. They related to the stage and condition of the river, and were accurate and valuable; ... At the time that the telegraph brought the news of his death, I was on the Pacific coast. I was a fresh new journalist, and needed a nom de guerre; so I confiscated the ancient mariner's discarded one, and have done my best to make it remain what it was in his hands – a sign and symbol and warrant that whatever is found in its company may be gambled on as being the petrified truth; how I have succeeded, it would not be modest in me to say.<ref>''Life on the Mississippi'', chapter 50</ref></blockquote> |
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Twain's story about his pen name has been questioned by biographer George Williams III,<ref>{{cite book |last = Williams, III |first = George |title = Mark Twain and the Jumping Frog of Calaveras County: How Mark Twain's humorous frog story launched his legendary career |year = 1999 |publisher = Tree By The River Publishing |isbn = 0-935174-45-1 |chapter = Mark Twain Leaves Virginia City for San Francisco}} Cited in {{cite web |url = http://www.autographed-books.com/whoisgeorgewilliamsiii.html |title = Excerpt: ''The Singular Mark Twain'' |accessdate = 2007-06-26 |
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}}</ref> the ''Territorial Enterprise'' newspaper,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.territorial-enterprise.com/mt_name.htm |title=Origin of Twain's Name Revealed |publisher=Territorial-enterprise.com |date= |accessdate=2010-12-30}}</ref> and [[Purdue University]]'s Paul Fatout.<ref>"[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-9831(196203)34%3A1%3C1%3AMTNDP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9 Mark Twain's Nom de Plume]." ''American Literature'', v 34, n 1 (March, 1962), pp 1–7. {{doi|10.2307/2922241}}.</ref> The claim is that "mark twain" refers to a running bar tab that Twain would regularly incur while drinking at John Piper's saloon in [[Virginia City, Nevada]]. |
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==Legacy== |
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[[File:Mark Twain statue, Garden City, KS IMG 5875.JPG|thumb|right|Twain statue at [[Finney County, Kansas|Finney County]] [[Public Library]] in [[Garden City, Kansas|Garden City]], [[Kansas]]]] |
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Twain's legacy lives on today as his namesakes continue to multiply. Several schools are named after him, including [[Mark Twain Elementary School (Wheeling, Illinois)|Mark Twain Elementary School]] in [[Wheeling, Illinois]] and [[Mark Twain Elementary School (Houston)|Mark Twain Elementary School]] in [[Houston, Texas]], which has a statue of Twain sitting on a bench. There is also [[Mark Twain I.S. 239|Mark Twain Intermediate School]] in New York. There are several schools named [[Mark Twain Middle School (disambiguation)|Mark Twain Middle School]] in different states, as well as Samuel Clemens High School in [[Schertz-Cibolo-Universal City Independent School District|Schertz]], near [[San Antonio, Texas]]. There are also other structures, such as the [[Mark Twain Memorial Bridge]]. |
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[[Mark Twain Village]] is a United States Army installation located in the [[Heidelberg-Südstadt|Südstadt]] district of [[Heidelberg]], Germany. It is one of two American bases in the [[United States Army Garrison Heidelberg]] that house American soldiers and their families (the other being [[Patrick Henry Village]]). |
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Awards in his name proliferate. In 1998, The [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts]] created the [[Mark Twain Prize for American Humor]], awarded annually. The [[Mark Twain Award]] is an award given annually to a book for children in grades four through eight by the Missouri Association of School Librarians. [[Stetson University]] in [[DeLand, Florida]] sponsors the Mark Twain Young Authors' Workshop each summer in collaboration with the [[Mark Twain Boyhood Home & Museum]] in Hannibal. The program is open to young authors in grades five through eight.<ref>[http://www.stetson.edu/hats/MarkTwainYoungAuthors.php The First Annual Mark Twain Young Authors Workshop]. [[Stetson University]].</ref> The museum sponsors the Mark Twain Creative Teaching Award.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marktwainmuseum.org/index.php/education/for-teachers |title=The Mark Twain Boyhood Home Museum: Education |publisher=Marktwainmuseum.org |date= |accessdate=2013-12-07}}</ref> |
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[[File:Mark Twain's house, front view. - NARA - 516527.tif|left|thumb|Twain's house, "Stormfield", in Redding, Connecticut (front view)]] |
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Buildings associated with Twain, including some of his many homes, have been preserved as museums. His birthplace is preserved in [[Florida, Missouri]]. The Mark Twain Boyhood Home & Museum in [[Hannibal, Missouri]] preserves the setting for some of the author's best known work. The home of childhood friend Laura Hawkins, said to be the inspiration for his fictional character Becky Thatcher, is preserved as the "Thatcher House." In May 2007, a painstaking reconstruction of the home of Tom Blankenship, the inspiration for Huckleberry Finn, was opened to the public. The family home he had built in Hartford, Connecticut, where he and his wife raised their three daughters, is preserved and open to visitors as the [[Mark Twain House]]. |
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[[Asteroid]] [[2362 Mark Twain]] was named after him. |
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On December 4, 1985, the [[United States Postal Service]] issued a stamped envelope for "Mark Twain and Halley's Comet," noting the connection with Twain's birth, his death, and the comet.<ref>Scott Specialized Catalog of U.S. Stamps & Covers, various editions, catalogue number UC60, issued in Hannibal MO</ref> On June 25, 2011, the Postal Service released a [[Forever stamp]] in his honor.<ref>{{cite news |title=Postal Service unveils a Forever stamp of Mark Twain |newspaper=[[The Sacramento Bee]] |author=Allen Pierleoni |date=June 26, 2011 |url=http://www.sacbee.com/2011/06/26/3727695/postal-service-unveils-a-forever.html}}</ref> |
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==Depictions== |
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{{Main|Mark Twain in popular culture}} |
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Twain is often depicted wearing a white suit. While there is evidence that suggests that, after Livy's death in 1904, Twain began wearing white suits on the lecture circuit, modern representations suggesting that he wore them throughout his life are unfounded. However, there is evidence of him wearing a white suit before 1904. In 1882, he sent a photograph of himself in a white suit to 18-year-old [[Edward W. Bok]], later publisher of the ''Ladies Home Journal'', with a handwritten dated note on verso. It did eventually become his trademark, as illustrated in anecdotes about this eccentricity (such as the time he wore a white summer suit to a Congressional hearing during the winter).<ref name="c-a-kirk" /> McMasters' ''The Mark Twain Encyclopedia'' states that Twain did not wear a white suit in his last three years, except at one banquet speech.<ref>{{cite book |url= http://books.google.com/?id=zW1k-XS6XLEC&pg=PA390&dq=twain+white+suit |title=The Mark Twain encyclopedia|publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2009-10-16 |isbn=978-0-8240-7212-4 |author1=Lemaster, J. R |author2=Wilson, James Darrell |author3=Hamric, Christie Graves |year=1993}}</ref> |
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Actor [[Hal Holbrook]] created a one-man show called ''[[Mark Twain Tonight]]'', which he has performed regularly for about {{age|1954| 11| 30}} years.<ref>{{cite news| title=Mark Twain. Now a Career for the Mustachioed |newspaper=New York Times |date=January 24, 2011 |author=Malia Wollan |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/24/books/24twain.html |
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|quote=... has played Twain going on 57 years, longer than Samuel Langhorne Clemens did.}}</ref> The broadcast by [[CBS]] in 1967 won him an [[Emmy Award]]. Of the three runs on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] (1966, 1977, and 2005), the first won him a [[Tony Award]]. |
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Twain was portrayed by [[Fredric March]] in the 1944 film ''[[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1944 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]''. He was later brought to life by [[James Whitmore]] in the (similarly titled) 1985 [[Will Vinton]] [[Clay animation|Claymation]] film [[The Adventures of Mark Twain (1985 film)|The Adventures of Mark Twain]]. In the two-part [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]] episode, "[[Time's Arrow (Star Trek: The Next Generation)|Time's Arrow Pt. 1 & 2]]", the crew of the starship Enterprise pursues malevolent alien lifeforms through a time portal to 1893 San Francisco, where their secretive actions arouse the suspicions of Samuel Clemens as played by [[Jerry Hardin]]. |
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==Bibliography== |
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{{main|Mark Twain bibliography}} |
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==See also== |
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{{Wikipedia books|Mark Twain}} |
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{{Portal|Biography|History|Children's Literature}} |
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* [[American Literary Regionalism]] |
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* [[American realism]] |
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* ''[[Christian Science (essay)]] |
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* [[Bernard DeVoto]] (historian) |
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* [[List of premature obituaries]] |
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* ''[[Mark Twain's Library of Humor]]'' (anthology) |
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* ''[[Warsaw Signal]]'' (newspaper) |
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* [[Back-translation|Translation]] |
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* [[Thomas S. Hinde]], friend who corresponded with Mark Twain throughout his life. |
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==References== |
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{{reflist|30em}} |
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==Further reading== |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* [[Lucius Beebe]]. ''Comstock Commotion: The Story of the Territorial Enterprise and Virginia City News.'' [[Stanford University Press]], 1954 ISBN 1-122-18798-X |
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* Louis J. Budd, ed. ''Mark Twain, Collected Tales, Sketches, Speeches & Essays 1891–1910'' ([[Library of America]], 1992) (ISBN 978-0-940450-73-8) |
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* [[Ken Burns]], [[Dayton Duncan]], and [[Geoffrey C. Ward]], ''Mark Twain: An Illustrated Biography.'' New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001 (ISBN 0-375-40561-5) |
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* [http://www.ucmerced.edu/faculty/facultybio.asp?facultyid=95 Gregg Camfield]. ''The Oxford Companion to Mark Twain.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0-19-510710-1) |
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* Guy Cardwell, ed. ''Mark Twain, Mississippi Writings'' ([[Library of America]], 1982) (ISBN 978-0-940450-07-3) |
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* Guy Cardwell, ed. ''Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad & Roughing It'' ([[Library of America]], 1984) ISBN 978-0-940450-25-7 |
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* James M. Cox. ''Mark Twain: The Fate of Humor.'' Princeton University Press, 1966 (ISBN 0-8262-1428-2) |
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* Everett Emerson. ''Mark Twain: A Literary Life.'' Philadelphia: [[University of Pennsylvania Press]], 2000 (ISBN 0-8122-3516-9) |
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* [http://english.stanford.edu/bio.php?name_id=51 Shelley Fisher Fishkin], ed. ''A Historical Guide to Mark Twain.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0-19-513293-9) |
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* [http://www.distinguishedprofessors.ku.edu/professor/harris-s/harris-s.shtml Susan K. Harris], ed. ''Mark Twain, Historical Romances'' ([[Library of America]], 1994) (ISBN 978-0-940450-82-0) |
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* Hamlin L. Hill, ed. ''Mark Twain, The Gilded Age and Later Novels'' ([[Library of America]], 2002) ISBN 978-1-931082-10-5 |
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* Jason Gary Horn. ''Mark Twain: A Descriptive Guide to Biographical Sources.'' Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1999 (ISBN 0-8108-3630-0) |
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* [[William Dean Howells]]. ''My Mark Twain.'' Mineloa, New York: Dover Publications, 1997 (ISBN 0-486-29640-7) |
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* Fred Kaplan. ''The Singular Mark Twain: A Biography.'' New York: Doubleday, 2003 (ISBN 0-385-47715-5) |
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* [[Justin Kaplan]]. ''Mr. Clemens and Mark Twain: A Biography.'' New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966 (ISBN 0-671-74807-6) |
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* J. R. LeMaster and James D. Wilson, eds. ''The Mark Twain Encyclopedia.'' New York: Garland, 1993 (ISBN 0-8240-7212-X) |
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* [http://www-english.tamu.edu/pers/fac/loving Jerome Loving], ''Mark Twain: The Adventures of Samuel L. Clemens'' (University of California Press; 2010) 491 pages, ISBN 978-0-520-25257-8; Draws on newly discovered archival materials in a detailed biography |
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* [http://www.english.illinois.edu/people/brucem Bruce Michelson.] ''Mark Twain on the Loose.'' Amherst: [[University of Massachusetts Press]], 1995 (ISBN 0-87023-967-8) |
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* [http://www.wfubmc.edu/Faculty/Ober-K--Patrick.htm K. Patrick Ober]. ''Mark Twain and Medicine: "Any Mummery Will Cure."'' Columbia: [[University of Missouri Press]], 2003 (ISBN 0-8262-1502-5) |
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* [[Albert Bigelow Paine]]. ''Mark Twain, A Biography: The Personal and Literary Life of Samuel Langhorne Clemens.'' Harper & Bros., 1912. ISBN 1-84702-983-3 |
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* [[Ron Powers]]. ''Dangerous Water: A Biography of the Boy Who Became Mark Twain.'' New York: Da Capo Press, 1999. ISBN 0-306-81086-7 |
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* Ron Powers. ''Mark Twain: A Life.'' New York: Random House, 2005. (ISBN 0-7432-4899-6) |
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* R. Kent Rasmussen. ''Critical Companion to Mark Twain: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work.'' Facts On File, 2007. Revised edition of ''Mark Twain A to Z'' ISBN 0-8160-6225-0 |
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* R. Kent Rasmussen, ed. ''The Quotable Mark Twain: His Essential Aphorisms, Witticisms and Concise Opinions.'' Contemporary Books, 1997 ISBN 0-8092-2987-0 |
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* {{cite book|last=Anonymous|first=|others=Illustrated by [[s:Author:Frederick Waddy|Frederick Waddy]] |title=Cartoon portraits and biographical sketches of men of the day | url= http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Cartoon_portraits_and_biographical_sketches_of_men_of_the_day/Mark_Twain |accessdate=2011-03-13 |year=1873 |publisher=Tinsley Brothers |location=London |page=122}} |
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* Radavich, David. "Twain, Howells, and the Origins of Midwestern Drama." ''MidAmerica'' XXXI (2004): 25–42. |
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{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Sister project links|s=Author:Mark Twain}} |
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* {{Dmoz|Arts/Literature/World_Literature/American/19th_Century/Twain%2C_Mark/}} |
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;Works by Mark Twain |
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* [http://www.marktwainproject.org/xtf/view?docId=works/MTDP10362.xml;style=work;brand=mtp Autobiography of Mark Twain, Volume 1, 2010 - Free Online] - [http://www.marktwainproject.org/ Mark Twain Project Online] |
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* [http://www.marktwainproject.org/xtf/view?docId=works/MTDP10363.xml;style=work;brand=mtp Autobiography of Mark Twain, Volume 2, 2013 - Free Online] - [http://www.marktwainproject.org/ Mark Twain Project Online] |
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* [[commons:Category:Books by Mark Twain|38 Facsimile copies of 1st editions]] |
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* {{gutenberg author|id=Mark_Twain|name=Mark Twain}}. More than 60 texts are freely available. |
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* {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-21164}} |
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* [http://librivox.org/author/9 Public domain audiobooks] from [[LibriVox]] |
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* [http://books.google.com/books?id=4KZhv9y8sMIC&dq=intitle:letters+inauthor:mark+inauthor:twain&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_brr=0&source=gbs_navlinks_s ''Mark Twain's letters'' ed. by Albert Bigelow Paine (2 vol 1917) vol 2 online] |
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* [http://www.ucpress.edu/books/series/mtl.php Mark Twain Library], [[University of California Press]]. This series re-prints texts from the Papers and Works for students and the general reader. |
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* [http://www.ucpress.edu/books/series/mtw.php The Works of Mark Twain], [[University of California Press]]. This series prints authoritative critical editions of Mark Twain's published works. |
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* [http://www.ucpress.edu/books/series/mtp.php Mark Twain Papers], [[University of California Press]]. This series publishes Mark Twain's private papers – his letters, notebooks, unpublished literary works, and autobiography. |
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* [http://www.ucpress.edu/books/series/jf.php Jumping Frogs: Undiscovered, Rediscovered, and Celebrated Writings of Mark Twain], [[University of California Press]]. The Jumping Frogs series of books brings neglected Mark Twain treasures—stories, tall tales, novels, travelogues, plays, imaginative journalism, speeches, sketches, satires, burlesques, and much more—to readers. |
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* [http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/twain/menu.html A True Story, Repeated Word for Word As I Heard It] from ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]''. Nov. 1874: 591–594. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Co. |
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;Academic studies |
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* [http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/MTP/ The Mark Twain Papers and Project] of the [[Bancroft Library]], [[University of California Berkeley]]. Home to the largest archive of Mark Twain's papers and the editors of a critical edition of all of his writings. |
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* [http://www.buffalolib.org/content/grosvenor/mark-twain-room Mark Twain Room] at [[Buffalo & Erie County Public Library]], which houses the manuscript of ''Huckleberry Finn'' |
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* [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/research/fa/lfclemens.html Mark Twain Collection] at the [[Harry Ransom Center]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] |
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;Life |
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* Full text of the biography ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6873 Mark Twain]'' by Archibald Henderson |
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* [[s:The San Francisco Call/Mark Twain Called by Death|Obituary in San Francisco Call]] |
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* [http://dig.lib.niu.edu/twain/ Mark Twain's Mississippi] at [[Northern Illinois University Libraries]] |
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* [http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/twain.asp Mark Twain] at [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' |
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;Other |
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* [http://www.terryballard.org/literary/mtpilgrimages.html Literary Pilgrimages – Mark Twain sites] |
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* [http://www.pbs.org/marktwain/scrapbook/04_trouble/index.html PBS Twain Interactive Scrapbook] and [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/08/19/MNGOBEA9JI1.DTL San Francisco Chronicle article] documenting that Clemens did not say "The coldest winter I ever spent was summer in San Francisco." |
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* [http://www.kamakurapens.com/TwainsConklin.html The Fountain Pens used by Mark Twain] |
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* [https://staging.airflowsciences.com/rkn/Twain/ Images of First Appearances of Mark Twain Works] |
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* [http://www.twainquotes.com/sarony/sarony.html article and rare pictures] of Mark Twain and photographer [[Napoleon Sarony]] |
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* [https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=214436317471621448642.0004bcdfb74e1119cb58f&msa=0 Google map with placemarks for places in America associated with Twain] |
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* [http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?mark-twain-nevada-territory Mark Twain Original Manuscripts from 1862–1909] Shapell Manuscript Foundation |
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* {{Internet Archive film clip|id=MarkTwainSilentMovie1909|description=of Mark Twain}} |
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{{Twain|state=expanded}} |
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{{The Prince and the Pauper}} |
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{{Adventures of Huckleberry Finn}} |
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{{The Adventures of Tom Sawyer}} |
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{{A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court}} |
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{{Authority control|LCCN=n/79/21164|VIAF=50566653|TSURL=viaf/50566653|ISNI=0000000121324854|GND=118624822}} |
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{{Persondata |
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|NAME=Twain, Mark |
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Clemens, Samuel Langhorne (real name) |
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American [[humorist]], novelist, writer, and [[lecture]]r |
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|DATE OF BIRTH=November 30, 1835 |
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|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Florida, Missouri]] |
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|DATE OF DEATH=April 21, 1910 |
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|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Redding, Connecticut|Redding]], [[Connecticut]] |
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}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Twain, Mark}} |
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[[Category:Mark Twain| ]] |
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[[Category:1835 births]] |
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[[Category:1910 deaths]] |
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Revision as of 22:48, 26 May 2014
Mark Twain | |
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![]() Mark Twain, detail of photo by Mathew Brady, February 7, 1871 | |
Born | Samuel Langhorne Clemens November 30, 1835 Florida, Missouri, U.S. |
Died | April 21, 1910 Redding, Connecticut, U.S. | (aged 74)
Pen name | Mark Twain |
Occupation | Writer, lecturer |
Nationality | American |
Notable works | Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer |
Spouse | |
Children | Langdon, Susy, Clara, Jean |
Signature | |
![]() |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Samuel_L_Clemens4_1940_Issue-10c.jpg/220px-Samuel_L_Clemens4_1940_Issue-10c.jpg)
Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910),[2] better known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American author and humorist. He wrote The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and its sequel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885),[3] the latter often called "the Great American Novel."
Twain grew up in Hannibal, Missouri, which provided the setting for Huckleberry Finn and Tom Sawyer. After an apprenticeship with a printer, he worked as a typesetter and contributed articles to the newspaper of his older brother Orion Clemens. He later became a riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River before heading west to join Orion in Nevada. He referred humorously to his singular lack of success at mining, turning to journalism for the Virginia City Territorial Enterprise.[4] In 1865, his humorous story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County," was published, based on a story he heard at Angels Hotel in Angels Camp, California, where he had spent some time as a miner. The short story brought international attention, and was even translated into classic Greek.[5] His wit and satire, in prose and in speech, earned praise from critics and peers, and he was a friend to presidents, artists, industrialists, and European royalty.
Though Twain earned a great deal of money from his writings and lectures, he invested in ventures that lost a great deal of money, notably the Paige Compositor, which failed because of its complexity and imprecision. In the wake of these financial setbacks, he filed for protection from his creditors via bankruptcy, and with the help of Henry Huttleston Rogers eventually overcame his financial troubles. Twain chose to pay all his pre-bankruptcy creditors in full, though he had no legal responsibility to do so.
Twain was born shortly after a visit by Halley's Comet, and he predicted that he would "go out with it," too. He died the day following the comet's subsequent return. He was lauded as the "greatest American humorist of his age,"[6] and William Faulkner called Twain "the father of American literature."[7]
Early life
Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born in Florida, Missouri, on November 30, 1835. He was the son of Jane (née Lampton; 1803–1890), a native of Kentucky, and John Marshall Clemens (1798–1847), a Virginian by birth. His parents met when his father moved to Missouri and were married several years later, in 1823.[8][9] He was the sixth of seven children, but only three of his siblings survived childhood: his brother Orion (1825–1897), Henry, who died in a riverboat explosion (1838–1858), and Pamela (1827–1904). His sister Margaret (1833–1839) died when he was three, and his brother Benjamin (1832–1842) died three years later. Another brother, Pleasant (1828–1829), died at six months.[10] Twain was born two weeks after the closest approach to Earth of Halley's Comet.
When he was four, Twain's family moved to Hannibal, Missouri,[11] a port town on the Mississippi River that inspired the fictional town of St. Petersburg in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.[12] Missouri was a slave state and young Twain became familiar with the institution of slavery, a theme he would later explore in his writing. Twain's father was an attorney and judge.[13] The Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad was organized in his office in 1846. The railroad connected the second and third largest cities in the state and was the westernmost United States railroad until the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad. It delivered mail to and from the Pony Express.[14]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Mark_Twain_by_GH_Jones%2C_1850_-_retouched.jpg/240px-Mark_Twain_by_GH_Jones%2C_1850_-_retouched.jpg)
In 1847, when Twain was 11, his father died of pneumonia.[15] The next year, he became a printer's apprentice. In 1851, he began working as a typesetter and contributor of articles and humorous sketches for the Hannibal Journal, a newspaper owned by his brother Orion. When he was 18, he left Hannibal and worked as a printer in New York City, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Cincinnati. He joined the newly formed International Typographical Union, the printers union, and educated himself in public libraries in the evenings, finding wider information than at a conventional school.[16] Clemens came from St. Louis on the packet Keokuk in 1854[17] and lived in Muscatine during part of the summer of 1855. The Muscatine newspaper published eight stories, which amounted to almost 6,000 words.[18]
On a voyage to New Orleans down the Mississippi, steamboat pilot Horace E. Bixby inspired Twain to become a pilot himself. As Twain observed in Life on the Mississippi, the pilot surpassed a steamboat's captain in prestige and authority; it was a rewarding occupation with wages set at $250 per month.[19] A steamboat pilot needed to know the ever-changing river to be able to stop at the hundreds of ports and wood-lots. Twain studied 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of the Mississippi for more than two years before he received his steamboat pilot license in 1859. This occupation gave him his pen name, Mark Twain, from "mark twain," the cry for a measured river depth of two fathoms. While training, Samuel convinced his younger brother Henry to work with him. Henry was killed on June 21, 1858, when the steamboat he was working on, the Pennsylvania, exploded. Twain had foreseen this death in a dream a month earlier,[20]: 275 which inspired his interest in parapsychology; he was an early member of the Society for Psychical Research.[21] Twain was guilt-stricken and held himself responsible for the rest of his life. He continued to work on the river and was a river pilot until the American Civil War broke out in 1861 and traffic along the Mississippi was curtailed.
At the start of the Civil War, Twain enlisted briefly in a Confederate local unit. He then left for Nevada to work for his brother, a senior official in the Federal government.[22] Twain later wrote a sketch, "The Private History of a Campaign That Failed," which told how he and his friends had been Confederate volunteers for two weeks before disbanding their company.[23]
Travels
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Twain_House_first_floor_library_HABS_CONN%2C2-HARF%2C16-63.jpg/240px-Twain_House_first_floor_library_HABS_CONN%2C2-HARF%2C16-63.jpg)
Twain joined Orion, who in 1861 became secretary to James W. Nye, the governor of Nevada Territory, and headed west. Twain and his brother traveled more than two weeks on a stagecoach across the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, visiting the Mormon community in Salt Lake City.
Twain's journey ended in the silver-mining town of Virginia City, Nevada, where he became a miner on the Comstock Lode.[23] Twain failed as a miner and worked at a Virginia City newspaper, the Territorial Enterprise.[24] Working under writer and friend Dan DeQuille, here he first used his pen name. On February 3, 1863, he signed a humorous travel account "Letter From Carson – re: Joe Goodman; party at Gov. Johnson's; music" with "Mark Twain."[25]
His experiences in the American West inspired Roughing It and his experiences in Angels Camp, California in Calaveras County provided material for "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County".
Twain moved to San Francisco, California in 1864, still as a journalist. He met writers such as Bret Harte and Artemus Ward. The young poet Ina Coolbrith may have romanced him.[26]
His first success as a writer came when his humorous tall tale, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County," was published in a New York weekly, The Saturday Press, on November 18, 1865. It brought him national attention. A year later, he traveled to the Sandwich Islands (present-day Hawaii) as a reporter for the Sacramento Union. His travelogues were popular and became the basis for his first lectures.[27]
In 1867, a local newspaper funded a trip to the Mediterranean. During his tour of Europe and the Middle East, he wrote a popular collection of travel letters, which were later compiled as The Innocents Abroad in 1869. It was on this trip that he met his future brother-in-law, Charles Langdon. Both were passengers aboard the Quaker City on their way to the Holy Land. Langdon showed a picture of his sister Olivia to Twain; Twain claimed to have fallen in love at first sight.
Upon returning to the United States, Twain was offered honorary membership in the secret society Scroll and Key of Yale University in 1868.[28] Its devotion to "fellowship, moral and literary self-improvement, and charity" suited him well.
Marriage and children
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Mark_Twain_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res%2C_1867.jpg/240px-Mark_Twain_by_Abdullah_Fr%C3%A8res%2C_1867.jpg)
Throughout 1868, Twain and Olivia Langdon corresponded but she rejected his first marriage proposal. Two months later, they were engaged. In February 1870, Twain and Langdon were married in Elmira, New York,[27] where he had courted her and overcome her father's initial reluctance.[29] She came from a "wealthy but liberal family," and through her he met abolitionists, "socialists, principled atheists and activists for women's rights and social equality," including Harriet Beecher Stowe (his next-door neighbor in Hartford, Connecticut), Frederick Douglass, and the writer and utopian socialist William Dean Howells,[30] who became a long-time friend. The couple lived in Buffalo, New York from 1869 to 1871. Twain owned a stake in the Buffalo Express newspaper and worked as an editor and writer. While living in Buffalo, their son Langdon died of diphtheria at age 19 months. They had three daughters: Susy (1872–1896), Clara (1874–1962)[31] and Jean (1880–1909). The couple's marriage lasted 34 years, until Olivia's death in 1904. All of the Clemens family are buried in Elmira's Woodlawn Cemetery.
Twain moved his family to Hartford, Connecticut, where starting in 1873 he arranged the building of a home (local admirers saved it from demolition in 1927 and eventually turned it into a museum focused on him). In the 1870s and 1880s, Twain and his family summered at Quarry Farm, the home of Olivia's sister, Susan Crane.[32][33] In 1874,[32] Susan had a study built apart from the main house so that her brother-in-law would have a quiet place in which to write. Also, Twain smoked pipes constantly, and Susan Crane did not wish him to do so in her house. During his seventeen years in Hartford (1874–1891) and over twenty summers at Quarry Farm, Twain wrote many of his classic novels, among them The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), The Prince and the Pauper (1881), Life on the Mississippi (1883), Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885) and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1889).
Twain made a second tour of Europe, described in the 1880 book A Tramp Abroad. His tour included a stay in Heidelberg from May 6 until July 23, 1878, and a visit to London.
Love of science and technology
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Twain_in_Tesla%27s_Lab.jpg/220px-Twain_in_Tesla%27s_Lab.jpg)
Twain was fascinated with science and scientific inquiry. He developed a close and lasting friendship with Nikola Tesla, and the two spent much time together in Tesla's laboratory.
Twain patented three inventions, including an "Improvement in Adjustable and Detachable Straps for Garments" (to replace suspenders) and a history trivia game.[34] Most commercially successful was a self-pasting scrapbook; a dried adhesive on the pages only needed to be moistened before use.
His book A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court features a time traveler from the contemporary US, using his knowledge of science to introduce modern technology to Arthurian England. This type of storyline would later become a common feature of a science fiction sub-genre, alternate history.
In 1909, Thomas Edison visited Twain at his home in Redding, Connecticut and filmed him. Part of the footage was used in The Prince and the Pauper (1909), a two-reel short film. It is said to have been the only known existing film footage of Twain.[35]
Financial troubles
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Mark_Twain_Vanity_Fair_1908-05-13.jpeg/220px-Mark_Twain_Vanity_Fair_1908-05-13.jpeg)
Twain made a substantial amount of money through his writing, but he lost a great deal through investments, mostly in new inventions and technology, particularly the Paige typesetting machine. It was a beautifully engineered mechanical marvel that amazed viewers when it worked, but it was prone to breakdowns. Twain spent $300,000 (equal to $10,600,000 in inflation-adjusted terms [36]) on it between 1880 and 1894;[37] but, before it could be perfected, it was made obsolete by the Linotype. He lost not only the bulk of his book profits but also a substantial portion of his wife's inheritance.[38]
Twain also lost money through his publishing house, which enjoyed initial success selling the memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant but went broke soon after, losing money on a biography of Pope Leo XIII; fewer than two hundred copies were sold.[38]
Twain's writings and lectures, combined with the help of a new friend, enabled him to recover financially.[39] In 1893, he began a 15-year-long friendship with financier Henry Huttleston Rogers, a principal of Standard Oil. Rogers first made Twain file for bankruptcy. Then Rogers had Twain transfer the copyrights on his written works to his wife, Olivia, to prevent creditors from gaining possession of them. Finally, Rogers took absolute charge of Twain's money until all the creditors were paid.
Twain accepted an offer from Robert Sparrow Smythe[40] and embarked on a year-long, around-the-world lecture tour in July 1895[41] to pay off his creditors in full, although he was no longer under any legal obligation to do so.[42] It would be a long, arduous journey and he was sick much of the time, mostly from a cold and a carbuncle. The itinerary took him to Hawaii, Fiji, Australia, New Zealand, Sri Lanka, India, Mauritius, South Africa and England. Twain's three months in India became the centerpiece of his 712-page book Following the Equator. He joined the Anti-Imperialist League in 1898, in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines.[citation needed]
In mid-1900, he was the guest of newspaper proprietor Hugh Gilzean-Reid at Dollis Hill House, located on the north side of London, UK. In regard to Dollis Hill, Twain wrote that he had "never seen any place that was so satisfactorily situated, with its noble trees and stretch of country, and everything that went to make life delightful, and all within a biscuit's throw of the metropolis of the world."[43] He then returned to America in 1900, having earned enough to pay off his debts.
Speaking engagements
Twain was in demand as a featured speaker, performing solo humorous talks similar to what would become stand-up comedy.[44] He gave paid talks to many men's clubs, including the Authors' Club, Beefsteak Club, Vagabonds, White Friars, and Monday Evening Club of Hartford. In the late 1890s, he spoke to the Savage Club in London and was elected honorary member. When told that only three men had been so honored, including the Prince of Wales, he replied "Well, it must make the Prince feel mighty fine."[45] In 1897, Twain spoke to the Concordia Press Club in Vienna as a special guest, following diplomat Charlemagne Tower, Jr.. In German, to the great amusement of the assemblage, Twain delivered the speech "Die Schrecken der deutschen Sprache" ("The Horrors of the German Language").[46] In 1901, Twain was invited to speak at Princeton University's Cliosophic Literary Society, where he was made an honorary member.[47]
Later life and death
...the report is greatly exaggerated
— Mark Twain when it was reported he had died[48]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Mark_Twain_Sarony.jpg/240px-Mark_Twain_Sarony.jpg)
Twain passed through a period of deep depression that began in 1896 when his daughter Susy died of meningitis. Olivia's death in 1904 and Jean's on December 24, 1909, deepened his gloom.[49] On May 20, 1909, his close friend Henry Rogers died suddenly. In 1906, Twain began his autobiography in the North American Review. In April, Twain heard that his friend Ina Coolbrith had lost nearly all she owned in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, and he volunteered a few autographed portrait photographs to be sold for her benefit. To further aid Coolbrith, George Wharton James visited Twain in New York and arranged for a new portrait session. Initially resistant, Twain admitted that four of the resulting images were the finest ones ever taken of him.[50]
Twain formed a club in 1906 for girls he viewed as surrogate granddaughters, the Angel Fish and Aquarium Club. The dozen or so members ranged in age from 10 to 16. Twain exchanged letters with his "Angel Fish" girls and invited them to concerts and the theatre and to play games. Twain wrote in 1908 that the club was his "life's chief delight."[51] In 1907 Twain met Dorothy Quick (then aged 11) on a transatlantic crossing, beginning "a friendship that was to last until the very day of his death".[52]
Oxford University awarded Twain an honorary doctorate in letters (D.Litt.) in 1907.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/SamuelC_Grave.jpg/240px-SamuelC_Grave.jpg)
In 1909, Twain is quoted as saying:[53]
"I came in with Halley's Comet in 1835. It is coming again next year, and I expect to go out with it. It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don't go out with Halley's Comet. The Almighty has said, no doubt: 'Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together."
His prediction was accurate—Twain died of a heart attack on April 21, 1910, in Redding, Connecticut, one day after the comet's closest approach to Earth.
Upon hearing of Twain's death, President William Howard Taft said:[54][55]
- "Mark Twain gave pleasure – real intellectual enjoyment – to millions, and his works will continue to give such pleasure to millions yet to come ... His humor was American, but he was nearly as much appreciated by Englishmen and people of other countries as by his own countrymen. He has made an enduring part of American literature."
Twain's funeral was at the "Old Brick" Presbyterian Church in New York.[56] He is buried in his wife's family plot at Woodlawn Cemetery in Elmira, New York. The Langdon family plot where he is buried is marked by a 12-foot (two fathoms, or "mark twain") monument, placed there by his surviving daughter, Clara.[57] There is also a smaller headstone. Although he expressed a preference for cremation (for example in Life on the Mississippi), he acknowledged that his surviving family would have the last word.
Officials in Connecticut and New York estimated the value of Twain's estate at $471,000 ($15,401,700 today); his manuscripts were given no monetary value, and his copyrights given little and decreasing value.[58]
Writing
Overview
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Mark_Twain_DLitt.jpg/240px-Mark_Twain_DLitt.jpg)
Twain began his career writing light, humorous verse, but evolved into a chronicler of the vanities, hypocrisies and murderous acts of mankind. At mid-career, with Huckleberry Finn, he combined rich humor, sturdy narrative and social criticism. Twain was a master at rendering colloquial speech and helped to create and popularize a distinctive American literature built on American themes and language. Many of Twain's works have been suppressed at times for various reasons. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has been repeatedly restricted in American high schools, not least for its frequent use of the word "nigger," which was in common usage in the pre-Civil War period in which the novel was set.
A complete bibliography of his works is nearly impossible to compile because of the vast number of pieces written by Twain (often in obscure newspapers) and his use of several different pen names. Additionally, a large portion of his speeches and lectures have been lost or were not written down; thus, the collection of Twain's works is an ongoing process. Researchers rediscovered published material by Twain as recently as 1995.[38]
Early journalism and travelogues
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Mark_Twain_Cabin_Exterior_MVC-082X.jpg/240px-Mark_Twain_Cabin_Exterior_MVC-082X.jpg)
While writing for the Virginia City newspaper, the Territorial Enterprise in 1863, Clemens met lawyer Tom Fitch, editor of the competing newspaper Virginia Daily Union and known as the "silver-tongued orator of the Pacific."[59]: 51 He credited Fitch with giving him his "first really profitable lesson" in writing. In 1866, Clemens presented his lecture on the Sandwich Islands to a crowd in Washoe City, Nevada.[60] Clemens commented that, "When I first began to lecture, and in my earlier writings, my sole idea was to make comic capital out of everything I saw and heard." Fitch told him, "Clemens, your lecture was magnificent. It was eloquent, moving, sincere. Never in my entire life have I listened to such a magnificent piece of descriptive narration. But you committed one unpardonable sin—the unpardonable sin. It is a sin you must never commit again. You closed a most eloquent description, by which you had keyed your audience up to a pitch of the intensest interest, with a piece of atrocious anti-climax which nullified all the really fine effect you had produced."[61] It was in these days that Twain became a writer of the Sagebrush School, and was known later as the most notable within this literary genre.[62]
Twain's first important work, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County," was first published in the New York Saturday Press on November 18, 1865. The only reason it was published there was that his story arrived too late to be included in a book Artemus Ward was compiling featuring sketches of the wild American West.
After this burst of popularity, the Sacramento Union commissioned Twain to write letters about his travel experiences. The first journey he took for this job was to ride the steamer Ajax in its maiden voyage to Hawaii, referred to at the time as the Sandwich Islands. These humorous letters proved the genesis to his work with the San Francisco Alta California newspaper, which designated him a traveling correspondent for a trip from San Francisco to New York City via the Panama isthmus. All the while, Twain was writing letters meant for publishing back and forth, chronicling his experiences with his burlesque humor. On June 8, 1867, Twain set sail on the pleasure cruiser Quaker City for five months. This trip resulted in The Innocents Abroad or The New Pilgrims' Progress.
This book is a record of a pleasure trip. If it were a record of a solemn scientific expedition it would have about it the gravity, that profundity, and that impressive incomprehensibility which are so proper to works of that kind, and withal so attractive. Yet not withstanding it is only a record of a picnic, it has a purpose, which is, to suggest to the reader how he would be likely to see Europe and the East if he looked at them with his own eyes instead of the eyes of those who traveled in those countries before him. I make small pretense of showing anyone how he ought to look at objects of interest beyond the sea—other books do that, and therefore, even if I were competent to do it, there is no need.
In 1872, Twain published a second piece of travel literature, Roughing It, as a semi-sequel to Innocents. Roughing It is a semi-autobiographical account of Twain's journey from Missouri to Nevada, his subsequent life in the American West, and his visit to Hawaii. The book lampoons American and Western society in the same way that Innocents critiqued the various countries of Europe and the Middle East. Twain's next work kept Roughing It's focus on American society but focused more on the events of the day. Entitled The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today, it was not a travel piece, as his previous two books had been, and it was his first attempt at writing a novel. The book is also notable because it is Twain's only collaboration; it was written with his neighbor Charles Dudley Warner.
Twain's next two works drew on his experiences on the Mississippi River. Old Times on the Mississippi, a series of sketches published in the Atlantic Monthly in 1875, featured Twain's disillusionment with Romanticism.[63] Old Times eventually became the starting point for Life on the Mississippi.
Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn
Twain's next major publication was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, which drew on his youth in Hannibal. Tom Sawyer was modeled on Twain as a child, with traces of two schoolmates, John Briggs and Will Bowen. The book also introduced in a supporting role Huckleberry Finn, based on Twain's boyhood friend Tom Blankenship.
The Prince and the Pauper, despite a storyline that is omnipresent in film and literature today, was not as well received. Telling the story of two boys born on the same day who are physically identical, the book acts as a social commentary as the prince and pauper switch places. Pauper was Twain's first attempt at historical fiction, and blame for its shortcomings is usually put on Twain for having not been experienced enough in English society, and also on the fact that it was produced after a massive hit. In between the writing of Pauper, Twain had started Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (which he consistently had problems completing[64]) and started and completed another travel book, A Tramp Abroad, which follows Twain as he traveled through central and southern Europe.
Twain's next major published work, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, solidified him as a noteworthy American writer. Some have called it the first Great American Novel, and the book has become required reading in many schools throughout the United States. Huckleberry Finn was an offshoot from Tom Sawyer and had a more serious tone than its predecessor. The main premise behind Huckleberry Finn is the young boy's belief in the right thing to do though most believed that it was wrong. Four hundred manuscript pages of Huckleberry Finn were written in mid-1876, right after the publication of Tom Sawyer. Some accounts have Twain taking seven years off after his first burst of creativity, eventually finishing the book in 1883. Other accounts have Twain working on Huckleberry Finn in tandem with The Prince and the Pauper and other works in 1880 and other years. The last fifth of Huckleberry Finn is subject to much controversy. Some say that Twain experienced, as critic Leo Marx puts it, a "failure of nerve." Ernest Hemingway once said of Huckleberry Finn:
If you read it, you must stop where the Nigger Jim is stolen from the boys. That is the real end. The rest is just cheating.
Hemingway also wrote in the same essay:
All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn.[65]
Near the completion of Huckleberry Finn, Twain wrote Life on the Mississippi, which is said to have heavily influenced the former book.[38] The work recounts Twain's memories and new experiences after a 22-year absence from the Mississippi. In it, he also states that "Mark Twain" was the call made when the boat was in safe water – two fathoms (12 feet or 3.7 metres).
Later writing
After his great work, Twain began turning to his business endeavors to keep them afloat and to stave off the increasing difficulties he had been having from his writing projects. Twain focused on President Ulysses S. Grant's Memoirs for his fledgling publishing company, finding time in between to write "The Private History of a Campaign That Failed" for The Century Magazine. This piece detailed his two-week stint in a Confederate militia during the Civil War. The name of his publishing company was Charles L. Webster & Company, which he owned with Charles L. Webster, his nephew by marriage.[66]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Mark_Twain_1907.jpg/240px-Mark_Twain_1907.jpg)
Twain next focused on A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court, which featured him making his first big pronouncement of disappointment with politics. Written with the same historical fiction style of The Prince and the Pauper, A Connecticut Yankee showed the absurdities of political and social norms by setting them in the court of King Arthur. The book was started in December 1885, then shelved a few months later until the summer of 1887, and eventually finished in the spring of 1889.
Twain had begun to furiously write articles and commentary, with diminishing returns, to pay the bills and keep his business projects afloat, but it was not enough. He filed for bankruptcy in 1894.
His next large-scale work, Pudd'nhead Wilson, was written rapidly, as Twain was desperately trying to stave off the bankruptcy. From November 12 to December 14, 1893, Twain wrote 60,000 words for the novel.[38] Critics have pointed to this rushed completion as the cause of the novel's rough organization and constant disruption of continuous plot. There were parallels between this work and Twain's financial failings, notably his desire to escape his current constraints and become a different person.
Like The Prince and the Pauper, this novel also contains the tale of two boys born on the same day who switch positions in life. Considering the circumstances of Twain's birth and Halley's Comet, and his strong belief in the paranormal, it is not surprising that these "mystic" connections recur throughout his writing.
The actual title is not clearly established. It was first published serially in Century Magazine, and when it was finally published in book form, Pudd'nhead Wilson appeared as the main title; however, the disputed "subtitles" make the entire title read: The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson and the Comedy of The Extraordinary Twins.[38]
Twain's next venture was a work of straight fiction that he called Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc and dedicated to his wife. Twain had long said that this was the work he was most proud of, despite the criticism he received for it. The book had been a dream of his since childhood. He claimed he had found a manuscript detailing the life of Joan of Arc when he was an adolescent.[38] This was another piece Twain was convinced would save his publishing company. His financial adviser, Henry Huttleston Rogers, quashed that idea and got Twain out of that business altogether, but the book was published nonetheless.
During this time of dire financial straits, Twain published several literary reviews in newspapers to help make ends meet. He famously derided James Fenimore Cooper in his article detailing Cooper's "Literary Offenses." He became an extremely outspoken critic not only of other authors, but also of other critics, suggesting that before praising Cooper's work, Thomas Lounsbury, Brander Matthews, and Wilkie Collins "ought to have read some of it."[67]
Other authors to fall under Twain's attack during this time period (beginning around 1890 until his death) were George Eliot, Jane Austen, and Robert Louis Stevenson.[68] In addition to providing a source for the "tooth and claw" style of literary criticism, Twain outlines in several letters and essays what he considers to be "quality writing." He places emphasis on concision, utility of word choice, and realism (he complains that Cooper's Deerslayer purports to be realistic but has several shortcomings). Ironically, several of his works were later criticized for lack of continuity (Adventures of Huckleberry Finn) and organization (Pudd'nhead Wilson).
Twain's wife died in 1904 while the couple were staying at the Villa di Quarto in Florence; and, after an appropriate period of time, Twain allowed himself to publish some works that his wife, a de facto editor and censor throughout his life, had looked down upon. Of these works, The Mysterious Stranger, depicting various visits of Satan to the Earth, is perhaps the best known. This particular work was not published in Twain's lifetime. There were three versions found in his manuscripts, made between 1897 and 1905: the Hannibal, Eseldorf, and Print Shop versions. Confusion among the versions led to an extensive publication of a jumbled version, and only recently have the original versions as Twain wrote them become available.
Twain's last work was his autobiography, which he dictated and thought would be most entertaining if he went off on whims and tangents in non-chronological order. Some archivists and compilers have rearranged the biography into more conventional forms, thereby eliminating some of Twain's humor and the flow of the book. The first volume of autobiography, over 736 pages, was published by the University of California in November 2010, 100 years after his death, as Twain wished.[69][70] It soon became an unexpected[71] best seller,[72] making Twain one of very few authors publishing new best-selling volumes in all three of the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries.
Censorship
Twain’s works have been subjected to censorship efforts. According to Stuart (2013) “Leading these banning campaigns, generally, were religious organizations or individuals in positions of influence – not so much working librarians, who had been instilled with that American “library spirit” which honored intellectual freedom (within bounds of course). In 1905, the Brooklyn Public Library banned both The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer from the children's department because of their language.[73]
Views
Twain's views became more radical as he grew older. He acknowledged that his views changed and developed over his life, referring to one of his favorite works:
When I finished Carlyle's French Revolution in 1871, I was a Girondin; every time I have read it since, I have read it differently—being influenced and changed, little by little, by life and environment ... and now I lay the book down once more, and recognize that I am a Sansculotte! And not a pale, characterless Sansculotte, but a Marat.[74]
Anti-imperialist
In the New York Herald, October 15, 1900, he describes his transformation and political awakening, in the context of the Philippine-American War, from being "a red-hot imperialist":
I wanted the American eagle to go screaming into the Pacific ... Why not spread its wings over the Philippines, I asked myself? ... I said to myself, Here are a people who have suffered for three centuries. We can make them as free as ourselves, give them a government and country of their own, put a miniature of the American Constitution afloat in the Pacific, start a brand new republic to take its place among the free nations of the world. It seemed to me a great task to which we had addressed ourselves.
But I have thought some more, since then, and I have read carefully the treaty of Paris [which ended the Spanish-American War], and I have seen that we do not intend to free, but to subjugate the people of the Philippines. We have gone there to conquer, not to redeem.
It should, it seems to me, be our pleasure and duty to make those people free, and let them deal with their own domestic questions in their own way. And so I am an anti-imperialist. I am opposed to having the eagle put its talons on any other land.[75]
Before 1899 Twain was an ardent imperialist. In the late 1860s and early 1870s he spoke out strongly in favor of American interests in the Hawaiian Islands.[76] In the mid-1890s he explained later, he was "a red-hot imperialist. I wanted the American eagle to go screaming over the Pacific."[77] He said the war with Spain in 1898 was "the worthiest" war ever fought.[78] In 1899 he reversed course, and from 1901, soon after his return from Europe, until his death in 1910, Twain was vice-president of the American Anti-Imperialist League,[79] which opposed the annexation of the Philippines by the United States and had "tens of thousands of members."[30] He wrote many political pamphlets for the organization. The Incident in the Philippines, posthumously published in 1924, was in response to the Moro Crater Massacre, in which six hundred Moros were killed. Many of his neglected and previously uncollected writings on anti-imperialism appeared for the first time in book form in 1992.[79]
Twain was critical of imperialism in other countries as well. In Following the Equator, Twain expresses "hatred and condemnation of imperialism of all stripes."[30] He was highly critical of European imperialism, notably of Cecil Rhodes, who greatly expanded the British Empire, and of Leopold II, King of the Belgians.[30] King Leopold's Soliloquy is a stinging political satire about his private colony, the Congo Free State. Reports of outrageous exploitation and grotesque abuses led to widespread international protest in the early 1900s, arguably the first large-scale human rights movement. In the soliloquy, the King argues that bringing Christianity to the country outweighs a little starvation. Leopold's rubber gatherers were tortured, maimed and slaughtered, until the movement forced Brussels to call a halt.[80][81]
During the Philippine-American War, Twain wrote a short pacifist story entitled The War Prayer, which makes the point that humanism and Christianity's preaching of love are incompatible with the conduct of war. It was submitted to Harper's Bazaar for publication, but on March 22, 1905 the magazine rejected the story as "not quite suited to a woman's magazine." Eight days later, Twain wrote to his friend Daniel Carter Beard, to whom he had read the story, "I don't think the prayer will be published in my time. None but the dead are permitted to tell the truth." Because he had an exclusive contract with Harper & Brothers, Twain could not publish The War Prayer elsewhere; it remained unpublished until 1923. It was republished as campaigning material by Vietnam War protesters.[30]
Twain acknowledged he originally sympathized with the more moderate Girondins of the French Revolution and then shifted his sympathies to the more radical Sansculottes, indeed identifying as "a Marat." Twain supported the revolutionaries in Russia against the reformists, arguing that the Tsar must be got rid of, by violent means, because peaceful ones would not work.[82] He summed up his views of revolutions in the following statement:
I am said to be a revolutionist in my sympathies, by birth, by breeding and by principle. I am always on the side of the revolutionists, because there never was a revolution unless there were some oppressive and intolerable conditions against which to revolute.[83]
Civil rights
Twain was an adamant supporter of the abolition of slavery and emancipation of slaves, even going so far to say "Lincoln's Proclamation ... not only set the black slaves free, but set the white man free also."[84] He argued that non-whites did not receive justice in the United States, once saying "I have seen Chinamen abused and maltreated in all the mean, cowardly ways possible to the invention of a degraded nature ... but I never saw a Chinaman righted in a court of justice for wrongs thus done to him."[85] He paid for at least one black person to attend Yale Law School and for another black person to attend a southern university to become a minister.[86]
Twain's views on race were not reflected in his early sketches of Native Americans. Of them, Twain wrote in 1870:
His heart is a cesspool of falsehood, of treachery, and of low and devilish instincts. With him, gratitude is an unknown emotion; and when one does him a kindness, it is safest to keep the face toward him, lest the reward be an arrow in the back. To accept of a favor from him is to assume a debt which you can never repay to his satisfaction, though you bankrupt yourself trying. The scum of the earth![87]
As counterpoint, Twain's essay on "The Literary Offenses of Fenimore Cooper" offers a much kinder view of Indians.[67] "No, other Indians would have noticed these things, but Cooper's Indians never notice anything. Cooper thinks they are marvelous creatures for noticing, but he was almost always in error about his Indians. There was seldom a sane one among them."[88] In his later travelogue Following the Equator (1897), Twain observes that in colonized lands all over the world, "savages" have always been wronged by "whites" in the most merciless ways, such as "robbery, humiliation, and slow, slow murder, through poverty and the white man's whiskey"; his conclusion is that "there are many humorous things in this world; among them the white man's notion that he is less savage than the other savages.".[89] In an expression that captures his Indian experiences, he wrote, “So far as I am able to judge nothing has been left undone, either by man or Nature, to make India the most extraordinary country that the sun visits on his rounds. Where every prospect pleases, and only man is vile.”[90]
Twain was also a staunch supporter of women's rights and an active campaigner for women's suffrage. His "Votes for Women" speech, in which he pressed for the granting of voting rights to women, is considered one of the most famous in history.[91]
Helen Keller benefited from Twain's support, as she pursued her college education and publishing, despite her disabilities and financial limitations.
Labor
Twain wrote glowingly about unions in the river boating industry in Life on the Mississippi, which was read in union halls decades later.[92] He supported the labor movement, especially one of the most important unions, the Knights of Labor.[30] In a speech to them, he said:
Who are the oppressors? The few: the King, the capitalist, and a handful of other overseers and superintendents. Who are the oppressed? The many: the nations of the earth; the valuable personages; the workers; they that make the bread that the soft-handed and idle eat.[93]
Vivisection
Twain was opposed to the vivisection practices of his day. His objection was not on a scientific basis but rather an ethical one. He specifically cited the pain caused to the animal as his basis of his opposition.[94]
I am not interested to know whether vivisection produces results that are profitable to the human race or doesn't. ... The pain which it inflicts upon unconsenting animals is the basis of my enmity toward it, and it is to me sufficient justification of the enmity without looking further.
Religion
Although Twain was a Presbyterian, he was sometimes critical of organized religion and certain elements of Christianity through his later life. He wrote, for example, "Faith is believing what you know ain't so," and "If Christ were here now there is one thing he would not be—a Christian."[95] Nonetheless, as a mature adult he engaged in religious discussions and attended services, his theology developing as he wrestled with the deaths of loved ones and his own mortality.[96] His own experiences and suffering within his family made him particularly critical of "faith healing," such as espoused by Mary Baker Eddy and Christian Science.[citation needed]
Twain generally avoided publishing his most heretical opinions on religion in his lifetime, and they are known from essays and stories that were published later. In the essay Three Statements of the Eighties in the 1880s, Twain stated that he believed in an almighty God, but not in any messages, revelations, holy scriptures such as the Bible, Providence, or retribution in the afterlife. He did state that "the goodness, the justice, and the mercy of God are manifested in His works," but also that "the universe is governed by strict and immutable laws," which determine "small matters," such as who dies in a pestilence.[97] At other times he wrote or spoke in ways that contradicted a strict deist view, for example, plainly professing a belief in Providence.[98] In some later writings in the 1890s, he was less optimistic about the goodness of God, observing that "if our Maker is all-powerful for good or evil, He is not in His right mind." At other times, he conjectured sardonically that perhaps God had created the world with all its tortures for some purpose of His own, but was otherwise indifferent to humanity, which was too petty and insignificant to deserve His attention anyway.[99]
In 1901 Twain criticized the actions of missionary Dr. William Scott Ament (1851–1909) because Ament and other missionaries had collected indemnities from Chinese subjects in the aftermath of the Boxer Uprising of 1900. Twain's response to hearing of Ament's methods was published in the North American Review in February 1901: To the Person Sitting in Darkness, and deals with examples of imperialism in China, South Africa, and with the U.S. occupation of the Philippines.[100] A subsequent article, "To My Missionary Critics" published in The North American Review in April 1901, unapologetically continues his attack, but with the focus shifted from Ament to his missionary superiors, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.[101]
After his death, Twain's family suppressed some of his work that was especially irreverent toward conventional religion, notably Letters from the Earth, which was not published until his daughter Clara reversed her position in 1962 in response to Soviet propaganda about the withholding.[102] The anti-religious The Mysterious Stranger was published in 1916. Little Bessie, a story ridiculing Christianity, was first published in the 1972 collection Mark Twain's Fables of Man.[103]
Despite these views, he raised money to build a Presbyterian Church in Nevada in 1864, although it has been argued that it was only by his association with his Presbyterian brother that he did that.[104]
Twain created a reverent portrayal of Joan of Arc, a subject over which he had obsessed for forty years, studied for a dozen years and spent two years writing.[105] In 1900 and again in 1908, he stated, "I like Joan of Arc best of all my books, it is the best." [105][106]
Those who knew Twain well late in life recount that he dwelt on the subject of the afterlife, his daughter Clara saying: "Sometimes he believed death ended everything, but most of the time he felt sure of a life beyond."[107]
Twain's frankest views on religion appeared in his final work Autobiography of Mark Twain, the publication of which started in November 2010, 100 years after his death. In it, he said:[108]
There is one notable thing about our Christianity: bad, bloody, merciless, money-grabbing, and predatory as it is—in our country particularly and in all other Christian countries in a somewhat modified degree—it is still a hundred times better than the Christianity of the Bible, with its prodigious crime—the invention of Hell. Measured by our Christianity of to-day, bad as it is, hypocritical as it is, empty and hollow as it is, neither the Deity nor his Son is a Christian, nor qualified for that moderately high place. Ours is a terrible religion. The fleets of the world could swim in spacious comfort in the innocent blood it has spilled.
Twain was a Freemason.[109][110] He belonged to Polar Star Lodge No. 79 A.F.&A.M., based in St. Louis. He was initiated an Entered Apprentice on May 22, 1861, passed to the degree of Fellow Craft on June 12, and raised to the degree of Master Mason on July 10.
Pen names
Twain used different pen names before deciding on "'Mark Twain". He signed humorous and imaginative sketches as "Josh" until 1863. Additionally, he used the pen name "Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass" for a series of humorous letters.[111]
He maintained that his primary pen name came from his years working on Mississippi riverboats, where two fathoms, a depth indicating safe water for passage of boat, was measured on the sounding line. Twain is an archaic term for "two", as in "The veil of the temple was rent in twain." [112] The riverboatman's cry was "mark twain" or, more fully, "by the mark twain", meaning "according to the mark [on the line], [the depth is] two [fathoms]," that is, "The water is 12 feet (3.7 m) deep and it is safe to pass."
Twain claimed that his famous pen name was not entirely his invention. In Life on the Mississippi, he wrote:
Captain Isaiah Sellers was not of literary turn or capacity, but he used to jot down brief paragraphs of plain practical information about the river, and sign them "MARK TWAIN," and give them to the New Orleans Picayune. They related to the stage and condition of the river, and were accurate and valuable; ... At the time that the telegraph brought the news of his death, I was on the Pacific coast. I was a fresh new journalist, and needed a nom de guerre; so I confiscated the ancient mariner's discarded one, and have done my best to make it remain what it was in his hands – a sign and symbol and warrant that whatever is found in its company may be gambled on as being the petrified truth; how I have succeeded, it would not be modest in me to say.[113]
Twain's story about his pen name has been questioned by biographer George Williams III,[114] the Territorial Enterprise newspaper,[115] and Purdue University's Paul Fatout.[116] The claim is that "mark twain" refers to a running bar tab that Twain would regularly incur while drinking at John Piper's saloon in Virginia City, Nevada.
Legacy
Twain's legacy lives on today as his namesakes continue to multiply. Several schools are named after him, including Mark Twain Elementary School in Wheeling, Illinois and Mark Twain Elementary School in Houston, Texas, which has a statue of Twain sitting on a bench. There is also Mark Twain Intermediate School in New York. There are several schools named Mark Twain Middle School in different states, as well as Samuel Clemens High School in Schertz, near San Antonio, Texas. There are also other structures, such as the Mark Twain Memorial Bridge.
Mark Twain Village is a United States Army installation located in the Südstadt district of Heidelberg, Germany. It is one of two American bases in the United States Army Garrison Heidelberg that house American soldiers and their families (the other being Patrick Henry Village).
Awards in his name proliferate. In 1998, The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts created the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor, awarded annually. The Mark Twain Award is an award given annually to a book for children in grades four through eight by the Missouri Association of School Librarians. Stetson University in DeLand, Florida sponsors the Mark Twain Young Authors' Workshop each summer in collaboration with the Mark Twain Boyhood Home & Museum in Hannibal. The program is open to young authors in grades five through eight.[117] The museum sponsors the Mark Twain Creative Teaching Award.[118]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Mark_Twain%27s_house%2C_front_view._-_NARA_-_516527.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Mark_Twain%27s_house%2C_front_view._-_NARA_-_516527.tif.jpg)
Buildings associated with Twain, including some of his many homes, have been preserved as museums. His birthplace is preserved in Florida, Missouri. The Mark Twain Boyhood Home & Museum in Hannibal, Missouri preserves the setting for some of the author's best known work. The home of childhood friend Laura Hawkins, said to be the inspiration for his fictional character Becky Thatcher, is preserved as the "Thatcher House." In May 2007, a painstaking reconstruction of the home of Tom Blankenship, the inspiration for Huckleberry Finn, was opened to the public. The family home he had built in Hartford, Connecticut, where he and his wife raised their three daughters, is preserved and open to visitors as the Mark Twain House.
Asteroid 2362 Mark Twain was named after him.
On December 4, 1985, the United States Postal Service issued a stamped envelope for "Mark Twain and Halley's Comet," noting the connection with Twain's birth, his death, and the comet.[119] On June 25, 2011, the Postal Service released a Forever stamp in his honor.[120]
Depictions
Twain is often depicted wearing a white suit. While there is evidence that suggests that, after Livy's death in 1904, Twain began wearing white suits on the lecture circuit, modern representations suggesting that he wore them throughout his life are unfounded. However, there is evidence of him wearing a white suit before 1904. In 1882, he sent a photograph of himself in a white suit to 18-year-old Edward W. Bok, later publisher of the Ladies Home Journal, with a handwritten dated note on verso. It did eventually become his trademark, as illustrated in anecdotes about this eccentricity (such as the time he wore a white summer suit to a Congressional hearing during the winter).[38] McMasters' The Mark Twain Encyclopedia states that Twain did not wear a white suit in his last three years, except at one banquet speech.[121]
Actor Hal Holbrook created a one-man show called Mark Twain Tonight, which he has performed regularly for about 69 years.[122] The broadcast by CBS in 1967 won him an Emmy Award. Of the three runs on Broadway (1966, 1977, and 2005), the first won him a Tony Award.
Twain was portrayed by Fredric March in the 1944 film The Adventures of Mark Twain. He was later brought to life by James Whitmore in the (similarly titled) 1985 Will Vinton Claymation film The Adventures of Mark Twain. In the two-part Star Trek: The Next Generation episode, "Time's Arrow Pt. 1 & 2", the crew of the starship Enterprise pursues malevolent alien lifeforms through a time portal to 1893 San Francisco, where their secretive actions arouse the suspicions of Samuel Clemens as played by Jerry Hardin.
Bibliography
See also
- American Literary Regionalism
- American realism
- Christian Science (essay)
- Bernard DeVoto (historian)
- List of premature obituaries
- Mark Twain's Library of Humor (anthology)
- Warsaw Signal (newspaper)
- Translation
- Thomas S. Hinde, friend who corresponded with Mark Twain throughout his life.
References
- ^ Ken Mills (Director) (July 21, 2009). The Cartoonist: Jeff Smith, BONE and the Changing Face of Comics (Documentary). Mills James Productions.
- ^ "The Mark Twain House Biography". Archived from the original on 2006-10-16. Retrieved 2006-10-24.
- ^ "Mark Twain remembered by Google with a doodle". The Times of India. 30 November 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
- ^ Thomson, David, In Nevada: The Land, The People, God, and Chance, New York: Vintage Books, 2000. ISBN 0-679-77758-X p. 35
- ^ Mark Twain, The Jumping Frog: In English, Then in French, and Then Clawed Back into a Civilized Language Once More by Patient, Unremunerated Toil, illustrated by F. Strothman, New York and London, Harper & Brothers, Publishers, MCMIII, pp. 64–66.
- ^ "Obituary (New York Times)". Retrieved 2009-12-27.
- ^ Jelliffe, Robert A. (1956). Faulkner at Nagano. Tokyo: Kenkyusha, Ltd.
- ^ "Inventing Mark Twain". 1997. New York Times.
- ^ Kaplan, Fred (October 2007). "Chapter 1: The Best Boy You Had 1835–1847". The Singular Mark Twain. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-47715-5.. Cited in "Excerpt: The Singular Mark Twain". About.com: Literature: Classic. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
- ^ "Mark Twain's Family Tree" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-01-01.
- ^ "Mark Twain, American Author and Humorist". Retrieved 2006-10-25.
- ^ Lindborg, Henry J. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Archived from the original on 2009-11-01. Retrieved 2006-11-11.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
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suggested) (help) - ^ "Mark Twain quotations – father – John Marshall Clemens". Twainquotes.com. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- ^ "The Hannibal and Saint Joseph Railroad". Abandoned Rails. 2010-10-08. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- ^ "John Marshall Clemens". State Historical Society of Missouri. Retrieved 2007-10-29.
- ^ Philip S. Foner, Mark Twain: Social Critic (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 13, cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in the International Socialist Review 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65, at [1]
- ^ Clark, Daniel G. (2002-01-14). "Betwixt and be Twain". Muscatinejournal.com. Retrieved 2012-02-07.
- ^ "Journal editorial: That other famous Muscatine resident". Muscatinejournal.com. 2010-02-25. Retrieved 2012-02-07.
- ^ Life on the Mississippi, chapter 15
- ^ Smith, Harriet Elinor, ed. (2010). Autobiography of Mark Twain: Volume 1. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26719-0.
- ^ For a further account of Twain's involvement with parapsychology, see Blum, Deborah, Ghost Hunters: William James and the Search for Scientific Proof of Life After Death" (Penguin Press, (2006).
- ^ J.r. Lemaster (1993). The Mark Twain Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. 147. ISBN 9780824072124.
- ^ a b "Mark Twain Biography". The Hannibal Courier-Post. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
- ^ Comstock Commotion: The Story of the Territorial Enterprise and Virginia City News, Chapter 2.
- ^ "Mark Twain quotations".
- ^ The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco. Samuel Dickson. Isadora Duncan (1878–1927). Retrieved on July 9, 2009.
- ^ a b "Samuel Clemens". PBS:The West. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
- ^ Mark Twain, Edgar Marquess Branch, Michael B. Frank, Kenneth M. Sanderson (1990-01-01). Mark Twain's Letters: 1867–1868. Books.google.com. ISBN 9780520906075.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Concerning Mark Twain". The Week : a Canadian journal of politics, literature, science and arts. 1 (11): 171. 14 Feb 1884. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f Scott, Helen (Winter 2000). "International Socialist Review". 10: 61–65.
{{cite journal}}
:|contribution=
ignored (help); Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "Mrs. Jacques Samossoud Dies; Mark Twain's Last Living Child; Released 'Letters From Earth'". New York Times. November 21, 1962.
San Diego, California, Nov. 20 (UPI) Mrs. Clara Langhorne Clemens Samossoud, the last living child of Mark Twain, died last night in Sharp Memorial Hospital. She was 88 years old.
{{cite news}}
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(help) - ^ a b "Twain's Home in Elmira". Elmira College Center for Mark Twain Studies. Retrieved May 1, 2011.
- ^ Hal Bush (Advent-Christmas 2010). "A Week at Quarry Farm". The Cresset, A review of literature, the arts, and public affairs, Valparaiso University. Retrieved May 1, 2011.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ J. Niemann, Paul (November 2004). Invention Mysteries (Invention Mysteries Series). Horsefeathers Publishing Company. pp. 53–54. ISBN 0-9748041-0-X.
- ^ Gonzalez, Robert. "The only existing video footage of Mark Twain, as filmed by Thomas Edison". io9. Retrieved 7 December 2013.
- ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
- ^ "Mark Twain House website – Paige Compositor page". Marktwainhouse.org. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Kirk, Connie Ann (2004). Mark Twain – A Biography. Connecticut: Greenwood Printing. ISBN 0-313-33025-5.
- ^ Lauber, John. The Inventions of Mark Twain: a Biography. New York: Hill and Wang, 1990.
- ^ Shillingsburg, M. "Smythe, Robert Sparrow (1833–1917)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7. ISSN 1833-7538. OCLC 70677943. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
- ^ Barbara Schmidt. "Chronology of Known Mark Twain Speeches, Public Readings, and Lectures". marktwainquotes.com. Retrieved February 7, 2010.
- ^ Cox, James M. Mark Twain: The Fate of Humor. Princeton University Press, 1966.
- ^ "History of Dollis Hill House". Dollis Hill House Trust. 2006. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
- ^ Judith Yaross Lee, "Mark Twain as a Stand-up Comedian," The Mark Twain Annual (2006) #4 pp 3–23
- ^ Paine, A. B., Mark Twain: A Biography, Harper, 1912 p. 1095
- ^ LeMaster J. R., The Mark Twain Encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, 1993 p. 50
- ^ "Mark Twain at Princeton". Twainquotes.com. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
- ^ "Chapters from My Autobiography", The North American Review, 21 September 1906, p. 160. Mark Twain
- ^ "The Mark Twain House". Archived from the original on 2006-10-16. Retrieved 2006-11-17.
- ^ TwainQuotes.com The Story Behind the A. F. Bradley Photos, Retrieved on July 10, 2009.
- ^ LeMaster J. R., The Mark Twain Encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, 1993 p. 28
- ^ New York Times, 16 March 1962, DOROTHY QUICK, POET AND AUTHOR: Mystery Writer Dies – Was Friend of Mark Twain
- ^ Albert Bigelow Paine. "Mark Twain, a Biography". Retrieved 2006-11-01.
- ^ Esther Lombardi, about.com. "Mark Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens)". Retrieved 2006-11-01.
- ^ "Mark Twain is Dead at 74. End Comes Peacefully at His New England Home After a Long Illness". The New York Times. April 22, 1910.
Danbury, Connecticut, April 21, 1910. Samuel Langhorne Clemens, "Mark Twain," died at 22 minutes after 6 to-night. Beside him on the bed lay a beloved book – it was Carlyle's " French Revolution" – and near the book his glasses, pushed away with a weary sigh a few hours before. Too weak to speak clearly, "Give me my glasses," he had written on a piece of paper.
{{cite news}}
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(help) - ^ "Mark Twain's funeral". Twainquotes.com. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
- ^ "Elmira Travel Information". Go-new-york.com. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- ^ http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60711F73F5517738DDDAC0994DF405B818DF1D3 "Mark Twain Estate About Half Million," New York Times, 1911-07-15. Retrieved 2014-05-08.
- ^ Baskin, R. N. (Robert Newton); Madsen, Brigham D. (2006). Reminiscences of early Utah : with, Reply to certain statements by O. F. Whitne. Salt Lake City: Signature Books. p. 281. ISBN 978-1-56085-193-6.
- ^ Gary Scharnhorst, ed. (November 28, 2010). Twain in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Drawn from Recollections, Interviews, and Memoirs by Family, Friends, and Associates (first ed.). University Of Iowa Press. p. 290. ISBN 978-1-58729-914-8.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ DeQuille, Dan; Twain, Mark (July 1893). "Reporting With Mark Twain". The Californian Illustrated Magazine.
- ^ "The Sagebrush School Nevada Writers Hall of Fame 2009". University of Nevada, Reno. October 28, 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
- ^ Reading the American Novel 1865 – 1914 G. R. Thompson; John Wiley & Sons, Feb 7, 2012; 462 pages; p. 29
- ^ Powers, Ron (2005). Mark Twain: A Life. New York: Free Press. pp. 471–473. ISBN 978-0-7432-4899-0.
- ^ from Chapter 1 of The Green Hills of Africa
- ^ "American Experience – People & Events: Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 1835–1910". PBS. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
- ^ a b Twain, Mark. Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses. From Collected Tales, Sketches, Speeches and Essays, from 1891–1910. Edited by Louis J. Budd. New York: Library of America, 1992.
- ^ Feinstein, George W (January 1948). "Twain as Forerunner of Tooth-and-Claw Criticism". Modern Language Notes. 63 (1): 49–50. doi:10.2307/2908644. JSTOR 2908644.
- ^ "After keeping us waiting for a century, Mark Twain will finally reveal all" The Independent 23 May 2010 Retrieved 29 May 2010
- ^ "Dead for a Century, He's Ready to Say What He Really Meant" The New York Times 9 July 2010. Retrieved 9 July 2010.
- ^ "Mark Twain's Big Book". NY Times. November 26, 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-27.
an enormous hit, apparently much to the surprise of its publisher
- ^ Schuessler, Jennifer. "Hardcover Nonfiction – List". NY Times.
- ^ Murray, Stuart A. P. “The Library: An Illustrated History.” New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2012, p. 189.
- ^ Frederick Anderson, ed., A Pen Warmed Up in Hell: Mark Twain in Protest (New York: Harper, 1972), p. 8, cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in International Socialist Review 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65
- ^ From Andrew Jay Hoffman, Inventing Mark Twain: The Lives of Samuel Langhorne Clemens (New York: William Morrow, 1997), cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in International Socialist Review 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65
- ^ David Zmijewski, "The Man in Both Corners: Mark Twain the Shadowboxing Imperialist," Hawaiian Journal of History, 2006, Vol. 40, pp. 55–73
- ^ quoted in Everett Emerson, The Authentic Mark Twain: A Literary Biography of Samuel L. Clemens (1984) p. 234
- ^ Paine, ed. Letters 2:663; Ron Powers, Mark Twain: a life (2005) p. 593
- ^ a b Mark Twain's Weapons of Satire: Anti-Imperialist Writings on the Philippine-American War. (1992, Jim Zwick, ed.) ISBN 0-8156-0268-5
- ^ Adam Hochschild (1998). King Leopold's ghost : a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-75924-0. OCLC 39042794.
- ^ Jeremy Harding (September 20, 1998). "Into Africa". New York Times.
- ^ Maxwell Geismar, ed., Mark Twain and the Three Rs: Race, Religion, Revolution and Related Matters (Indianapolis: Bobs-Merrill, 1973), p. 169, cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in International Socialist Review 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65
- ^ Maxwell Geismar, ed., Mark Twain and the Three Rs: Race, Religion, Revolution and Related Matters (Indianapolis: Bobs-Merrill, 1973), p. 159
- ^ Philip S. Foner, Mark Twain: Social Critic (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 200
- ^ Maxwell Geismar, ed., Mark Twain and the Three Rs: Race, Religion, Revolution and Related Matters (Indianapolis: Bobs-Merrill, 1973), p. 98
- ^ Paine, A. B., Mark Twain: A Biography, Harper, 1912 p. 701
- ^ "Mark Twain, Indian Hater". Blue Corn Comics. 2001-05-28. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
- ^ Twain, Mark, In defense of Harriet Shelley and Other Essays, Harper & Brothers, 1918. p. 68
- ^ Twain, Mark. 2008. Following the Equator. pp. 94–98
- ^ "Mark Twain in India". Amritt. 2009.
- ^ "The Votes for Women Speech by Mark Twain". Famousquotes.me.uk. 2007-05-25. Retrieved 2009-10-16.
- ^ Philip S. Foner, Mark Twain: Social Critic (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 98
- ^ Philip S. Foner, Mark Twain: Social Critic (New York: International Publishers, 1958), p. 169, cited in Helen Scott's "The Mark Twain they didn't teach us about in school" (2000) in International Socialist Review 10, Winter 2000, pp. 61–65
- ^ "Mark Twain Quotations – Vivisection". Retrieved 2006-10-24.
- ^ Huberman, Jack (2007). The Quotable Atheist. Nation Books. pp. 303–304. ISBN 978-1-56025-969-5.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Dempsey, Terrell, BOOK REVIEW: Mark Twain's Religion. William E. Phipps 2004 Mark Twain Forum
- ^ Twain, Mark, ed. by Paul Baender. 1973. What is man?: and other philosophical writings. p. 56
- ^ Phipps, William E., Mark Twain's Religion, pp. 263–266, 2003 Mercer Univ. Press
- ^ Twain, Mark, ed. by Paul Baender. 1973. What is man?: and other philosophical writings. pp.10, 486
- ^ Mark Twain, "To the Person Sitting in Darkness," The North American Review 182:531 (February 1901):161–176; AntiImperialist.com
- ^ Mark Twain, "To My Missionary Critics," The North American Review 172 (April 1901):520–534; AntiImperialist.com
- ^ Gelb, Arthur (August 24, 1962). "Anti-Religious Work by Twain, Long Withheld, to Be Published". The New York Times. p. 23. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2008-04-22.
- ^ Twain, Mark (1972). "Little Bessie". In John S. Tuckey (ed.), Kenneth M. Sanderson (ed.), Bernard L. Stein (ed.), Frederick Anderson (ed.) (ed.). Mark Twain's Fables of Man. California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02039-9.
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ^ "Church Aided by Twain Is in a Demolition Dispute". The New York Times. Associated Press. April 2, 2006. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
- ^ a b Paine, Albert Bigelow, The Adventures of Mark Twain, p. 281, Kessinger 2004
- ^ Goy-Blanquet, Dominique, Joan of Arc, a saint for all reasons: studies in myth and politics, p. 132, 2003 Ashgate Publishing
- ^ Phipps, William E., Mark Twain's Religion, p. 304, 2003 Mercer Univ. Press
- ^ PBS NewsHour (July 7, 2010). "Mark Twain's Autobiography Set for Unveiling, a Century After His Death". Retrieved July 7, 2010.
- ^ "Grand Master of Missouri Lecture".
- ^ "Mark Twain Masonic Awareness Award: About The Award".
- ^ Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass, (Charles Honce, James Bennet, ed.), Pascal Covici, Chicago, 1928
- ^ "Matthew 27:51 At that moment the curtain of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom. The earth shook, the rocks split". Bible.cc. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
- ^ Life on the Mississippi, chapter 50
- ^ Williams, III, George (1999). "Mark Twain Leaves Virginia City for San Francisco". Mark Twain and the Jumping Frog of Calaveras County: How Mark Twain's humorous frog story launched his legendary career. Tree By The River Publishing. ISBN 0-935174-45-1. Cited in "Excerpt: The Singular Mark Twain". Retrieved 2007-06-26.
- ^ "Origin of Twain's Name Revealed". Territorial-enterprise.com. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- ^ "Mark Twain's Nom de Plume." American Literature, v 34, n 1 (March, 1962), pp 1–7. doi:10.2307/2922241.
- ^ The First Annual Mark Twain Young Authors Workshop. Stetson University.
- ^ "The Mark Twain Boyhood Home Museum: Education". Marktwainmuseum.org. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
- ^ Scott Specialized Catalog of U.S. Stamps & Covers, various editions, catalogue number UC60, issued in Hannibal MO
- ^ Allen Pierleoni (June 26, 2011). "Postal Service unveils a Forever stamp of Mark Twain". The Sacramento Bee.
- ^ Lemaster, J. R; Wilson, James Darrell; Hamric, Christie Graves (1993). The Mark Twain encyclopedia. Books.google.com. ISBN 978-0-8240-7212-4. Retrieved 2009-10-16.
- ^ Malia Wollan (January 24, 2011). "Mark Twain. Now a Career for the Mustachioed". New York Times.
... has played Twain going on 57 years, longer than Samuel Langhorne Clemens did.
Further reading
- Lucius Beebe. Comstock Commotion: The Story of the Territorial Enterprise and Virginia City News. Stanford University Press, 1954 ISBN 1-122-18798-X
- Louis J. Budd, ed. Mark Twain, Collected Tales, Sketches, Speeches & Essays 1891–1910 (Library of America, 1992) (ISBN 978-0-940450-73-8)
- Ken Burns, Dayton Duncan, and Geoffrey C. Ward, Mark Twain: An Illustrated Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001 (ISBN 0-375-40561-5)
- Gregg Camfield. The Oxford Companion to Mark Twain. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0-19-510710-1)
- Guy Cardwell, ed. Mark Twain, Mississippi Writings (Library of America, 1982) (ISBN 978-0-940450-07-3)
- Guy Cardwell, ed. Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad & Roughing It (Library of America, 1984) ISBN 978-0-940450-25-7
- James M. Cox. Mark Twain: The Fate of Humor. Princeton University Press, 1966 (ISBN 0-8262-1428-2)
- Everett Emerson. Mark Twain: A Literary Life. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-8122-3516-9)
- Shelley Fisher Fishkin, ed. A Historical Guide to Mark Twain. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0-19-513293-9)
- Susan K. Harris, ed. Mark Twain, Historical Romances (Library of America, 1994) (ISBN 978-0-940450-82-0)
- Hamlin L. Hill, ed. Mark Twain, The Gilded Age and Later Novels (Library of America, 2002) ISBN 978-1-931082-10-5
- Jason Gary Horn. Mark Twain: A Descriptive Guide to Biographical Sources. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1999 (ISBN 0-8108-3630-0)
- William Dean Howells. My Mark Twain. Mineloa, New York: Dover Publications, 1997 (ISBN 0-486-29640-7)
- Fred Kaplan. The Singular Mark Twain: A Biography. New York: Doubleday, 2003 (ISBN 0-385-47715-5)
- Justin Kaplan. Mr. Clemens and Mark Twain: A Biography. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966 (ISBN 0-671-74807-6)
- J. R. LeMaster and James D. Wilson, eds. The Mark Twain Encyclopedia. New York: Garland, 1993 (ISBN 0-8240-7212-X)
- Jerome Loving, Mark Twain: The Adventures of Samuel L. Clemens (University of California Press; 2010) 491 pages, ISBN 978-0-520-25257-8; Draws on newly discovered archival materials in a detailed biography
- Bruce Michelson. Mark Twain on the Loose. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1995 (ISBN 0-87023-967-8)
- K. Patrick Ober. Mark Twain and Medicine: "Any Mummery Will Cure." Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-8262-1502-5)
- Albert Bigelow Paine. Mark Twain, A Biography: The Personal and Literary Life of Samuel Langhorne Clemens. Harper & Bros., 1912. ISBN 1-84702-983-3
- Ron Powers. Dangerous Water: A Biography of the Boy Who Became Mark Twain. New York: Da Capo Press, 1999. ISBN 0-306-81086-7
- Ron Powers. Mark Twain: A Life. New York: Random House, 2005. (ISBN 0-7432-4899-6)
- R. Kent Rasmussen. Critical Companion to Mark Twain: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work. Facts On File, 2007. Revised edition of Mark Twain A to Z ISBN 0-8160-6225-0
- R. Kent Rasmussen, ed. The Quotable Mark Twain: His Essential Aphorisms, Witticisms and Concise Opinions. Contemporary Books, 1997 ISBN 0-8092-2987-0
- Anonymous (1873). Cartoon portraits and biographical sketches of men of the day. Illustrated by Frederick Waddy. London: Tinsley Brothers. p. 122. Retrieved 2011-03-13.
- Radavich, David. "Twain, Howells, and the Origins of Midwestern Drama." MidAmerica XXXI (2004): 25–42.
External links
- Mark Twain at Curlie
- Works by Mark Twain
- Autobiography of Mark Twain, Volume 1, 2010 - Free Online - Mark Twain Project Online
- Autobiography of Mark Twain, Volume 2, 2013 - Free Online - Mark Twain Project Online
- 38 Facsimile copies of 1st editions
- Works by Mark Twain at Project Gutenberg. More than 60 texts are freely available.
- Template:Worldcat id
- Public domain audiobooks from LibriVox
- Mark Twain's letters ed. by Albert Bigelow Paine (2 vol 1917) vol 2 online
- Mark Twain Library, University of California Press. This series re-prints texts from the Papers and Works for students and the general reader.
- The Works of Mark Twain, University of California Press. This series prints authoritative critical editions of Mark Twain's published works.
- Mark Twain Papers, University of California Press. This series publishes Mark Twain's private papers – his letters, notebooks, unpublished literary works, and autobiography.
- Jumping Frogs: Undiscovered, Rediscovered, and Celebrated Writings of Mark Twain, University of California Press. The Jumping Frogs series of books brings neglected Mark Twain treasures—stories, tall tales, novels, travelogues, plays, imaginative journalism, speeches, sketches, satires, burlesques, and much more—to readers.
- A True Story, Repeated Word for Word As I Heard It from The Atlantic Monthly. Nov. 1874: 591–594. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Co.
- Academic studies
- The Mark Twain Papers and Project of the Bancroft Library, University of California Berkeley. Home to the largest archive of Mark Twain's papers and the editors of a critical edition of all of his writings.
- Mark Twain Room at Buffalo & Erie County Public Library, which houses the manuscript of Huckleberry Finn
- Mark Twain Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin
- Life
- Full text of the biography Mark Twain by Archibald Henderson
- Obituary in San Francisco Call
- Mark Twain's Mississippi at Northern Illinois University Libraries
- Mark Twain at C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
- Other
- Literary Pilgrimages – Mark Twain sites
- PBS Twain Interactive Scrapbook and San Francisco Chronicle article documenting that Clemens did not say "The coldest winter I ever spent was summer in San Francisco."
- The Fountain Pens used by Mark Twain
- Images of First Appearances of Mark Twain Works
- article and rare pictures of Mark Twain and photographer Napoleon Sarony
- Google map with placemarks for places in America associated with Twain
- Mark Twain Original Manuscripts from 1862–1909 Shapell Manuscript Foundation
- A film clip of Mark Twain is available for viewing at the Internet Archive
- Mark Twain
- 1835 births
- 1910 deaths
- Alternate history writers
- American autobiographers
- American humorists
- American memoirists
- American satirists
- American short story writers
- American travel writers
- American male writers
- 19th-century American writers
- Pseudonymous writers
- Writers from Connecticut
- Writers from Missouri
- Writers from Nevada
- Writers from the San Francisco Bay Area
- 20th-century American novelists
- 19th-century American novelists
- American people of Cornish descent
- American Presbyterians
- Clemens family
- Confederate States Army soldiers
- Critics of Christian Science
- Critics of religions
- Holy Land travellers
- Lecturers
- People of the Philippine–American War
- People of the California Gold Rush
- People of Missouri in the American Civil War
- People from Elmira, New York
- People from Hannibal, Missouri
- People from Monroe County, Missouri
- People from St. Louis, Missouri
- Sagebrush School
- Redding, Connecticut