Macedonian language: Difference between revisions
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== History == |
== History == |
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{{main|History of the Macedonian language}} |
{{main|History of the Macedonian language}} |
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The region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and the [[Republic of Macedonia]] are located on the [[Balkan peninsula]]. The Slavs first came to the Balkan Peninsula in the sixth and seventh centuries. In the ninth century, the |
The region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and the [[Republic of Macedonia]] are located on the [[Balkan peninsula]]. The Slavs first came to the Balkan Peninsula in the sixth and seventh centuries. In the ninth century, the Byzantine monks [[Saint Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius]] developed the first writing system for the Slavonic languages. At this time, the Slavic dialects were so close as to make it practical to develop the written language on the dialect of a single region. There is dispute as to the precise region, but it is likely that they were developed in the region around [[Thessaloniki]]. |
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In the fourteenth century, the Ottoman Turks invaded and conquered most of the Balkans, incorporating Macedonia into the [[Ottoman Empire]]. While the written language, now called [[Old Church Slavonic]], remained static as a result of Turkish domination, the spoken dialects moved further apart. Only very slight traces of written Macedonian survive from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. {{ref|lunt1953a}} |
In the fourteenth century, the Ottoman Turks invaded and conquered most of the Balkans, incorporating Macedonia into the [[Ottoman Empire]]. While the written language, now called [[Old Church Slavonic]], remained static as a result of Turkish domination, the spoken dialects moved further apart. Only very slight traces of written Macedonian survive from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. {{ref|lunt1953a}} |
Revision as of 17:17, 16 July 2006
This article needs additional citations for verification. |
- This article is about the Slavic language. For the non-Slavic language spoken in the ancient world, see Ancient Macedonian language.
Macedonian | |
---|---|
Македонски, Makedonski | |
Native to | Republic of Macedonia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and in the ethnic Macedonian diaspora. |
Region | The Balkans |
Native speakers | 2 million (approximately) [1] |
Indo-European
| |
Official status | |
Official language in | Republic of Macedonia |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | mk |
ISO 639-2 | mac (B) mkd (T) |
ISO 639-3 | mkd |
The Macedonian language (Македонски, Makedonski) is a language in the Eastern group of South Slavic languages and is the official language of the Republic of Macedonia. It is also officially recognized in the District of Korçë in Albania. Macedonian is also spoken in Serbia, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, and in the Macedonian diaspora in Western Europe, North America and Australia.
Macedonian is closely related to Standard Bulgarian. It also has some similarities with standard Serbian and is closest to the intermediate Torlakian dialect spoken mostly in southern Serbia and in western Bulgaria. Both Bulgarian and the Macedonian language share typological similarities with Romanian, Greek, and Albanian. These five languages make up the Balkan language league, even though the last three are from different language families (Romanian is a Romance language, while Greek and Albanian comprise their own branches in the Indo-European family).
Along with Bulgarian, Macedonian is the only Slavic language not to use noun cases (except for vocative) and to have a definite article.
Classification and related languages
The Macedonian language belongs to the eastern sub-branch of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The closest relative of Macedonian is Bulgarian, spoken in Bulgaria, parts of the Republic of Macedonia, Greece and Turkey. Bulgarian and Macedonian properly form a dialect continuum, with the Bulgarian standard being based on the more eastern dialects, and the Macedonian standard being based on the more western dialects. Macedonian is largely mutually intelligible with both Bulgarian and south-eastern dialects of Serbian, notably the Torlakian dialects, which are also spoken in western Bulgaria. Concerning these latter dialects, it should be mentioned that some linguists, mostly Bulgarian, have classified them as Bulgarian on typological grounds, although the Torlakian speaking region in Serbia (not to be confused with the so-called Bulgarian Western Outlands in Serbia) has never been claimed by Bulgaria as an ethnic Bulgarian territory. Serbian linguists insist that they are dialects of Serbian. They have a higher degree of mutual intelligibility with standard Bulgarian than with standard Serbian [citation needed]. Following that, the next closest languages are the languages formerly known as Serbo-Croatian. Macedonian is also a constituent language of the Balkan Sprachbund, a group of languages which share grammatical and lexical features based on geographical, rather than genetic proximity.
Geographical distribution
The population of the Republic of Macedonia was 2,022,547 in 2002, with 1,344,815 speaking Macedonian as the native language [2]. Outside of the Republic, there are Macedonians living in other parts of the geographical area of Macedonia. There are ethnic Macedonian minorities in neighbouring Albania, in Bulgaria and in Greece. In Bulgaria the number of people professing the Macedonian language in the last census was 3,518 [3]. In Greece, although groups may be considered to be speaking dialects heteronomous with standard Macedonian, they do not all identify their language with their national identity. The Slavic speaking minority in Greece varies on how it describes its language - most describe it as Slavic and proclaim a Greek national identity, although there are smaller groups, some of which describe it as Macedonian and espouse an ethnic Macedonian national identity, and some who describe it as Bulgarian and espouse a Bulgarian national identity. Some prefer to identify as dopii and their dialect as dopia which mean local or indigenous in Greek [4].
A large number of Macedonians live outside the traditional Macedonian region in the Balkans, with Australia, Canada and the USA having the largest emigrant communities. According to a 1964 estimate, the number of Macedonians living outside of the Republic of Macedonia numbers approximately 580,000. [5]. The Macedonian spoken by communities outside the republic dates back to before the standardisation of the language and retains many dialectic though, overall, mutually intelligible variations.
The Macedonian language has the status of official language only within the Republic of Macedonia. The language is taught in some universities in Albania, Canada, Croatia, Russia, Serbia and the United Kingdom among other countries.
Dialects
Based on a large group of features, the Macedonian dialects can be divided into Eastern and Western groups (the boundary runs approximately from Skopje and Crna Gora along the rivers Vardar and Crna). In addition, a more detailed classification can be based on the modern reflexes of the Proto-Slavonic reduced vowels ("yers"), vocalic sonorants and the back nasal (o). That classification distinguishes between the following six groups:
- North (Tetovo, Skopje Crna Gora, Kumanovo-Kriva Palanka)
- Peripheral (Gostivar, Ohrid-Prespa, Kostur-Korca, Lower Vardar)
- West Central (Prilep, Kicevo, Bitola, Lerin)
- East Central (Tikves-Mariovo, Stip-Strumica, Malesevo-Pirin) -
- Debar
- Serres-Nevrokop.
It must be noted that the Seres-Nevrokop group is in fact located mostly outside of the republic of Macedonia (in Greece and Bulgaria, respectively) and hence its identification as a group of Macedonian dialects is an especially controversial issue. Bulgarian linguists regard both as dialects of Bulgarian [6].
Variation in vowels
The vocalic inventories of the West Central dialects consist of five vowels, /a, e, i, o, u/. Most of the remaining dialects also have phonemic /ə/. In addition, phonemic /å/, /ä/, and /ü/ and vocalic /l/ and /r/ occur in various dialects.
Most dialects have /e/ from original ě (yat), but the Eastern region is characterized by the development of ě to /a/ after /c/: Eastern cal, Western cel (whole). Besides that, in easternmost Greek Macedonia and the Blagoevgrad Province of Bulgaria ě gives /a/ or /ä/ under stress. In the dialects of Greek Macedonia, that happens regardless of the environment, whereas the dialects of the Blagoevgrad province have (just like standard Bulgarian) /'a/ if there is a back vowel in the following syllable, and /e/ if there is a front vowel. For example, 'white' (sing. - plur.) sounds in the following way in these dialects: Serres-Drama: b'ala - b'ali, Suho and Visoka: b'äla - b'äli, Nevrokop: b'ala - beli. In Korca, ě gives /iä/ under stress.
Variation in consonants
As far as consonantal features are concerned, the entire Western region is distinguished from the East by loss of /x/ (except Tetovo, Gora and Korca) and the loss of /v/ in intervocalic position (except Mala Reka and parts of Kostur-Korca): glava (head) = gla, glavi (heads) = glaj. The Eastern region preserves /x/ (except Tikves-Mariovo and Kumanovo-Kriva Palanka) and intervocalic /v/. The East is also characterised by the development of prothetic /v/ before original o where the West has prothetic /j/: Eastern vaglen (coal) but Western jaglen. The diphonemic reflexes are most characteristic of the dialects of Greek Macedonia and Blagoevgrad province, Kostur-Korca and Ohrid-Prespa. The Seres-Nevrokop dialects have a series of phonemically palatalised consonants.
Variation in word stress and its effects on vowels
The Western dialects generally have fixed stress, antepenultimate in the Republic of Macedonia, and penultimate in Greece and Albania. The Eastern region, along with the neighbouring Bulgarian dialects, has various non-fixed stress systems. In Lower Vardar and Seres-Nevrokop unstressed /a, e, o/ are reduced (raised) to /ə, i, u/. The reduction of unstressed vowels (as well as the aforementioned allophonic palatalisation of consonants) is characterisic of East Bulgarian as opposed to West Bulgarian dialects, so these dialects are regarded by Bulgarian linguists as transitional between East and West Bulgarian [7].
Phonology
The phoneme inventory of standard literary Macedonian contains 31 phonemes. These consist of five vowels, one semivowel, three liquid consonants (which are also called "semivowels" by Lunt 1952) three nasal consonants, three pairs of fricatives, two pairs of affricates, a non-paired voiceless fricative, nine pairs of voiced and unvoiced consonants and four pairs of stops [8].
Vowels
Macedonian vowels | |||
---|---|---|---|
Front | Central | Back | |
High | и /i/ | у /u/ | |
Mid | е /ɛ/ | о /ɔ/ | |
Low | а /a/ |
In addition the schwa /ə/ may appear in certain dialects or loanwords.
Consonants
Consonant Phonemes of Macedonian | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bilabial | Labio- Dental |
Dental | Alveolar | Post- Alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | ||||||||
Plosives | p | b | t | d | c | ɟ | k | g | ||||||
Nasals | m | n | ɲ | |||||||||||
Fricatives | f | v | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | x | |||||||
Affricates | ʦ | ʣ | tʃ | dʒ | ||||||||||
Approximants | j | |||||||||||||
Trills | r | |||||||||||||
Laterals | ł | l |
At the end of a word, the 'voiced — voiceless' opposition is neutralised and all consonants are pronounced as voiceless.
In cases when /r/ is syllabic, the sign ' is used before the letter 'Р'. For example: 'рж ('rzh), за'ржи (za'rzhi), 'рт ('rt), 'рбет ('rbet), 'ркулец ('rkulec) etc.
Neither Lunt (1952) nor Friedman (2001) recognise the existence of a palatalised (/lʲ/) or palatal (/ʎ/) lateral in standard Macedonian. That is in contrast with the surrounding related languages (Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian language). Instead, a /lj/ sequence is supposed to occur (except in rapid speech). Both of these scholars also assert that there is a phonemic contrast between the velarised lateral /ł/ and the nonvelarised /l/. While they admit that /ł/ and /l/ (both written 'л') occur mainly before front and non-front vowels, respectively, they state that, at least in the prescribed norm (Friedman 2001) or in some words (Lunt 1952), /l/ (written 'љ') may also occur before non-front vowels. Hence minimal pairs like бела /beła/ "white, feminine" vs беља /bela/ "trouble" are believed to exist.
Word stress
The word stress in Macedonian is antepenultimate, meaning it falls on the third from last syllable in words with three or more syllables, and on the first or only syllable in other words. This is sometimes disregarded when the word has entered the language more recently and from a foreign source. For example: Meнаџмент (Management) is pronounced /mɛnadʒ'mɛnt/ with the stress falling on the last syllable.
Example: планина /'planina/; планината /pla'ninata/; планинарите /plani'narite/ etc.
Grammar
As with the Bulgarian language, the grammar of Macedonian is markedly analytic in comparison with other Slavic languages, having lost the common Slavic case system. The Macedonian language shows some special and in some cases unique characteristics due to its central position in the Balkans.
Literary Macedonian is the only South Slavic literary language that has three forms of the definite article, based on the degree of proximity to the speaker, and a past tense formed with "to have" and a neuter past passive participle.
Both double object and mediative (sometimes referred to as renarrative or admirative) mood are also found in the Bulgarian language, although the use of double object is much more restricted in the Bulgarian standard (see also Bulgarian syntax).
Nouns
Definiteness (article)
The article is postfixed, as in Bulgarian, Albanian and Romanian. One feature that has no parallel in other standard Balkan languages is the existence of three definite articles pertaining to position of the object, unspecified, proximate (or close) and distal (or distant). Bulgarian only has the basic (unspecified) form, although three definite article forms also exist in certain Bulgarian dialects, notably the vernaculars of Tran and parts of the Rhodopes [9].
The definite articles | |||
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Distance | ||
Unspecified | Close (this) | Distant (that) | |
Masculine (Singular) | -от [-ot] | -ов [-ov] | -он [-on] |
Feminine (Singular) | -та [-ta] | -ва [-va] | -на [-na] |
Neuter (Singular) | -то [-to] | -во [-vo] | -но [-no] |
Masculine and Feminine (Plural) | -те [-te] | -ве [-ve] | -не [-ne] |
Neuter (Plural) | -тa [-ta] | -вa [-va] | -нa [-na] |
Examples
- книга (kniga) - a book
- книгата (knigata) - the book
- книгава (knigava) - this book; the book over here
- книгана (knigana) - that book; the book over there
- книги (knigi) - books
- книгите (knigite) - the books
- книгиве (knigive) - these books; the books over here
- книгине (knigine) - those books; the books over there
Gender and number
Nouns in Macedonian have gender -masculine, feminine and neuter and inflect for number. The gender opposition does not exist in the plural [10]. Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify.
Verbs
Perfect tense
In Macedonian the perfect tense is formed by a clitic which agrees in number and gender with the object of the sentence, followed by има "to have", and the passive participle of the verb in its uninflected form. This is common in Germanic and Romance languages, along with other languages in the Balkan Sprachbund, such as Albanian and Greek. For example, the sentence "I have read the book" reads:
Ја | имам | прочитано | книгата |
Ja | imam | pročitano | knigata |
It (clitic) | I have | read | book the |
- I have read the book
In contrast, in other Slavic languages that have the perfect tense, it is almost universally built with the verb "to be" and a past active participle; that is also an option in Macedonian. The older common Slavic form with сум "to be" is predominant in the east of the country, while the form with "to have" is more widespread in the west, but has spread in the younger generations due to the influence of the standard language [11]. The sentence "I have seen" reads:
New perfect | Old perfect |
имам видено | сум видел |
imam videno | sum videl |
Being replaced by the new construction, the "old perfect" tends to become an expression of the renarrative mood (aka nonconfirmative status) in Western Macedonia and in the standard language.
Future tense
The future tense is formed by means of the clitic ќе and an inflected present tense form of the verb. Thus, "I will come" reads:
ќе | доjдам |
ќe | dojdam |
will (clitic) | I come (perfective aspect) |
- I will come.
In this respect, both Macedonian and Bulgarian differ from other Slavic languages. In Macedonian, as in other Balkan Sprachbund languages (Bulgarian, Greek and Albanian) the clitic is fixed, whereas in Serbo-Croatian it inflects for person and number [12]. In both cases the clitic is derived from a verb meaning "to want".
Future-in-the-past is expressed by means of the same clitic and a past tense inflected form of the verb:
ќе | доjдеше |
ќe | dojdeše |
will (clitic) | he came (imperfective aspect) |
- He would come/he would have come.
In this respect, Macedonian is different from Bulgarian: Macedonian is consistent in the use of ќе as a clitic, whereas the equivalent Bulgarian construction involves the inflection of the clitic for tense, person and number as a regular verb (щях да дойда - št'ah da dojda - I would [have] come; щеше да дойде - šteše da dojde - he would [have] come).
Syntax
The canonical word order of Macedonian is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO).
Vocabulary
As a result of the close relatedness with Bulgarian, Macedonian shares a large percentage of its lexicon with this language. Other languages which have been in positions of power, such as Serbian, Turkish and increasingly English also provide a significant proportion of the loan words. Prestige languages, such as Old Church Slavonic and Russian also provided a lexical source.
During the standardisation process, there was deliberate care taken to try and purify the lexicon of the language. "Serbisms" and "Bulgarisms", which had become common due to the influence of these languages in the region were rejected in favour of words from native dialects and archaisms. One example being the word for "event", nastan which was found in certain examples of folk poetry. The Bulgarian and Serbian words that had been in common use were sobitie and dogagaj respectively. This is not to say that there are no Serbisms or Bulgarisms in the language, but rather they were discouraged on a principle of "seeking native material first" [13].
Writing system
The Macedonian alphabet, as any Slavic Cyrillic alphabet, is ultimately based on the Cyrillic alphabet of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius; it is an adaptation of Vuk Karadžić's phonetic alphabet, which is the official alphabet of the Serbian language. It is different from Serbian Cyrillic in letters Ќ and Ѓ (which have distinct phonetic value from their Serbian counterparts Ћ and Ђ), while Dze (Ѕ, ѕ) is a unique letter preserved from Old Church Slavonic in Macedonian Cyrillic.
History
The region of Macedonia and the Republic of Macedonia are located on the Balkan peninsula. The Slavs first came to the Balkan Peninsula in the sixth and seventh centuries. In the ninth century, the Byzantine monks Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius developed the first writing system for the Slavonic languages. At this time, the Slavic dialects were so close as to make it practical to develop the written language on the dialect of a single region. There is dispute as to the precise region, but it is likely that they were developed in the region around Thessaloniki.
In the fourteenth century, the Ottoman Turks invaded and conquered most of the Balkans, incorporating Macedonia into the Ottoman Empire. While the written language, now called Old Church Slavonic, remained static as a result of Turkish domination, the spoken dialects moved further apart. Only very slight traces of written Macedonian survive from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. [14]
During the increase of national consciousness in the Balkans, standards for the languages of Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian were created. As Turkish influence in Macedonia waned, schools were opened up that taught the Bulgarian standard language in areas with significant Bulgarian population. (see Demographic History of Macedonia)
In 1845 the Russian scholar Viktor Grigorovič travelled in the Balkans in order to study the south Slavic dialects of Macedonia. His work announced to the world for the first time the existence of two separate Bulgarian dialects: Eastern and Western. According to his findings, the Western Bulgarian variety, spoken in Macedonia, was characterized by traces of Old Slavic nasal vowels [15]. It wasn't until the works of Krste Misirkov that parts of what had been regarded as West Bulgarian dialects were defined as a separate 'Macedonian' language. Misirkov was born in a village near Pella in Greek Macedonia. Although literature had been written in the Slavic dialects of Macedonia before, arguably the most important book published in relation to the Macedonian language was Misirkov's On Macedonian Matters, published in 1903. In that book, he argued for the creation of a standard literary Macedonian language from the central dialects of Macedonia which would use a phonetic orthography.
After the first two Balkan wars, the region of Macedonia was split between Greece, Bulgaria and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia occupied the area that is currently the Republic of Macedonia incorporating it into the Kingdom as "Southern Serbia". During this time, the language of public life, education and the church was Serbo-Croatian. In the other two states, Greece and Bulgaria, the respective national languages were imposed, in Bulgaria, the local dialects were described as dialects of Bulgarian.
During the second World War, Macedonia was occupied by the Bulgarians, who were allied with the Axis. The Bulgarian language was reintroduced in schools and liturgies. The Bulgarians were initially welcomed as "liberators" from Serbian domination. Although as a result of unpopular assimilation policies, reminiscent to an extent of Serbian assimilation policies since the first World War, they were quickly seen as "conquerers".
There were a number of groups fighting the Bulgarian occupying force, some advocating independence and others union with Bulgaria. The eventual outcome was that the Vardar Banovina was incorporated into the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a constituent Socialist Republic with the Macedonian language holding official status within both the Federation and Republic. The Macedonian language was proclaimed the official language of the Republic of Macedonia at the First Session of the Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia, held on August 2, 1944. One of the most important contributors in the standardisation of the Macedonian literary language was Blaže Koneski. The first document written in the literary standard Macedonian language is the first issue of the Nova Makedonia newspaper in 1944.
Examples
Оче наш кој си на небото,
да се свети името Твое,
да дојде царството Твое,
да биде волјата Твоја,
како на небото така и на Земјата.
Лебот наш, насушен, дај ни го денес,
и прости ни ги долговите наши,
како што им ги проштеваме и ние на нашите должници.
И не воведувај не во искушение,
но избави не од лукавиот.
Амин!
Latin transliteriation:
Oche nash koj si na neboto,
da se sveti imeto Tvoe,
da dojde carstvoto Tvoe,
da bide voljata Tvoja,
kako na neboto taka i na Zemjata.
Lebot nash, nasushen, daj ni go denes,
i prosti ni gi dolgovite nashi,
kako shto im gi proshtevame i nie na nashite dolzhnici.
I ne voveduvaj ne vo iskushenie,
no izbavi ne od lukaviot.
Amin!
Political views on the language
As with the issue of Macedonian ethnicity, the politicians, linguists and common people from Macedonia and neighbouring countries have opposing views about the existence and distinctiveness of the Macedonian language.
According to the Macedonian view, now prevalent and official in the books in Republic of Macedonia, Macedonian was the first official language of the Slavs, thanks to the Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius's introduction of Slavic literacy language through the Glagolitic script, that was based on the Southern Macedonian dialect of Thessaloniki [16].
Bulgaria recognised the Macedonian language between 1944 and 1948, the date of the Tito-Stalin split [17]. This date also coincided with the first references efforts of Bulgarian linguists to the Serbianisation of the Macedonian language [18]. Although Bulgaria was the first country to recognise the independence of the Republic of Macedonia, it has since refused to recognise the existence of a separate Macedonian nation and a separate Macedonian language. Serbia gradually accepted both, although extreme nationalistic views still exist.
Both Bulgarian and Serbian nationalist commentators and linguists have attempted to pronounce Macedonian as merely a dialect of their own respective languages. Although described as being dialects of Bulgarian prior to the establishment of the standard, the current academic consensus outside Bulgaria and Serbia is that Macedonian is an autonomous language within the South Slavic dialect continuum [19].
Naming dispute
The language is occasionally referred to as Macedonian Slavic, usually in a Greek context. The name of the language is considered offensive by many Greeks, who assert that the ancient Macedonian language is the only "Macedonian language" and that it was a northern Greek dialect. Although Greeks do not generally participate in the language-versus-dialect dispute, they object to the use of the "Macedonian" name in reference to the modern language, calling it "Slavomacedonian" or "Skopian", which are considered pejorative terms by Macedonians.
See also
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png)
- Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache
- Balkan linguistic union
- Bulgarian language
- Common phrases in Macedonian
- Macedonian alphabet
- Romanisation of Macedonian
- Slavic language (Greece)
- Sociolinguistics
- Swadesh list of Macedonian words
- Torlakian dialect
Notes
- ^ Although the precise number of speakers is unknown, figures of between 1.6 million [20] and 2-2.5 million have been cited, see Topolinjska (1998) and Friedman (1985). The general academic consensus is that there are approximately 2 million speakers of the Macedonian language, accepting that "it is difficult to determine the total number of speakers of Macedonian due to the official policies of the neighbouring Balkan states and the fluid nature of emigration" (Friedman 1985).
- ^ Popis na Naselenie, Domaćinstva i Stanovi vo Republika Makedonija, 2002 - Vkupno naselenie na Republika Makedonija spored majčin jazik.
- ^ Преброяване 2001 - Окончателни резултати - Население към 01.03.2001 г. по области и етническа група
- ^ Greek Helsinki Monitor - Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
- ^ Topolinjska, Z. (1998). "In place of a foreword: facts about the Republic of Macedonia and the Macedonian language" in International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Issue 131. pp. 1-11
- ^ Стойков, С. (2002) Българска диалектология, 4-то издание. стр. 143, 186.
- ^ ibid. стр. 140, 143.
- ^ Lunt, H. (1952) Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language p. 1
- ^ Стойков, С. (2002) Българска диалектология, 4-то издание. стр. 127.
- ^ Friedman, V. (2001) Macedonian (SEELRC), p.17.
- ^ Friedman, V. (2001) Macedonian (SEELRC), p.40.
- ^ Tomić, O. (2003) "Genesis of the Balkan Slavic Future Tenses" in Formal Approaches to Slavic Linguistics: The Ottawa Meeting 2003 (Michigan : Michigan Slavic Publications)
- ^ Friedman, V. (1998) "The implementation of standard Macedonian: problems and results" in International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Issue 131. pp. 31-57
- ^ Lunt, H. (1953) "A Survey of Macedonian Literature" in Harvard Slavic Studies, Vol. 1, pp. 363-396
- ^ Seriot, P. (1997) "Faut-il que les langues aient un nom? Le cas du macédonien", in Andrée Tabouret-Keller (éd.) Le nom des langues. L'enjeu de la nomination des langues, Vol. 1, pp. 167-190 (Louvain : Peeters) (in French)
- ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica - Old Church Slavonic
- ^ Mahon, M. (1998) "The Macedonian question in Bulgaria" in Nations and Nationalism Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 389-407
- ^ Friedman, V. (1998) "The implementation of standard Macedonian: problems and results" in International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Issue 131. pp. 31-57
- ^ Trudgill, P. (1992) "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe" in International Journal of Applied Linguistics. Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 167-177
References
- Dorian, Nancy, (1992), "Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language Contraction and Death", ISBN 0521437571
- Friedman, V. (2001) Macedonian (SEELRC)
- Lunt, H., (1952), Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language (Skopje)
External links
- A grammar of Macedonian by Victor Friedman
- Macedonian - English, Greek, Albanian, German, French, Italian translator
- Ethnologue report for Macedonian
- BBC Education - Languages: Macedonian, Makedonski
- The Macedonian Language
- Macedonian - English Dictionary
- Reading and Pronouncing Macedonian: An Interactive Tutorial
- Otto Kronsteiner. The Collapse of Yugoslavia and the Future Prospects of the Macedonian Literary Language
- UCLA Language materials project
- Krste Misirkov - Za Makedonckite Raboti (Complete text of the book)
- Nature of Standard Macedonian lanuage by Mladen Srbinovski