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====Descriptions====
====Descriptions====


In the 1995 expanded addition of Conway and Siegelman's ''Snapping Point'', Robertson, a TM teacher says: "I was lying about the mantras&nbsp;— they were not meaningless sounds they were actually the names of [[Hindu]] [[demigods]] - and about how many different ones there were&nbsp;— we had sixteen to give out to our students".<ref>Flo Conway and Jim Siegelman (1995) "Snapping Point" p157</ref> In the 1977 court case Malnak vs. Yogi (see below), an undisputed fact in the case was that the mantras are meaningless sounds.<ref>“Transcendental Meditation, briefly stated, is a technique of meditation in which the meditator contemplates a meaningless sound.” 440 F. Supp. 1288</ref>
In the 1995 expanded addition of Conway and Siegelman's ''Snapping Point'', Robertson, purportedly a teacher of Transcendental Meditation, says: "I was lying about the mantras&nbsp;— they were not meaningless sounds they were actually the names of [[Hindu]] [[demigods]] - and about how many different ones there were&nbsp;— we had sixteen to give out to our students".<ref>Flo Conway and Jim Siegelman (1995) "Snapping Point" p157</ref> In the 1977 court case Malnak vs. Yogi (see below), an undisputed fact in the case was that the mantras are meaningless sounds.<ref>“Transcendental Meditation, briefly stated, is a technique of meditation in which the meditator contemplates a meaningless sound.” 440 F. Supp. 1288</ref>


According to the transcript of a lecture given in [[Kerala]], [[India]] on 5 October 1955, Maharishi said: "Thus, we find that any sound can serve our purpose of training the mind to become sharp. But, we do not select the sound at random....because such ordinary sounds can do nothing more than merely sharpening the mind; whereas there are some special sounds which have the additional efficacy of producing vibrations whose effects are found to be congenial to our way of life. This is the scientific reason why we do not select any words at random. For our practice, we select only the suitable mantras of [[personal God]]s. Such mantras fetch to us the grace of personal Gods and make us happier in every walk of life".<ref name = Beacon>[http://www.paulmason.info/gurudev/sources/pdf/Beacon%20Light%20of%20the%20HImalayas.pdf Yogi, Maharishi Mahesh, Beacon Light of the Himalyas 1955, p. 65.]</ref>
According to the transcript of a lecture given in [[Kerala]], [[India]] on 5 October 1955, Maharishi said: "Thus, we find that any sound can serve our purpose of training the mind to become sharp. But, we do not select the sound at random....because such ordinary sounds can do nothing more than merely sharpening the mind; whereas there are some special sounds which have the additional efficacy of producing vibrations whose effects are found to be congenial to our way of life. This is the scientific reason why we do not select any words at random. For our practice, we select only the suitable mantras of [[personal God]]s. Such mantras fetch to us the grace of personal Gods and make us happier in every walk of life".<ref name = Beacon>[http://www.paulmason.info/gurudev/sources/pdf/Beacon%20Light%20of%20the%20HImalayas.pdf Yogi, Maharishi Mahesh, Beacon Light of the Himalyas 1955, p. 65.]</ref>

Revision as of 17:08, 19 September 2009

The Transcendental Meditation technique, or TM technique, is a form of mantra meditation introduced in India in 1955[1][2][3][4] by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1917-2008).[5] It is reported to be the most widely researched and one of the most widely practiced meditation techniques.[6][7][8][9] Taught in a standardized seven-step course by certified teachers, the technique involves the use of a sound or mantra and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day, while sitting comfortably with closed eyes.[10]

In 1957, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi began a series of world tours during which he introduced and taught his meditation technique.[11] In 1959, he founded the International Meditation Society and, in 1961 he began to train teachers of the Transcendental Meditation technique.[11][12] From the late 1960’s through the mid 1970’s, both the Maharishi and the TM technique received significant public attention in the USA, especially among the student population.[13][14] During this period, a million people learned the technique, including well-known public figures.[13]

Teaching procedure

The Transcendental Meditation technique is taught in a standardized, seven-step course[15] that consists of two introductory lectures, a personal interview, and four, two-hour instruction sessions given on consecutive days.[16][17] The initial personal instruction session begins with a short puja ceremony performed by the teacher, after which the student is taught the technique. The student then practices the technique twice a day. Subsequent sessions with the teacher ensure correct practice. The technique is practiced morning and evening for 15–20 minutes each time, but is not recommended before bed.[13][18][19] According to the official web sites, the Transcendental Meditation technique can be learned only from a certified, authorized teacher.[20][21] The terms "Transcendental Meditation" and "TM" are servicemarks owned by Maharishi Foundation Ltd., a UK non-profit organization.[22] These trademarks have been sub-licensed to the Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation (MVED), an American non-profit organization which offers the Transcendental Meditation technique and related courses in the U.S.A.[23]

Principles of the technique

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi says in his 1963 book, The Science Of Being and Art Of Living, that, over time, the practice of allowing the mind to experience its deeper levels during the Transcendental Meditation technique brings these levels from the subconscious to within the capacity of the conscious mind. According to him, as the mind quiets down and experiences finer thoughts, the Transcendental Meditation practitioner can become aware that thought itself is transcended and can have the experience of what he calls the 'source of thought', 'pure awareness' or 'transcendental Being'; 'the ultimate reality of life'.[24][25][26]

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi describes the Transcendental Meditation technique as one which requires no preparation, is simple to do, and can be learned by anyone.[27] In a BBC interview in 1964, he says, "As the mind goes nearer to the field of Being, it experiences increased charm, and this increasing charm at every step towards the subtlety of thought draws the mind on automatically".[28]

Characterizations

The technique is described as being effortless and natural, and involving neither contemplation nor concentration. Instead, it relies only on the natural tendency of the mind to move in the direction of greater satisfaction.[29][30][31]

In his book The T.M. Technique, Peter Russell says the Transcendental Meditation technique allows the mind to become still without effort, in contrast to meditation practices that attempt to control the mind by holding it on a single thought or by keeping it empty of all thoughts.[32] He says trying to control the mind is like trying to go to sleep at night — if a person makes an effort to fall asleep, his or her mind remains active and restless.[33] This is why, he says, the Transcendental Meditation technique avoids concentration and effort.[34]

According to Wayne Teasdale's book The Mystic Heart: Discovering a Universal Spirituality in the World’s Religions, the Transcendental Meditation technique is what is called an open or receptive method that can be described as giving up control and remaining open in an inner sense.[35]

Use of a mantra

During the initial personal instruction session, the student is given a specific sound or mantra. The sound is utilized as a thought in the meditation process,[24] allowing the individual’s attention to be directed naturally from an active style of functioning to a less active or quieter style of mental activity.[24]

An important distinction between the Transcendental Meditation technique and other practices that involve mantras is in the way the mantra, or sound, is used. In Transcendental Meditation the mantra is not chanted—either verbally or mentally, but is instead a vehicle on which the attention rests.[36][37]

Selection

According to Russell, the sounds used in the Transcendental Meditation technique are taken from the ancient Vedic tradition.[38] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi explains that the selection of a proper thought or mantra "becomes increasingly important when we consider that the power of thought increases when the thought is appreciated in its infant stages of development".[39] William Jefferson in The Story of the Maharishi, explains the importance of the "euphonics" of mantras. Jefferson says that the secrets of the mantras and their subsequent standardization for today's teachers of the technique were unraveled by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi after his years of study with his own teacher, Guru Dev (Brahmananda Saraswati) so that selection is foolproof, and that the number of mantras from the Vedic tradition, which could number in the hundreds, have been brought by Maharishi to a minimum number.[40]

Author George Chryssides says that, according to Maharishi, there are different mantras for "householders" and for recluses. The Transcendental Meditation mantra is an appropriate mantra for householders, while most mantras commonly found in books are mantras for recluses. Chryssides says that TM teachers claim that the results promised by the Transcendental Meditation technique will not occur unless a trained Transcendental Meditation teacher chooses the mantra for the student.[41]

In January 1984, Omni (magazine) published a list of mantras that they received from "disaffected former TM trainers" as follows (age range in brackets): eng (0 - 11), em (12 - 13), enga (14 - 15), ema (16 - 17), aeng (18 - 19), aem (20 - 21), aenga (22 - 23), aema (24 - 25,) shiring (26 - 29), shiring (30 - 34), hiring (35 - 39), hrim (40 - 44), ), kiring (45 - 49), kirim (50 - 54), sham (55 - 59), shama (60 - up).[42]

In 1975, Time Magazine reported that each TM meditator is instructed to keep their mantra private. Each TM teacher assigns each student's mantra based on a formula that is presumed to include temperament and profession. The article says that there are 17 mantras.[13] In 1997, Bainbridge wrote that the mantras given for Transcendental Meditation are "supposedly selected to match the nervous system of the individual but actually taken from a list of 16 Sanskrit words on the basis of the person's age".[43]

Descriptions

In the 1995 expanded addition of Conway and Siegelman's Snapping Point, Robertson, purportedly a teacher of Transcendental Meditation, says: "I was lying about the mantras — they were not meaningless sounds they were actually the names of Hindu demigods - and about how many different ones there were — we had sixteen to give out to our students".[44] In the 1977 court case Malnak vs. Yogi (see below), an undisputed fact in the case was that the mantras are meaningless sounds.[45]

According to the transcript of a lecture given in Kerala, India on 5 October 1955, Maharishi said: "Thus, we find that any sound can serve our purpose of training the mind to become sharp. But, we do not select the sound at random....because such ordinary sounds can do nothing more than merely sharpening the mind; whereas there are some special sounds which have the additional efficacy of producing vibrations whose effects are found to be congenial to our way of life. This is the scientific reason why we do not select any words at random. For our practice, we select only the suitable mantras of personal Gods. Such mantras fetch to us the grace of personal Gods and make us happier in every walk of life".[46]

Jonathan Shear in his book The Experience of Meditation:Experts Introduce the Major Traditions, characterizes the mantras used in the TM technique as independent of meaning associated with any language, and are used for their mental, sound value alone.[47]

In his book Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction, author Stephen Hunt says that the mantra used in the Transcendental Meditation technique has no meaning but that the sound itself is sacred.[48]

According to physicist Lawrence Domash, describing how meditation works is like "trying to explain the innards of a color television set to a tribe of Pygmies. What you can do is tell the Pygmy how to switch on the set and tune in to a station so he can enjoy the program."[13]

History

1950s

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi served as a "close disciple" and secretary to Swami Brahmananda Saraswati (Guru Dev) from 1941 until Brahmananda Saraswati's death in 1953.[49] Guru Dev had revived a lost meditation technique that originated in the Vedas.[50]

In 1955, the Maharishi, an Indian ascetic,[51] began teaching a meditation technique that he said was derived from the Vedic tradition[52] and which later came to be called Transcendental Meditation. The Maharishi was a featured speaker at the "Spiritual Development Conference" in Cochin, India in October 1955. His lecture was transcribed from Hindi to English and appeared in the out of print, souvenir, publication "Beacon Light of the Himalayas".[46]

In 1957, Maharishi began the Spiritual Regeneration Movement in Madras, India on the concluding day of a festival held in remembrance of his deceased teacher.[53]

In 1958, he began the first of a number of worldwide tours promoting and disseminating the TM technique.[54] This tour began in Rangoon, Burma (now Myanmar). The Maharishi remained in the Far East for about six months teaching Transcendental Meditation.[55]

In 1959, the Maharishi taught the Transcendental Meditation technique in Hawaii.[56] Later that year, Maharishi went to California and became a guest at the home of Roland and Helena Olson and their daughter Theresa, who later wrote about their experiences in books. He continued to visit and teach Transcendental Meditation from the Olsons' home over the next few years.[57]

During this period, the Transcendental Meditation technique was taught under the auspices of several organizations. The Spiritual Regeneration Movement Foundation (SRMF) was incorporated in California in July, 1959. Its articles of incorporation stated that the SRMF's primary purpose for formation was spiritual, and in Article 11 that "this corporation is a religious one. The educational purpose shall be to give instruction in a simple system of meditation."[58][59][60] The SRMF corporation was later dissolved.[60] The International Meditation Society was also created around the year 1959.[12]

1960s and 1970s

In 1960, the Maharishi trained his first Transcendental Meditation teacher, Henry Nyburg of England.[61]

In 1961, the first international Teacher Training Course was held near Rishikesh, India to train teachers of Transcendental Meditation. Over 60 meditators from India, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Britain, Malaya, Norway, the United States, Australia, Greece, Italy and the West Indies attended.[62] Teachers continued to be trained as time progressed.[63] The Maharishi appeared on BBC television and gave a lecture to 5,000 people at the Royal Albert Hall in London.[64]

In 1963, twenty one members of the Indian Parliament issued a public statement endorsing the Transcendental Meditation technique,[65] and news articles appeared in Canadian newspapers such as the Daily Colonist, Calgary Herald and The Albertan.[66]

In 1965, the Students International Meditation Society (SIMS) was incorporated and continues to function in some countries including the U.S.A.[67][68] Another organization created to teach the Transcendental Meditation technique was the American Foundation for the Science of Creative Intelligence (AFSCI), which catered to businessmen.[69] TM courses at AT&T, General Foods, Connecticut General Life Insurance Co., Blue Cross/Blue Shield in Chicago, and the Crocker National Bank of San Francisco were sponsored by AFSCI.[70]

Beginning in 1968, a number of well known musicians and celebrities, such as Donovan, The Beatles and members of The Beach Boys, as well as Doug Henning, Clint Eastwood, Deepak Chopra, Andy Kaufman, Jane Fonda, Shirley MacLaine and Kurt Vonnegut reported using the technique.[71] According to Paul McCartney, "It’s one of the few things anyone has ever given to me that means so much to me".[72] Of his experience with TM, Kurt Vonnegut said: "I tried that (TM). It gave me a terrible headache (laughs)".[73] Jerry Seinfeld said: "I've been practicing Transcendental Meditation most of my life".[74] Ozzy Osbourne thought it was a waste of time, saying "I tried TM but gave it up and smoked a joint instead".[75] Of his experience with TM John Lennon described it as "Just a waste of time".[76] In 1975, TM meditator Merv Griffin invited the Maharishi to appear on his highly rated talk show, thereby aiding Transcendental Meditation in becoming a “full blown craze” during that era (according to Time Magazine) and eventually becoming a global phenomenon with centers in some 130 countries.[14][77][78]

In 1970, the first scientific study on the Transcendental Meditation technique was published in Science magazine and the first course on the Science of Creative Intelligence was held at Stanford University in California.[79]

In 1971, Maharishi International University was established in Santa Barbara, California where all the students, faculty and staff practice the TM technique.[80]

In 1972 in Mallorca, Spain, the Maharishi announced his World Plan to establish one Transcendental Meditation teaching center for each million of the world's population.[81][82]

In 1975, the Maharishi began teaching advanced mental techniques, called the TM-Sidhi Program, that included a technique for the development of what he termed Yogic Flying.[83] In that same year, Transcendental Meditation received favorable testimony in the Congressional Record and was advocated by Major General Franklin Davis of the US Army.[84]

A Gallup Poll conducted in August 1976 indicated that three percent (3%) of Americans - 6 million people — were involved with or practicing TM at that time.[85] The average number of people learning TM fell from a peak of approx. 40,000 a month in 1975 to approx. 3,000 in November 1977.[86][87][88] Bainbridge wrote that in 1977, "Most of the million who had been initiated either ceased meditating or did so informally and irregularly without continuing connections to the TM Movement."[89] The official TM web site reports that more than 6 million people worldwide have learned the Transcendental Meditation technique since its introduction in 1958.[90]

Transcendental Meditation is often mistaken for other nostrums of the '60s and '70s, but it has little or no relationship to them.[91]

1980s to the present

In 1980, the Maharishi's Programme to Create World Peace was begun and, in 1985, his World Plan for Perfect Health.[92]

In 1990, a delegation of Transcendental Meditation teachers from Maharishi International University traveled to the former Soviet Union to provide instruction in Transcendental Meditation. The trip, initially scheduled to last ten days, was extended to six months and resulted in the training of 35,000 people in TM.[93]

In that same year, the Maharishi began the coordination of the teaching of the Transcendental Meditation technique from the town of Vlodrop, the Netherlands, through an organization he called the Global Country of World Peace (GCWP).[94]

In 1993, the Maharishi Vedic Development Corporation (MVED), a non-profit corporation, was formed to teach the Transcendental Meditation technique and related courses.[95][96] The terms "Transcendental Meditation" and "TM" are servicemarks owned by Maharishi Foundation Ltd., a UK non-profit organization[97] and licensed to the MVED.[98][99]

In 2004, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi directed Transcendental Meditation practitioners at the Maharishi village at Skelmersdale, Lancashire to beam peace loving thoughts to the British electorate with the aim of overturning the Labour government. The Maharishi said: "The good effects of transcendental meditation — increased creativity and long life — should not be given to a dangerous country that is constantly busy destroying the world". After Tony Blair's Labour Party won reelection in May 2005, the Maharishi withdrew all instruction in Transcendental Meditation in the UK.[100][101] The ban was lifted about the same time Tony Blair left office as Prime Minister.[102]

In 2006, the Transcendental Meditation technique was reported to be one of sixty services and courses offered by the Transcendental Meditation movement.[103]

Scientific research

Range of studies

Studies have suggested a positive correlation between the Transcendental Meditation technique and health-related physiological states, including improvement in lung function for patients with asthma,[104] reduction of high blood pressure,[105] an effect the researchers termed "younger biological age",[106] decreased insomnia,[107] reduction of high cholesterol,[108] reduced illness and medical expenditures,[109] decreased outpatient visits,[109] decreased cigarette smoking,[110] decreased alcohol use,[110] and decreased anxiety.[111]

According to Time Magazine, researchers from Harvard University and UCLA found a significant drop in systolic and diastolic blood pressure after hypertensive patients began the practice of Transcendental Meditation. They report further findings by a neurologist at Massachusetts General Hospital that oxygen consumption is as much as 18% lower during the practice of TM meditation while alpha waves (electrical activity produced in the brain and generally associated with a feeling of relaxation), become denser and more widespread, and by psychiatrists at the Hartford Institute of Living that practitioners of TM became less dependent on cigarettes, liquor and drugs.[112]

Effect on the physiology

Research studies have described specific physiological effects that occur during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. The first studies, published in the early 1970s by lead author RK Wallace,[113][114][115] found that the Transcendental Meditation technique produced a physiological state that the researchers called a "wakeful hypometabolic state", during which the researchers found significant reductions in respiration, minute ventilation, tidal volume, blood lactate, and significant increases in basal skin resistance, while EEG measurements showed increased coherence and integration of brain functioning. Subsequent studies using control groups found similarities and differences when compared to relaxation. In 1987, researchers at Maharishi University of Management, M.C. Dillbeck and D.W. Orme-Johnson, concluded that the physiology was alert rather than asleep during TM practice.[116]

In her book "Stress Management", author Cotton says: "Interestingly, in spite of TM’s status outside the mainstream of the health system and mental health practice, it has been subject to a significant amount of empirical evaluation, much of which has in fact supported its claims of effectiveness in countering the physiological effects of stress."[117] Psychiatrist Stanley Dean says, "TM is an important addition to our medical armamentarium, but it is not exclusive."[70] According to Benson, Transcendental Meditation is "a hypometabolic state (...) that may well be induced by other techniques (...) and various religious prayers. TM therefore, is one method for eliciting the relaxation response".[118]

Physiological effects compared to relaxation

The effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique have been compared to those of relaxation in biochemical studies, clinical research,[119] and EEG studies.[120] While there are similarities, a number of studies have demonstrated both quantitative and qualitative differences.

A 1984 article in the New York Times reported: "In a position not supported by most scientists outside the T.M. movement, researchers at the Maharishi International University in Fairfield, Iowa, maintain that T.M. has subtle effects on body chemistry and blood flow different from those induced by other formal relaxation methods, let alone ordinary rest."[121] It also said that fifteen years of research on multiple kinds of meditation techniques has left the question of meditation's physiological effects more confused than clarified.[122]

A 1976 study by Ruth Michaels at the University of Michigan looked at the reduction of biochemicals associated with stress as a result of meditation, finding similarities between the Transcendental Meditation technique and simple resting. Reduction of levels of plasma epinephrine, norephinephrine, and lactate were the same for groups.[123] A second study by Michaels in 1979 found similarities between the two groups on four measures but said that lower levels of cortisol in the meditators may suggest that they are less responsive to acute stress because of their lower levels of cortisol relative to resting controls.[124]

A series of studies done in the lab of Archie Wilson at the University of California at Irvine over a period of nearly 20 years found biochemical differences between the Transcendental Meditation technique and relaxation. A 1978 study found declines of hepatic blood flow, increased cardiac output, decreased arterial lactic acid, and minute volume in the Transcendental Meditation group. These changes imply a considerable increase of non-renal, non-hepatic blood flow of 44% during the Transcendental Meditation technique compared to a 12% increase during rest-relaxation.[125] A study in 1983 found a marked decline of red blood cell glycolytic rate induced by the Transcendental Meditation technique that was significantly correlated with decreased plasma lactate, a metabolite associated with stress.[126]

A 1987, study found that during the hypometabolic states experienced by both the Transcendental Meditation and relaxation groups, arterial-venous CO2 content difference declines, and that during the Transcendental Meditation technique, arterial-venous CO2 content difference briefly disappears. This change was due to both an increase of arterial CO2 content and a decrease of venous CO2 content. Similar, but opposite and smaller, changes occurred in arterial and venous 02 content. Both groups showed a decline in respiratory quotient with the TM group showing a significantly greater decrease.[127] A 1996 study found that the Transcendental Meditation group showed a significant increase in cerebral blood flow in the frontal and occipital regions of the brain compared to a resting control group. The study also found a high correlation between increased cerebral blood flow and decreased cerebrovascular resistance, suggesting that a contributing vascular mechanism to the increased cerebral blood flow may be decreased cerebrovascular resistance.[128]

Other studies comparing the Transcendental Meditation technique with a relaxation control group have found that the Transcendental Meditation group shows a sharp decline in thyroid stimulating hormone (an increase of which is associated with stressors),[129] a marked decline in red blood cell metabolism,[130] increased phenylalanine concentration,[131] and altered arginine vasopressin secretion (a hormone associated with stress).[132]

Medical research

In a 1975 study published in the journal Respiration, twenty one patients with bronchial asthma (who were excluded for significant emphysema by single breath diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide) were studied in a six month RCT designed study, (with the researchers but not the patients blind to the treatment modality) using the Transcendental Meditation technique and employing a crossover trial format using reading as a crossover control. The researchers concluded that based on the marked reduction in asthma symptom-severity duration, a statistically significant improvement of pulmonary function test abnormalities (in raw measured values of cm/H2O/liter/sec determined using spirometry and body plethysmography), and from subject and physician evaluations, that the practice of the TM is a useful adjunct in the treatment of asthma.[133]

The American Heart Association has published two studies on the Transcendental Meditation technique. In 1995 the association's journal Hypertension published the results of a randomized, controlled trial in which a group of older African-Americans practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique demonstrated a significant reduction in blood pressure.[134] In 2000, the association's journal, Stroke, published a study involving 127 subjects that found that, on average, the hypertensive, adult subjects who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique daily experienced reduced thickening of coronary arteries, thereby decreasing the risk of heart attack and stroke. After six to nine months, carotid intima-media thickness decreased in the group that was practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique as compared with matched control subjects.[135]

In 2004, systematic review of five randomized clinical trials examining the effects of TM on blood pressure concluded that there was "insufficient good-quality evidence to conclude whether or not TM has a cumulative positive effect on blood pressure." The review said that the RCTs published through May 2004 had important methodological weaknesses and were potentially biased by the affiliation of authors to the TM organization.[136] A reply subsequently published in the same journal explained the methodological choices that the researchers made and why they were preferred. It noted that the collaborators on the studies included coauthors from Harvard University, the University of Maryland, the West Oakland Health Center, the University of Arkansas, the Haight-Ashbury Free Clinic, the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, the Georgia Institute for Prevention of Human Disease, and the Medical College of Georgia.[137] The critique response also noted that blood pressure data were collected blind by independent research institutions and suggested that the authors of the critical review themselves may have been biased in their critique by their affiliation with the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, and in being on the editorial board of a journal that is published by Pharmaceutical Press.

In 2005, the American Journal of Cardiology published a review of two studies that looked at stress reduction with the Transcendental Meditation technique and mortality among patients receiving treatment for high blood pressure.[138] This study was a long-term, randomized trial. It evaluated the death rates of 202 men and women, average age 71, who had mildly elevated blood pressure. The study tracked subjects for up to 18 years and found that the group practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had death rates that were reduced by 23%. Also in 2005, the American Journal of Hypertension published the results of a study that found the Transcendental Meditation technique may be useful as an adjunct in the long-term treatment of hypertension among African-Americans.[139]

In 2006, a study involving 103 subjects published in the American Medical Association's Archives of Internal Medicine found that coronary heart disease patients who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique for 16 weeks showed improvements in blood pressure, insulin resistance, and autonomic nervous system tone, compared with a control group of patients who received health education.[140]

Also in 2006, a functional MRI study of 24 patients conducted at the University of California at Irvine, and published in the journal NeuroReport, found that the long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique may reduce the affective/motivational dimension of the brain's response to pain.[141]

In 2007 the United States National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine released online an independent review of the state of meditation research conducted by researchers at the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center. The report used the Jadad scale to evaluate 813 studies, of which 230 were studies of the TM or TM-Sidhi programs.[142] The report concluded that "[t]he therapeutic effects of meditation practices cannot be established based on the current literature," and "[f]irm conclusions on the effects of meditation practices in healthcare cannot be drawn based on the available evidence" (p. 6).[143] The report said that "meta-analysis based on low quality studies and small numbers of hypertensive participants showed that TM, Qi Gong and Zen Bhuddist meditation significantly reduced blood pressure" and that "choosing to practice a particular meditation technique continues to rely solely on individual experiences and personal preferences, until more conclusive scientific evidence is produced".[144][143] A revised version of the review published in 2008 acknowledged that the Jadad scale may not be suitable for evaluating research on meditation and that the usual approach to double blinding, which the Jadad scale requires, may not be possible. The researchers revised the Jadad scores of the studies and concluded that while most of the studies were weak methodologically, 10% of the 400 clinical studies did score good or better on the Jadad scale and that there was a statistically significant improvement in quality over time.[145]

In 2008, researchers at the University of Kentucky conducted a meta-analysis of nine qualifying RCT published studies which used Transcendental Meditation to address patients with hypertension, and found that on average across all nine studies the practice of TM was associated with approximate reductions of 4.7 mm (0 in) Hg systolic blood pressure and 3.2 mm (0 in) Hg diastolic blood pressure. The researchers concluded that "...Sustained blood pressure reductions of this magnitude are likely to significantly reduce risk for cardiovascular disease." The study was published in the March 2008 issue of the American Journal of Hypertension.[146] Using the Jadad scale, the researchers found that of the nine studies evaluated, three were of high quality with a score of 75% or greater, three were of acceptable quality, and three were of suboptimal quality.[147]

Research on cognitive function

A paper published in the Journal of Applied Psychology in 1978 found no effect on school grades.[148] A 1985 study in the British Journal of Educational Psychology, and a 1989 study in Education showed improved academic performance.[149] [150]

A paper published in 2001 in the journal, Intelligence, reported the effects on 362 Taiwanese students of three randomized, controlled trials that used seven standardized tests. The trials measured the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique, a contemplative meditative technique from the Chinese tradition, and napping on a wide range of cognitive, emotional and perceptual functions. The three studies ranged in time from six months to one year. Results indicated that taken together, the Transcendental Meditation group had significant improvement on all seven measurements compared to the non-treatment and napping control groups. Contemplative meditation showed a significant result in two categories, and napping had no effect. The results included an increase in IQ, creativity, fluid intelligence, field independence, and practical intelligence.[151]

In 2003, a study in the journal, Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, reviewed 107 articles on TM and cognitive function of which only ten were randomized, controlled trials that fit the inclusion criteria. Four trials showed a significant positive effect on cognitive function, four were completely negative, and two were largely negative in outcome. Study authors, Canter and Ernst, noted that the four positive trials used subjects who had already intended to learn the Transcendental Meditation technique, and attributed the significant positive results to an expectation effect. They concluded that the claim that TM has a specific and cumulative effect on cognitive function is not supported by the evidence from randomised controlled trials.[152]

Psychological effects

A 1990 controlled study involving 768 subjects conducted at Sumitomo Heavy Industries by the Japanese Ministry of Labour and others looked at Transcendental Meditation and its effect on mental health in industrial workers. After a 5-month period the researchers found significant decreases in major physical complaints, impulsiveness, emotional instability, and anxiety amongst the meditators compared to controls. The meditators also showed significant decreases in digestive problems, depression, tendency toward psychosomatic disease, insomnia, and smoking.[153]

A 1977 study in the Journal of Clinical Psychology showed reduced anxiety in practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation technique compared to controls who relaxed passively.[154] A 1989 meta-analysis published in the Journal of Clinical Psychology compared 146 independent studies on the effect of different meditation and relaxation techniques in reducing trait anxiety. Transcendental Meditation was found to produce a larger effect than other forms of meditation and relaxation in the reduction of trait anxiety. Additionally, it was concluded that the difference between Transcendental Meditation and the other meditation and relaxation techniques appeared too large to be accounted for by the expectation effect.[155]

Studies show that TM reduces the number of seizures in epileptic patients and normalizes their EEG. An experimental study that was done on the Transcendental Meditation technique and epilepsy found that the epileptic patients initially had abnormally low levels of 5-HIAA in the cerebral spinal fluid, which then increased to normal levels after several months of practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. This correlated with clinical improvements in these patients.[156]

Carrington and Ephron reported on the successful use of the Transcendental Meditation technique as an adjunct to psychotherapy, though for some patients the process entailed feeling overwhelmed by negative and unpleasant thoughts during meditation.[157]

Federally funded research

As of 1975, the Federal Government had so far funded 17 Transcendental Meditation research projects, ranging from the effects of meditation on the body to its ability to help rehabilitate convicts and fight alcoholism.[158] By 2004, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) had spent more than $20 million funding research on the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on heart disease[29]. In 1999, the NIH awarded a grant of nearly $8 million to Maharishi University of Management to establish the first research center specializing in natural preventive medicine for minorities in the U.S.[159] The research institute, called the Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention, was inaugurated on October 11, 1999, at the University's Department of Physiology and Health in Fairfield, Iowa.[160]

Reception

Relationship to religion and spirituality

An official Transcendental Meditation websites states that the Transcendental Meditation technique is a mental technique for deep rest that is associated with specific effects on mind and body, practiced by people of all religions and that it does not require faith, belief, or a change in lifestyle to be effective as a relaxation technique.[161] [162] Maharishi called the Transcendental Meditation technique "a path to God",[163] and the Transcendental Meditation technique has been described as "spiritual" but not religious, and as a coping strategy for life.[164] According to Time Magazine, Transcendental Meditation owes something to all major religious traditions—Christianity, Judaism and Islam, as well as the Eastern faiths— because at one time or another they have included both meditation and the repetition of a mantra-like word.[165] A common misconception is that TM has religious connotations – possibly cultish in nature, resulting from the Maharishi’s association with George Harrison, who was an enthusiastic advocate of Indian religions.[166]

In The Sociology of Religious Movements, William Sims Bainbridge has found Transcendental Meditation to be a "...highly simplified form of Hinduism, adapted for Westerners who did not possess the cultural background to accept the full panoply of Hindu beliefs, symbols, and practices."[167] Going on to note that TM is an example of a "missionary" religious group which distills the essence of its own religious traditions to make itself more acceptable to its intended audience, Bainbridge describes the Transcendental Meditation puja ceremony as "...in essence, a religious initiation ceremony".[168]

Prayer has been compared with meditation and the specific technique known as Transcendental Meditation (TM). However, “meditational prayer” does not always imply religion.[169]

Author Roger LeBlanc writes: "It’s not a religion... The Transcendental Meditation technique is a simple, natural technique practiced by millions of people of all religions, including clergy. Practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique does not require or involve faith or any particular set of beliefs."[161] Practionars of the Transcendental Meditation technique may use their meditation to supplement other faiths, or no faith at all.[170]

Clergy have varying views when assessing the compatibility of the Transcendental Meditation technique with their religions. Jaime Sin, a cardinal and the Archbishop of Manila, wrote in 1984 that neither the doctrine nor the practice of TM are acceptable to Christians.[171] In 1989, a Vatican council published a warning against mixing eastern meditation, such as TM, with Christian prayer.[172] Other clergy, including Catholic clergy, have found the Transcendental Meditation technique to be compatible with their religious teachings and beliefs.[173][174][175]

Charles H. Lippy, author of Pluralism Comes of Age: American Religious Culture in the Twentieth Century writes that earlier spiritual interest in the Transcendental Meditation technique faded in the 1970’s and it became a practical technique that anyone could employ without abandoning their religious affiliation.[176] Though religious in origin, going back for several thousand years, Transcendental Meditation as introduced to the West is not attached to religion. Rather is it a means for developing human potential.[177]

In 1979, the Third Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the decision of the US District Court of New Jersey that a curriculum in the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI)/Transcendental Meditation, was religious activity within the meaning of the Establishment Clause and that the teaching of SCI/TM in the New Jersey public high schools was prohibited by the First Amendment.[178][179] The court ruled that, although SCI/TM is not a theistic religion, it deals with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions. The court found that the religious nature of the course was clear from careful examination of the textbook, the expert testimony elicited, and the uncontested facts concerning the puja,[180] but was also largely determined by apparent involvement of government. The court also found state action violative of the Establishment Clause, because the puja involved "offerings to deities as part of a regularly scheduled course in the schools' educational programs".[179]

In 2006, twenty five (25) public, private and charter schools offered Transcendental Meditation to their students.[181] The Terra Linda High School in San Rafael in California, canceled plans for Transcendental Meditation classes due to concerns of parents that it would be promoting religion.[182] University of South Carolina sociologist Barry Markovsky describes teaching the Transcendental Meditation technique in schools as "stealth religion".[183]

Cult issues

In 1987, the Cult Awareness Network (CAN) held a press conference and demonstration in Washington, D.C., saying that the organization that teaches the Transcendental Meditation technique "seeks to strip individuals of their ability to think and choose freely." Steve Hassan, author of several books on cults, and at one time a CAN deprogrammer, said in the same press conference that members display cult-like behaviors, such as the use of certain language and particular ways of dressing. A former member called the yogic flying training a "totalitarian environment", while a spokesman for the TM organization said that they "don't force people to take courses". Former members also said that the movement is a religion, and that the Maharishi is seen as a god.[184] Cult-like tendencies are described in Michael A. Persinger's book, TM and Cult Mania, published in 1980.[185]

David Orme-Johnson, former faculty member at Maharishi University of Management (at which all students and faculty practice the Transcendental Meditation technique daily), who has researched the Transcendental Meditation technique and the paranormal Maharishi Effect, cites studies by Schecter,[186] Alexander [187] and Pelletier[188] showing greater autonomy, innovative thought, and increases in creativity, general intelligence and moral reasoning in those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique. According to Orme-Johnson, cult followers are said to operate on blind faith and adherence to arbitrary rules and authority, while these studies would indicate the ability of those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique to make mature, independent, principle-based judgments.[189]

Marc Galanter MD, Professor of Psychiatry at New York University (NYU), writes in his book Cults: Faith, Healing and Coercion that TM "evolved into something of a charismatic movement, with a belief system that transcended the domain of its practice". He notes how a variety of unreasonable beliefs came to be seen as literally true by its "more committed members". He cites an "unlikely set of beliefs" that includes the ability to levitate and reduce traffic accidents and conflicts in the Middle East through the practice of meditation.[190]

In his book Soul snatchers: the mechanics of cults, Jean-Marie Abgrall describes how Altered States Of Consciousness (ASCs) are used in many cults to make the initiate more susceptible to the group will and world view. He cites research by Barmark and Gautnitz which showed the similarities between the states obtained by Transcendental Meditation and ASCs.[191] In this way not only does the subject become more reliant on the ASC but it allows for a weakening of criticism of the cult and increase in faith therein. Abgrall goes on to note that the use of mantras is one of the most widespread techniques in cults, noting in TM this mantra is produced mentally.[192] He says that a guru is usually central to a cult and that its success will rely on how effective that guru is. Among the common characteristics of a guru he notes paraphrenia, a mental illness that completely cuts the individual from reality. In regard to this he notes for example, that Maharishi recommended the TM-Sidhi program including 'yogic flying' as a way to reduce crime.[193]

In his book The Elementary Forms of The New Religious Life, Roy Wallis describes TM as having moved beyond being a cult to a "Sect". He notes similarities between progression in TM and progression within Scientology (In Scientology progression from "Basic" to "Operating Theten" and in TM from basic TM instruction to the TM-Sidhi program). He notes that whereas once the initiatory stage was important and the "goal", this now becomes simply a prerequisite for training to higher "powers" or abilities. He argues that this helps facilitate group control over members rather that allowing them to come to their own judgment. Thus this progression becomes a strong form of social control.[194]

Clarke and Linzey argue that for the ordinary membership of TM their lives and daily concerns are little — if at all — affected by its cult nature. Instead, as is the case for Scientology, it is only the core membership, who must give total dedication to the movement.[195]

Lawsuits

Kropinski v. WPEC

In a civil suit against the World Plan Executive Council filed in 1985,[196] Robert Kropinski claimed fraud, psychological, physical, and emotional harm as a result of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs. The district court dismissed Kropinski's claims concerning intentional tort and negligent infliction of emotional distress, and referred the claims of fraud and negligent infliction of physical and psychological injuries to a jury trial. The jury awarded Robert Kropinski $137,890 in the fraud and negligence claims. The appellate court overturned the award and dismissed Kropinski's claim alleging psychological damage. It also dismissed testimony related to the fraud claim. The claim of fraud and the claim of a physical injury related to his practice of the TM-Sidhi program were remanded to the lower court for retrial, and the parties then settled these remaining claims out of court.[197]

Butler/Killian vs. MUM

Two lawsuits were filed as a result of a murder at Maharishi University of Management in Fairfield, Iowa on March 1, 2004.[198] The families of the murdered student and a student who was assaulted earlier in the day sued MUM and the Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation. Their separate suits, filed on February 24, 2006, alleged that the twice-daily practice of Transcendental Meditation, which the university requires of all students, can be dangerous for people with psychiatric problems. They also charged the university with failing to call the police or take action to protect students from a mentally ill student.[199][200] Butler vs. M.U.M. was settled out of court.[30] The alleged perpetrator of the murder was a diagnosed schizophrenic who had been off his medication for months at the time of the tragedy.[201]

See also

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Further reading

  • Denniston, Denise, The TM Book, Fairfield Press, Fairfield, Iowa, 1986 ISBN 093178302X
  • Geoff Gilpin, The Maharishi Effect: A Personal Journey Through the Movement That Transformed American Spirituality, Tarcher-Penguin 2006, ISBN 1-58542-507-9
  • Kropinski v. World Plan Executive Council, 853 F, 2d 948, 956 (D.C. Cir, 1988)
  • Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita : A New Translation and Commentary, Chapters 1-6. ISBN 0140192476.
  • Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Science of Being and Art of Living : Transcendental Meditation ISBN 0452282667.
  • Template:Harvard reference
  • Template:Harvard reference

External links

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