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According to a common theory on the origins of the [[troubadour]], a composer of medieval [[lyric poetry]], it may have had Arabic origins. [[Ezra Pound]], in his ''Canto VIII'', famously declared that William of Aquitaine "had brought the song up out of Spain / with the singers and veils..." referring to the troubadour song. In his study, Lévi-Provençal is said to have found four Arabo-Hispanic verses nearly or completely recopied in William's manuscript. According to historic sources, [[William VIII of Aquitaine|William VIII]], the father of William, brought to Poitiers hundreds of Muslim prisoners.<ref>M. Guettat (1980), ''La Musique classique du Maghreb'' (Paris: Sindbad).</ref> Trend admitted that the troubadours derived their sense of form and even the subject matter of their poetry from the Andalusian Muslims.<ref>J. B. Trend (1965), ''Music of Spanish History to 1600'' (New York: Krause Reprint Corp.)</ref> The hypothesis that the troubadour tradition was created, more or less, by William after his experience of [[Moorish]] arts while fighting with the [[Reconquista]] in Spain was also championed by [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]] in the early twentieth-century, but its origins go back to the ''[[Cinquecento]]'' and Giammaria Barbieri (died 1575) and [[Juan Andrés]] (died 1822). Meg Bogin, English translator of the trobairitz, held this hypothesis. Certainly "a body of song of comparable intensity, profanity and eroticism [existed] in Arabic from the second half of the 9th century onwards."<ref>"Troubadour", ''[[Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'', edited by Stanley Sadie, Macmillan Press Ltd., London</ref>
According to a common theory on the origins of the [[troubadour]], a composer of medieval [[lyric poetry]], it may have had Arabic origins. [[Ezra Pound]], in his ''Canto VIII'', famously declared that William of Aquitaine "had brought the song up out of Spain / with the singers and veils..." referring to the troubadour song. In his study, Lévi-Provençal is said to have found four Arabo-Hispanic verses nearly or completely recopied in William's manuscript. According to historic sources, [[William VIII of Aquitaine|William VIII]], the father of William, brought to Poitiers hundreds of Muslim prisoners.<ref>M. Guettat (1980), ''La Musique classique du Maghreb'' (Paris: Sindbad).</ref> Trend admitted that the troubadours derived their sense of form and even the subject matter of their poetry from the Andalusian Muslims.<ref>J. B. Trend (1965), ''Music of Spanish History to 1600'' (New York: Krause Reprint Corp.)</ref> The hypothesis that the troubadour tradition was created, more or less, by William after his experience of [[Moorish]] arts while fighting with the [[Reconquista]] in Spain was also championed by [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]] in the early twentieth-century, but its origins go back to the ''[[Cinquecento]]'' and Giammaria Barbieri (died 1575) and [[Juan Andrés]] (died 1822). Meg Bogin, English translator of the trobairitz, held this hypothesis. Certainly "a body of song of comparable intensity, profanity and eroticism [existed] in Arabic from the second half of the 9th century onwards."<ref>"Troubadour", ''[[Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'', edited by Stanley Sadie, Macmillan Press Ltd., London</ref>


Another theory on the origins of the Western [[solfège]] musical notation suggests that it may have also had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the solfège syllables (''do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti'') may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic [[solmization]] system ''Durr-i-Mufassal'' ("Seperated Pearls") (''dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam''). This origin theory was first proposed by Meninski in his ''Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum'' (1680) and then by Laborde in his ''Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne'' (1780).<ref>{{Harv|Farmer|1988|pp=72-82}}</ref>
Another theory on the origins of the Western [[solfège]] musical notation suggests that it may have also had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the solfège syllables (''do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti'') may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic [[solmization]] system ''Durr-i-Mufassal'' ("Seperated Pearls") (''dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam''). This origin theory was first proposed by Meninski in his ''Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum'' (1680) and then by Laborde in his ''Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne'' (1780).<ref>{{Harv|Farmer|1988|pp=72-82}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Guido d'Arezzo: Medieval Musician and Educator|first=Samuel D.|last=Miller|journal=Journal of Research in Music Education|volume=21|issue=3|date=Autumn 1973|pages=239-45}}</ref>


===Technology===
===Technology===

Revision as of 22:27, 20 June 2008

Christian and Muslim playing chess in the Levant. The game of chess originated in India, but was transmitted to Europe by the Islamic world.[1]

The Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe were important and numerous. These contributions affected such varied areas as arts, architecture, sciences, techniques, medicine, foods, music, vocabulary, education, literature, law, philosophy and technology. From the 10th to the 13th century, Europe literally absorbed vast quantities of knowledge from the Islamic civilization.[2] This had considerable effects on the development of Western civilization, leading in many ways to the achievement of the Renaissance.[3]

Transmission routes

Further information: Latin translations of the 12th century and Arab-Norman culture
The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily in 1154, one of the most advanced ancient world maps.

The points of contact between Europe and Islamic lands were multiple during the Middle Ages. The main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe were in Sicilia, and in Islamic Spain, particularly in Toledo (with Gerard of Cremone, 1114-1187, following the conquest of the city by the Spanish Christians in 1085). In Sicilia, following the Islamic conquest of the island in 965 and its reconquest by the Normans in 1091, an intense Arab-Norman culture developed, examplified by rulers such as Roger II, who had Islamic soldiers, poets and scientists at his court. One of the greatest geographical treatises of the Middle Ages was written by the Maroccan Idrisi for Roger, and entitled Kitab Rudjdjar ("The book of Roger").[4]

The Crusades also intensified exchanges between Europe and the Levant, with Italian City Republics taking a great role in these exchanges. In the Levant, such cities as Antioch, Arab and Latin cultures intermixed intensively.[5]

Classical knowledge

Following the fall of the Roman Empire and the dawn of the Middle Ages, many texts from Classical Antiquity had been lost to the Europeans. In the Middle East however, many of these Greek texts (such as Aristotle) were translated from Greek into Syriac during the 6th and the 7th century by Nestorian, Melkites or Jacobite monks living in Palestine, or by Greeks exiles from Athens or Edessa who visited Islamic Universities. Many of these texts however were then kept, translated, and developed upon by the Islamic world, especially in centers of learning such as Baghdad, where a “House of Wisdom”, with thousands of manuscripts existed as soon as 832. These texts were translated again into European languages during the Middle Ages.[6] Eastearn Christians played an important role in exploiting this knowledge, especially through the Christian Aristotelician School of Baghdad in the 11th and 12th centuries.

These texts were translated back into Latin in multiple ways. The main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe were in Sicilia, and in Toledo, Spain (with Gerard of Cremone, 1114-1187). The Crusades also intensified exchanges between Europe and the Levant. Burgondio of Pise (died in 1193) who discovered in Antioch lost texts of Aristotle and translated them in Latin.

Islamic sciences

Further information: Latin translations of the 12th century and Islamic science
Chirurgical operation, 15th century Turkish manuscript.

Islam was not however a simple retransmitter of knowledge from antiquity. It also developed its own sciences, such as algebra, chemistry, geology, spherical trigonometry, etc. which were later transmitted to the West.[7][8] Stefan of Pise translated into Latin around 1127 an Arab manual of medical theory. The method of algorism for performing arithmetic with Indian-Arabic numerals was developed by al-Khwarizmi (hence the word “Algorithm”) in the 9th century, and introduced in Europe by Leonardo Fibonacci (1170-1250).[9] A translation of the Algebra by al-Kharizmi is known as early as 1145, by a certain Robert of Chester. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen, 980-1037) compiled treaties on optical sciences, which were used as references by Newton and Descartes. Medical sciences were also highly developed in Islam as testified by the Crusaders, who relied on Arab doctors on numerous occasions. Joinville reports he was saved in 1250 by a “Saracen” doctor.[10]

Contributing to the growth of European science was the major search by European scholars for new learning which they could only find among Muslims, especially in Islamic Spain and Sicily. These scholars translated new scientific and philosophical texts from Arabic into Latin.

One of the most productive translators in Spain was Gerard of Cremona, who translated 87 books from Arabic to Latin,[11] including Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī's On Algebra and Almucabala, Jabir ibn Aflah's Elementa astronomica,[12] al-Kindi's On Optics, Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī's On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions, al-Farabi's On the Classification of the Sciences,[13] the chemical and medical works of Razi,[14] the works of Thabit ibn Qurra and Hunayn ibn Ishaq,[15] and the works of Arzachel, Jabir ibn Aflah, the Banū Mūsā, Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam, Abu al-Qasim, and Ibn al-Haytham (including the Book of Optics).[11]

Astronomy and mathematics

A German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals (Talhoffer Thott, 1459).
See also: Islamic astronomy and Islamic mathematics

Arabic astronomical and mathematical works translated into Latin during the 12th century include the works of Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī and Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, including The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, one of the founding texts of algebra;[12] and Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind (based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta).[16]

Al-Khazini's Zij as-Sanjari (1115-1116) was translated into Greek by Gregory Choniades in the 13th century and was studied in the Byzantine Empire.[17] The astronomical corrections to the Ptolemaic model made by al-Battani and Averroes and the non-Ptolemaic models produced by Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (Tusi-couple) and Ibn al-Shatir were later adapted into the Copernican heliocentric model. Al-Kindi's (Alkindus) law of terrestrial gravity influenced Robert Hooke's law of celestial gravity, which in turn inspired Newton's law of universal gravitation. Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's Ta'rikh al-Hind and Kitab al-qanun al-Mas’udi were translated into Latin as Indica and Canon Mas’udicus respectively.

Fibonacci presented the first complete European account of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system from Arabic sources in his Liber Abaci (1202).[14] Al-Jayyani's The book of unknown arcs of a sphere, the first treatise on spherical trigonometry, had a "strong influence on European mathematics", and his "definition of ratios as numbers" and "method of solving a spherical triangle when all sides are unknown" are likely to have influenced Regiomontanus.[18]

Translations of the algebraic and geometrical works of Ibn al-Haytham, Omar Khayyám and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī were later influential in the development of non-Euclidean geometry in Europe from the 17th century.[19][20]

European depiction of the Arab doctor Al-Razi, in Gerard of Cremona "Receuil des traites de medecine" 1250-1260. Gerard de Cremona translated numerous works by Arab scholars, such as asl-Razi's, but also those of Ibn Sina.[21]

Medicine

See also: Islamic medicine

Hospitals began as Bimaristans in the Islamic world and later spread to Europe during the Crusades, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East. The first hospital in Paris, Les Quinze-vingt, was founded by Louis IX after his return from the Crusade between 1254-1260.[22] One of the most important medical works to be translated was Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (1025), which was translated into Latin and then disseminated in manuscript and printed form throughout Europe. It remained a standard medical textbook in Europe up until the early modern period, and during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries alone, The Canon of Medicine was published more than thirty-five times.[23] It introduced the contagious nature of infectious diseases, the method of quarantine, experimental medicine, and clinical trials.[24] He also wrote The Book of Healing, a more general encyclopedia of science and philosophy, which became another popular textbook in Europe. Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi's Comprehensive Book of Medicine, with its introduction of measles and smallpox, was also influential in Europe. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's Kitab al-Tasrif was also translated to Latin and used in European medical schools for centuries.[25][11]

Ibn al-Nafis' Commentary on Compound Drugs was translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago (d. 1522), who may have also translated Ibn al-Nafis' Commentary on Anatomy in the Canon of Avicenna, which first described pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, and which may have had an influence on Michael Servetus, Realdo Colombo and William Harvey.[26]

Physics

See also: Islamic physics

One of the most important scientific works to be translated was Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics (1021), which initiated a revolution in optics[27] and visual perception,[28] and introduced the earliest experimental scientific method,[29] for which Ibn al-Haytham is considered the "father of modern optics"[30] and founder of experimental physics.[31][32]

The theories of motion in Islamic physics developed by Avicenna and Avempace had an influence on Jean Buridan's theory of impetus and the work of Galileo Galilei.[33]

Other works

Other Arabic works translated into Latin during the 12th century include the works of Razi and Avicenna (including The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine),[34] the works of Averroes,[25] the works of Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Farabi, Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī, Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and his nephew Hubaysh ibn al-Hasan,[35] the works of al-Kindi, Abraham bar Hiyya's Liber embadorum, Ibn Sarabi's (Serapion Junior) De Simplicibus,[25] the works of Qusta ibn Luqa,[36] the works of Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti, Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, and al-Ghazali,[11] the works of Nur Ed-Din Al Betrugi, including On the Motions of the Heavens,[37][14] Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi's medical encyclopedia, The Complete Book of the Medical Art,[14] Abu Mashar's Introduction to Astrology,[38] the works of Maimonides, Ibn Zezla (Byngezla), Masawaiyh, Serapion, al-Qifti, and Albe'thar.[39] Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam's Algebra,[12] the chemical works of Geber, and the De Proprietatibus Elementorum, an Arabic work on geology written by a pseudo-Aristotle.[14] By the beginning of the 13th century, Mark of Toledo translated the Qur'an and various medical works.[40]

Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan was translated into Latin by Edward Pococke in 1671 and into English by Simon Ockley in 1708 and became "one of the most important books that heralded the Scientific Revolution."[41] Ibn al-Baitar's Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada also had an influence on European botany after it was translated into Latin in 1758.[42]

Islamic techniques

In the 12th century Europe owed Islam an agricultural revolution (see Muslim Agricultural Revolution), due to the progressive introduction into Europe of various unknown fruits: the artichoke, spinachs, aubergines, peaches, apricots.[43] Various mechanical and agricultural equipments were adopted from Islamic lands such as the noria or the windmill.

Numerous new techniques in clothing, as well as new materials were also introduced: muslin, taffetas, satin, skirts. Trade mechanisms were also transmitted: tarifs, customs, bazars, magazins.

Arab-Norman art and architecture combined Occidental features (such as the Classical pillars and friezes) with typical Islamic decorations and calligraphy.[44]

Arts

See also: Islamic art

Numerous techniques from Islamic art formed the basis of Arab-Norman art: inlays in mosaics or metals, sculpture of ivory or porphyry, sculpture of hard stones, bronze foundries, manufacture of silk (for which Roger II of Sicily established a regium ergasterium, a state enterprise which would give Sicily the monopoly of silk manufacture for all Europe).[45]

Architecture

See also: Islamic architecture

Gothic architecture was influenced by Islamic architecture. In particular, the pointed arch was introduced to Europe after the Norman conquest of Islamic Sicily in 1090, the Crusades which began in 1096, and the Islamic presence in Spain, which all brought about a knowledge of this significant structural device. It is probable also that decorative carved stone screens and window openings filled with pierced stone also influenced Gothic tracery. In Spain, in particular, individual decorative motifs occur which are common to both Islamic and Christian architectural mouldings and sculpture.[46][47]

Institutions

Europe adopted a number of educational, legal and scientific institutions from the Islamic world, including the public hospital (which replaced healing temples and sleep temples)[48] and psychiatric hospital,[49] the public library and lending library, the academic degree-granting university (see Madrasah), the astronomical observatory as a research institute[48] (as opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times)[50] (see Islamic astronomy), the trust institution and charitable trust (see Waqf),[51][52] the agency and aval (Hawala),[53] and a variety of other such institutions.

Music

See also: Andalusian classical music
The lute was adopted from the Arab world. 1568 print.

A number of musical instruments used in the West are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: the lute was derived from the al'ud, the rebec from the rebab, the guitar from qitara, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff, alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba (flute), atabal (bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal,[54] the balaban, the castanet from kasatan, sonajas de azófar from sunuj al-sufr, the conical bore wind instruments,[55] the xelami from the sulami or fistula (flute or musical pipe),[56] the shawm and dulzaina from the reed instruments zamr and al-zurna,[57] the gaita from the ghaita, rackett from iraqya or iraqiyya,[58] the harp and zither from the qanun,[59] canon from qanun, geige from ghichak,[60] and the theorbo from the tarab.[61]

According to a common theory on the origins of the troubadour, a composer of medieval lyric poetry, it may have had Arabic origins. Ezra Pound, in his Canto VIII, famously declared that William of Aquitaine "had brought the song up out of Spain / with the singers and veils..." referring to the troubadour song. In his study, Lévi-Provençal is said to have found four Arabo-Hispanic verses nearly or completely recopied in William's manuscript. According to historic sources, William VIII, the father of William, brought to Poitiers hundreds of Muslim prisoners.[62] Trend admitted that the troubadours derived their sense of form and even the subject matter of their poetry from the Andalusian Muslims.[63] The hypothesis that the troubadour tradition was created, more or less, by William after his experience of Moorish arts while fighting with the Reconquista in Spain was also championed by Ramón Menéndez Pidal in the early twentieth-century, but its origins go back to the Cinquecento and Giammaria Barbieri (died 1575) and Juan Andrés (died 1822). Meg Bogin, English translator of the trobairitz, held this hypothesis. Certainly "a body of song of comparable intensity, profanity and eroticism [existed] in Arabic from the second half of the 9th century onwards."[64]

Another theory on the origins of the Western solfège musical notation suggests that it may have also had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal ("Seperated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This origin theory was first proposed by Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680) and then by Laborde in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780).[65][66]

Technology

See also: Inventions in the Islamic world and Muslim Agricultural Revolution

A number of technologies in the Islamic world were adopted in European medieval technology. These included Indian inventions such as chess and various crops;[67] Chinese inventions such as gunpowder, paper and woodblock printing;[68] Greek inventions such as the astrolabe; and a variety of original Muslim inventions, including astronomical instruments such as the quadrant (including the Quadrans Vetus, a universal horary quadrant which could be used for any latitude,[69] and the Quadrans Novus, an astrolabic quadrant)[70] and sextant, a universal astrolabe invented by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī known as the Saphaea in Europe, the "observation tube" (without lens) which influenced the development of the telescope,[71] Abbas Ibn Firnas' hang glider flight which influenced Eilmer of Malmesbury's glider flight,[72] cobwork (tabya),[73] street lamps,[74] waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection,[75] weight-driven mechanical clocks with escapement mechanism,[76] segmental gears[77] ("a piece for receiving or communicating reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery, or face"),[78] distilled alcohol (ethanol) described by Muslim chemists,[79] over 200 surgical instruments described in Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's Al-Tasrif, explosive compositions of gunpowder,[80] the baculus used for nautical astronomy, the lateen sail, the caravel ship and three-masted merchant vessel,[81] and a variety of other technologies.

The Muslim Agricultural Revolution in particular diffused a large number of crops and technologies into medieval Europe, where farming was mostly restricted to wheat strains obtained much earlier via central Asia. Spain received what she in turn transmitted to the rest of Europe; many agricultural and fruit-growing processes, together with many new plants, fruit and vegetables. These new crops included sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron. Others, previously known, were further developed. Muslims also brought to that country lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas and sugar cane. Several were later exported from Spanish coastal areas to the Spanish colonies in the New World. Also transmitted via Muslim influence, a silk industry flourished, flax was cultivated and linen exported, and esparto grass, which grew wild in the more arid parts, was collected and turned into various articles.[67] Industries established for sugar plantations,[82] ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies, clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles, water, weapons, and the mining of minerals such as sulfur, ammonia, lead and iron, were transferred from the Islamic world to medieval Europe.[83] Factory installations and a variety of industrial mills (including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills) were also transmitted to medieval Europe,[84] along with the crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism (invented by al-Jazari),[85] noria and chain pumps for irrigation purposes.[86] These innovations made it possible for many industrial operations that were previously driven by manual labour to be driven by machinery in medieval Europe, where the foundations for the Industrial Revolution were laid.[87]

Education

Main article: Madrasah

The first universities, namely institutions of higher education and research which issue academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master and doctorate), were medieval Madrasahs known as Jami'ah founded in the 9th century.[88][89] The University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco is thus recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 by the princess Fatima al-Fihri.[90] The first universities in Europe were influenced in many ways by the Madrasahs in Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily at the time, and in the Middle East during the Crusades.[88]

Some of the terms and concepts now used in modern universities which have Islamic origins include "the fact that we still talk of professors holding the 'Chair' of their subject" being based on the "traditional Islamic pattern of teaching where the professor sits on a chair and the students sit around him", the term 'academic circles' being derived from the way in which Islamic students "sat in a circle around their professor", and terms such as "having 'fellows', 'reading' a subject, and obtaining 'degrees', can all be traced back" to the Islamic concepts of Ashab ("companions, as of the prophet Muhammad"), Qara'a ("reading aloud the Qur'an") and Ijazah ("license to teach") respectively. George Makdisi has listed eighteen such parallels in terminology which can be traced back to their roots in Islamic education. Some of the practices now common in modern universities which also have Islamic origins include "practices such as delivering inaugural lectures, wearing academic robes, obtaining doctorates by defending a thesis, and even the idea of academic freedom are also modelled on Islamic custom." Islamic influence was also "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first delibrately-planned university" in Europe, the University of Naples Federico II founded by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor in 1224.[91]

Madrasahs were also the first law schools, and it is likely that the "law schools known as Inns of Court in England" may have been derived from the Madrasahs which taught Islamic law and jurisprudence.[92]

The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the Madh'hab legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and ten or more years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses," and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose" which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of faqih (meaning "master of law"), mufti (meaning "professor of legal opinions") and mudarris (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as magister, professor and doctor respectively.[88]

The term doctorate comes from the Latin docere, meaning "to teach", shortened from the full Latin title licentia docendi meaning "license to teach." This was translated from the Arabic term ijazat attadris, which means the same thing and was awarded to Islamic scholars who were qualified to teach. Similarly, the Latin term doctor, meaning "teacher", was translated from the Arabic term mudarris, which also means the same thing and was awarded to qualified Islamic teachers.[88] The Latin term baccalaureus may have also been transliterated from the equivalent Arabic qualification bi haqq al-riwaya ("the right to teach on the authority of another").[89]

The Islamic scholarly system of fatwa and ijma, meaning opinion and consensus respectively, formed the basis of the "scholarly system the West has practised in university scholarship from the Middle Ages down to the present day."[88] According to George Makdisi and Hugh Goddard, "the idea of academic freedom" in universities was "modelled on Islamic custom" as practiced in the medieval Madrasah system from the 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first delibrately-planned university" in Europe, the University of Naples Federico II founded by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor in 1224.[93]

Law

Main article: Sharia

Several fundamental common law instutitions may have been adapted from similar legal instututions in Islamic law and jurisprudence, and introduced to England after the Norman conquest of England by the Normans, who conquered and inherited the Islamic legal administration of the Emirate of Sicily, and also by Crusaders during the Crusades. In particular, the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic Aqd, the English assize of novel disseisin is identified with the Islamic Istihqaq, and the English jury is identified with the Islamic Lafif."[92] The English trust and agency institutions in common law were possibly adapted from the Islamic Waqf and Hawala institutions respectively during the Crusades.[94][95]

Other English legal institutions such as "the scholastic method, the license to teach," the "law schools known as Inns of Court in England and Madrasas in Islam" and the "European commenda" (Islamic Qirad) may have also originated from Islamic law.[92] The methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems.[96] These similarities and influences have led some scholars to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for "the common law as an integrated whole".[92]

Several legal institutions in civil law were also adapted from similar institutions in Islamic law and jurisprudence during the Middle Ages. For example, the Islamic Hawala institution influenced the development of the Avallo in Italian civil law and the Aval in French civil law.[97] The commenda limited partnership used in European civil law was also adapted from the Qirad and Mudaraba in Islamic law. The civil law conception of res judicata[92] and the transfer of debt, which was not permissible under Roman law but is practiced in modern civil law, may also have origins in Islamic law. The concept of an agency was also an "institution unknown to Roman law", where it was not possible for an individual to "conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his agent." The concept of an agency was introduced by Islamic jurists, and thus the civil law conception of agency may also have origins in Islamic law.[97]

Islamic law also introduced "two fundamental principles to the West, on which were to later stand the future structure of law: equity and good faith", which was a precursor to the concept of pacta sunt servanda in civil law and international law. Another influence of Islamic law on the civil law tradition was the presumption of innocence, which was introduced to Europe by Louis IX of France soon after he returned from Palestine during the Crusades. Prior to this, European legal procedure consisted of either trial by combat or trial by ordeal. In contrast, Islamic law was based on the presumption of innocence from its beginning, as declared by the caliph Umar in the 7th century.[98]

There is evidence that early Islamic international law influenced the development of European international law, through various routes such as the Crusades, Norman conquest of the Emirate of Sicily, and Reconquista of al-Andalus.[98] In particular, the Spanish jurist Francisco de Vitoria, and his successor Grotius, may have been influenced by Islamic international law through earlier Islamic-influenced writings such as the 1263 work Siete Partidas of Alfonso X, which was regarded as a "monument of legal science" in Europe at the time and was influenced by the Islamic legal treatise Villiyet written in Islamic Spain.[98][99]

A number of Islamic legal concepts on human rights were also adopted in European legal systems, including concepts such as the charitable trust, trusteeship of property, social solidarity, human dignity, dignity of labour, condemnation of antisocial behavior, presumption of innocence, notions of sharing and caring, universalism, fair industrial relations, fair contract, commercial integrity, freedom from usury, women's rights, privacy, abuse of rights, juristic personality, individual freedom, equality before the law, legal representation, non-retroactivity, supremacy of the law, judicial independence, judicial impartiality, limited sovereignity, tolerance, and democratic participation. Many of these concepts were adopted in medieval Europe through contacts with Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily, and through the Crusades and the Latin translations of the 12th century.[100] After Sultan al-Kamil defeated the Franks during the Crusades, Oliverus Scholasticus praised the Islamic laws of war, commenting on how al-Kamil supplied the defeated Frankish army with food:[101]

"Who could doubt that such goodness, friendship and charity come from God? Men whose parents, sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, had died in agony at our hands, whose lands we took, whom we drove naked from their homes, revived us with their own food when we were dying of hunger and showered us with kindness even when we were in their power."[101]

Literature

Further information: Islamic literature, Arabic literature, and Persian literature

The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[102] All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript.[102]

"Ali Baba" by Maxfield Parrish.

This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[103] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[104] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. However, no medieval Arabic source has been traced for Aladdin, which was incorporated into The Book of One Thousand and One Nights by its French translator, Antoine Galland, who heard it from an Arab Syrian Christian storyteller from Aleppo. Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and so marvels were plausible had to be set further "long ago" or farther "far away"; this is a process that continues, and finally culminate in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. A number of elements from Arabian mythology and Persian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc.[104] When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go.[105]

A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layli and Majnun to an extent.[106]

Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) was a pioneer of the philosophical novel. He wrote the first Arabic novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus), which told the story of Hayy, an autodidactic feral child living in seclusion on a desert island, being the earliest example of a desert island story.[107][108] A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English.[109][110][111][112] Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist.[113] The story also anticipated Rousseau's Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli's story in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan's story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf.[114]

There were several elements of courtly love which developed in Arabic literature. The notions of "love for love's sake" and "exaltation of the beloved lady" have been traced back to Arabic literature of the 9th and 10th centuries. The notion of the "ennobling power" of love was developed in the early 11th century by the Persian psychologist and philosopher, Ibn Sina (known as "Avicenna" in Europe), in his treatise Risala fi'l-Ishq (Treatise on Love). The final element of courtly love, the concept of "love as desire never to be fulfilled", was at times implicit in Arabic poetry. These elements influenced the development of courtly love in European literature, in which all four elements of courtly love were present.[115]

Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[116] as Liber Scale Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[117]

Philosophy

See also: Early Islamic philosophy, Avicennism, Averroism, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, and Transmission of Greek philosophical ideas in the Middle Ages

From Islamic Spain, the Arabic philosophical literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, Muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African who translated Greek medical texts, and the Muslim Al-Khwarzimi's collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age.

Averroes, founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, was influential in the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.[118]

Avicenna founded the Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. He was a critic of Aristotelian logic and the founder of Avicennian logic, and he developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa. The main significance of Latin Avicennism lies in the interpretation of Avicennian doctrines such as the nature of the soul and his existence-essence distinction, along with the debates and censure that they raised in scholastic Europe. This was particularly the case in Paris, where Avicennism was later proscribed in 1210, though the influence of his psychology and theory of knowledge upon William of Auvergne and Albertus Magnus have been noted. The effects of Avicennism in Christianity, however, was later submerged by Averroism, a school of philosophy founded by Averroes, one of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West.[119] His works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe,[118] and he also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence".[120]

Al-Ghazali also had an important influence on Christian medieval philosophers along with Jewish thinkers like Maimonides.[121][122] According to Margaret Smith, "There can be no doubt that Ghazali’s works would be among the first to attract the attention of these European scholars" and "The greatest of these Christian writers who was influenced by Al-Ghazali was St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), who made a study of the Islamic writers and admitted his indebtedness to them. He studied at the University of Naples where the influence of Islamic literature and culture was predominant at the time."[123] René Descartes' ideas from his Discourse on the Method were also influenced by al-Ghazali, and Descartes' method of doubt was very much similar to al-Ghazali's work.[124]

Imaginary debate between Averroes and Porphyry. Monfredo de Monte Imperiali Liber de herbis, 14th century.[125]

Another infuential philosopher who had a significant influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[126] condition of possibility, materialism,[127] and Molyneux's Problem.[128] European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke,[129] Gottfried Leibniz,[112] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,[130] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,[131] and Samuel Hartlib.[113]

Certain aspects of Renaissance humanism also has its roots in the medieval Islamic world, including the "art of dictation, called in Latin, ars dictaminis," and "the humanist attitude toward classical language."[132] There is also evidence that John Locke's formulation of inalienable rights and conditional rulership, which were present in Islamic law centuries earlier, may have also been influenced by Islamic law, through his attendance of lectures given by Edward Pococke, a professor of Islamic studies.[133]

Vocabulary

Main articles: Influence of Arabic on other languages and List of Arabic loanwords in English
Further information: List of Arabic star names and List of Latinised names

The adoption of the techniques and materials from the Islamic world is reflected in the origin of many of the words now in use in the Western world.[134]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Lebedel, p.109
  2. ^ Lebedel, p.109
  3. ^ ”Without contacts with the arab culture, Renaissance could probably not have happened in the 15th and 16th century”, Lebedel, p. 109
  4. ^ Lewis, p.148
  5. ^ Lebedel, p.109-111
  6. ^ Lebedel, p.109
  7. ^ Lebedel, p. 109
  8. ^ Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine: with Medical Chronology, Suggestions for Study and Biblographic Data, p. 86
  9. ^ Lebedel, p.111
  10. ^ Lebedel, p.112
  11. ^ a b c d Salah Zaimeche (2003). Aspects of the Islamic Influence on Science and Learning in the Christian West, p. 10. Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
  12. ^ a b c V. J. Katz, A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, p. 291.
  13. ^ For a list of Gerard of Cremona's translations see: Edward Grant (1974) A Source Book in Medieval Science, (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr.), pp. 35-8 or Charles Burnett, "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century," Science in Context, 14 (2001): at 249-288, at pp. 275-281.
  14. ^ a b c d e Jerome B. Bieber. Medieval Translation Table 2: Arabic Sources, Santa Fe Community College.
  15. ^ D. Campbell, Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages, p. 6.
  16. ^ G. G. Joseph, The Crest of the Peacock, p. 306
  17. ^ David Pingree (1964), "Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy", Dumbarton Oaks Papers 18, p. 135-160.
  18. ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muadh Al-Jayyani", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
  19. ^ D. S. Kasir (1931). The Algebra of Omar Khayyam, p. 6-7. Teacher's College Press, Columbia University, New York.
  20. ^ Boris A. Rosenfeld and Adolf P. Youschkevitch (1996), "Geometry", p. 469, in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 447–494)
  21. ^ "Inventions et decouvertes au Moyen-Age", Samuel Sadaune, p.44
  22. ^ George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science.
    (cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan.
  23. ^ National Library of Medicine digital archives
  24. ^ David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
  25. ^ a b c D. Campbell, Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages, p. 3.
  26. ^ Anatomy and Physiology, Islamic Medical Manuscripts, United States National Library of Medicine.
  27. ^ Sabra, A. I.; Hogendijk, J. P. (2003), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, pp. 85–118, ISBN 0262194821
  28. ^ Hatfield, Gary (1996), "Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution in Science?", in Ragep, F. J.; Ragep, Sally P.; Livesey, Steven John (eds.), Tradition, Transmission, Transformation: Proceedings of Two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma, Brill Publishers, p. 500, ISBN 9004091262
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    "According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable."
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  34. ^ M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 444-6, 451
  35. ^ D. Campbell, Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages, p. 4-5.
  36. ^ D. Campbell, Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages, p. 5.
  37. ^ Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexicon
  38. ^ Charles Burnett, ed. Adelard of Bath, Conversations with His Nephew, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. xi.
  39. ^ D. Campbell, Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages, p. 4.
  40. ^ M.-T. d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," pp. 429, 455
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  51. ^ (Gaudiosi 1988)
  52. ^ (Hudson 2003, p. 32)
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  54. ^ (Farmer 1988, p. 137)
  55. ^ (Farmer 1988, p. 140)
  56. ^ (Farmer 1988, pp. 140–1)
  57. ^ (Farmer 1988, p. 141)
  58. ^ (Farmer 1988, p. 142)
  59. ^ Rabab Saoud (March 2004). "The Arab Contribution to the Music of the Western World" (PDF). FSTC Limited. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
  60. ^ (Farmer 1988, p. 143)
  61. ^ (Farmer 1988, p. 144)
  62. ^ M. Guettat (1980), La Musique classique du Maghreb (Paris: Sindbad).
  63. ^ J. B. Trend (1965), Music of Spanish History to 1600 (New York: Krause Reprint Corp.)
  64. ^ "Troubadour", Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie, Macmillan Press Ltd., London
  65. ^ (Farmer 1988, pp. 72–82)
  66. ^ Miller, Samuel D. (Autumn 1973), "Guido d'Arezzo: Medieval Musician and Educator", Journal of Research in Music Education, 21 (3): 239–45
  67. ^ a b Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100", The Journal of Economic History 34 (1), pp. 8–35.
  68. ^ Richard W. Bulliet (1987), "Medieval Arabic Tarsh: A Forgotten Chapter in the History of Printing", Journal of the American Oriental Society 107 (3), p. 427-438.
  69. ^ David A. King (2002). "A Vetustissimus Arabic Text on the Quadrans Vetus", Journal for the History of Astronomy 33, p. 237-255 [237-238].
  70. ^ Roberto Moreno, Koenraad Van Cleempoel, David King (2002). "A Recently Discovered Sixteenth-Century Spanish Astrolabe", Annals of Science 59 (4), p. 331-362 [333].
  71. ^ Regis Morelon, "General Survey of Arabic Astronomy", pp. 9-10, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 1–19)
  72. ^ Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology and Culture 2 (2), p. 97-111 [100-101].
  73. ^ Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 766, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 751–95)
  74. ^ Fielding H. Garrison, History of Medicine
  75. ^ S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire in Europe, 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London.
    F. B. Artz (1980), The Mind of the Middle Ages, Third edition revised, University of Chicago Press, pp 148-50.
    (cf. References, 1001 Inventions)
  76. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering, History of Science and Technology in Islam
  77. ^ Lynn Townsend White, Jr., quoted in The Automata of Al-Jazari, The Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul
  78. ^ Segment gear, TheFreeDictionary.com
  79. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part III: Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries, History of Science and Technology in Islam.
  80. ^ Arslan Terzioglu (2007), "The First Attempts of Flight, Automatic Machines, Submarines and Rocket Technology in Turkish History", in The Turks (ed. H. C. Guzel), pp. 804-810.
  81. ^ John M. Hobson (2004), The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, p. 141, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521547245.
  82. ^ J. H. Galloway (1977), "The Mediterranean Sugar Industry", Geographical Review 67 (2), pp. 177–94.
  83. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part 1: Avenues Of Technology Transfer
  84. ^ Adam Lucas (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, p. 10 & 65, BRILL, ISBN 9004146490.
  85. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan. The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine.
  86. ^ Zohor Idrisi (2005), The Muslim Agricultural Revolution and its influence on Europe, FSTC.
  87. ^ Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), p. 1-30.
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  89. ^ a b Alatas, Syed Farid, "From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue", Current Sociology, 54 (1): 112–32
  90. ^ The Guinness Book Of Records, 1998, p. 242, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2
  91. ^ Goddard, Hugh (2000), A History of Christian-Muslim Relations, Edinburgh University Press, p. 100, ISBN 074861009X
  92. ^ a b c d e Makdisi, John A. (June 1999), "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law", North Carolina Law Review, 77 (5): 1635–1739{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  93. ^ Goddard, Hugh (2000), A History of Christian-Muslim Relations, Edinburgh University Press, p. 100, ISBN 074861009X
  94. ^ Template:Harvard reference
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  96. ^ El-Gamal, Mahmoud A. (2006), Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice, Cambridge University Press, p. 16, ISBN 0521864143
  97. ^ a b Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring, 1978), "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems", The American Journal of Comparative Law, 26 (2 [Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24-25, 1977]): 187-198 [196-8] {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  98. ^ a b c Boisard, Marcel A. (July 1980), "On the Probable Influence of Islam on Western Public and International Law", International Journal of Middle East Studies, 11 (4): 429–50
  99. ^ Weeramantry, Judge Christopher G. (1997), Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9041102418
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  101. ^ a b Judge Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997), Justice Without Frontiers, Brill Publishers, pp. 136–7, ISBN 9041102418
  102. ^ a b John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian fantasy", p 51 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
  103. ^ L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 10 ISBN 0-87054-076-9
  104. ^ a b John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian fantasy", p 52 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
  105. ^ James Thurber, "The Wizard of Chitenango", p 64 Fantasists on Fantasy edited by Robert H. Boyer and Kenneth J. Zahorski, ISBN 0-380-86553-X
  106. ^ NIZAMI: LAYLA AND MAJNUN - English Version by Paul Smith
  107. ^ Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
  108. ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 95-101, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame.[1]
  109. ^ Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
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  111. ^ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [369].
  112. ^ a b Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts, The Guardian, 22 March 2003.
  113. ^ a b G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 222, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198202911.
  114. ^ Latinized Names of Muslim Scholars, FSTC.
  115. ^ G. E. von Grunebaum (1952), "Avicenna's Risâla fî 'l-'išq and Courtly Love", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 11 (4): 233-8 [233-4].
  116. ^ I. Heullant-Donat and M.-A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction," in Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet, Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection Lettres Gothiques, Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37.
  117. ^ Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London, pp. 14-15, Greater London Authority)
  118. ^ a b Majid Fakhry (2001). Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.
  119. ^ Corbin (1993), p.174
  120. ^ Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002), "Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam", The Philosopher, LXXXX (2)
  121. ^ H-Net Review: Eric Ormsby on Averroes (Ibn Rushd): His Life, Works and Influence
  122. ^ The Influence of Islamic Thought on Maimonides (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
  123. ^ Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazali: The Mystic (London 1944)
  124. ^ Najm, Sami M. (July–October 1966), "The Place and Function of Doubt in the Philosophies of Descartes and Al-Ghazali", Philosophy East and West, 16 (3–4): 133–41{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  125. ^ "Inventions et decouvertes au Moyen-Age", Samuel Sadaune, p.112
  126. ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-262, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598.
  127. ^ Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān, pp. 38-46, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004093001.
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  129. ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-239, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598.
  130. ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 227, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598.
  131. ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 247, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598.
  132. ^ Makdisi, George (April–June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 109 (2): 175–182{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  133. ^ Judge Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997), Justice Without Frontiers, Brill Publishers, pp. 8, 135, 139–40, ISBN 9041102418
  134. ^ Lebedel, p.113

References

  • Template:Harvard reference
  • Lebedel, Claude, Les Croisades, origines et conséquences, 2006, Editions Ouest-France, ISBN 2737341361
  • Lewis, Bernard, Les Arabes dans l'histoire, 1993, Flammarion, ISBN 2080813625
  • Roux, Jean-Paul, Les explorateurs au Moyen-Age, Hachette, 1985, ISBN 2012793398
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