Evenki people: Difference between revisions

Evenks
Total population
	approx. 67,000[citation needed]
Regions with significant populations
	Russia - 35,527 (2002); China - 30,505 (2000); Mongolia
Languages
	Evenki, Russian, Chinese
Religion
	[citation needed]Orthodox Christianity; (Russian Orthodox Church),; also Shamanism, Tibetan Buddhism
Related ethnic groups
	Evens, Oroqens, Oroch

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The Evenks (Ewenti or Eventi) (autonym: Эвэнкил Evenkil; Russian: Эвенки Evenki; Chinese: 鄂温克族 [Èwēnkè Zú] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help); formerly known as Tungus or Tunguz; Mongolian: Khamnigan Хамниган) are a Tungusic people of Northern Asia. In Russia, the Evenks are recognized as one of the Indigenous peoples of the Russian North, with a population of 35,527 (2002 Census). In China, the Evenki form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China, with a population of 30,505, as per 2000 Census. There is also a small Evenki group of Manchu-Tungus origin in Mongolia, referred to as Khamnigan.

Origin

The Evenki or Ewenki traced back to the Shiwei people who inhabited the Greater Khingan Range in the 5-9th centuries, but such connection is merely conjectural as the majority of Evenki people resided on their native land from the vast regions of Siberia stretching between Lake Balkai and the Amur River. Ewenki language forms the northern branch of the Manchu-Tungusic language group and is closely related to Even and Negidal in Siberia. By 1600 the Ewenkis or Evenkis of the Lena and Yenisey valleys were successful reindeer herders. By contrast the Solons and the Khamnigans (Ewenkis of Transbaikalia) had picked up horse breeding and the Mongolian deel from the Mongols. The Solons (ancestors of the Evenkis in China) nomadized along the Amur River. They were closely related to the Daur people. To the west the Khamnigan were another horse breeding Evenkis in the Transbaikalia area. Also in the Amur valley a body of Siberian Evenki-speaking people called Orochen by the Manchus.

Historical distribution

The Evenks have most likely been in the Baikal region of Southern Siberia (near the modern-day Mongolian border) since the Neolithic era; "The origin of the Evenks is the result of complex processes, different in time, involving the mixing of different ancient aboriginal tribes from the north of Siberia with tribes…related in language to the Turks and Mongols. The language of these tribes took precedence over the languages of the aboriginal population" (Vasilevich, 623). Elements of more modern Evenk culture, including conical tent dwellings, bone fish-lures, and birch-bark boats, were all present in sites that are believed to be Neolithic. From Lake Baikal, “they spread to the Amur and Okhotsk Sea…the Lena Basin…and the Yenisey Basin” (623).

Contact with Russians

In the 17th century, the Russian empire began to expand enough to contact the remote Evenkis. Cossacks, men who served as a kind of “border-guard” for the tsarist government, imposed a fur tax on the Siberian tribes. The Cossacks exploited the Evenki clan hierarchy and took hostages from the highest members in order to ensure payment of the tax. Although there was some rebellion against local officials, the Evenks generally recognized the “great need of peaceful cultural relations with the Russians (624). Contact with the Russians and constant demand for fur taxes pushed the Evenkis east all the way to Sakhalin island, where some still live today (Cassell’s). In the 19th, some groups migrated south and east into Mongolia and Manchuria (Vasilevich, 625). Today there are still Evenki populations in Sakhalin, Mongolia, and Manchuria (Ethnologue), and to a lesser extent, their traditional Baikal region (Janhunen).

Traditional life

Traditionally they were a mixture of pastoralists and hunter-gatherers—they relied on their domesticated reindeer for milk and transport and hunted other large game for meat (Vasilevich, 620-1). Today “[t]he Evenks are divided into two large groups…engaging in different types of economy. These are the hunting and reindeer-breeding Evenks…and the horse and cattle pastoral Evenks as well as some farming Evenks” (620). The Evenks lived mostly in areas of what is called a taiga, or boreal forest. They lived in conical tents made from birch bark or reindeer skin tied to birch poles. When they moved camp, the Evenks would leave the dwelling’s framework and carry only the more portable coverings. During winter, the hunting season, most camps consisted of one or two tents while the spring encampments encompassed up to 10 households (Vasilevich, 637).

The skill of riding the domesticated reindeer allowed the Evenkis to “colonize vast areas of the eastern taiga which had previously been impenetrable” (Vitebsky, 31). The Evenks use a saddle unique to their culture which is placed on the shoulders of the reindeer which lessens the strain on the animal. Also, the Evenks traditionally did not use stirrups but used a stick to balance (31-32). Evenks did not develop reindeer sledges until comparatively recent times (32). They instead used their reindeer as pack animals and often traversed great distances on foot, using snowshoes or skis (Vasilevich, 627). The Evenki people did not eat their domesticated reindeer (although they did hunt and eat wild reindeer) but kept them for milk. (Forsyth, 49-50).

Large herds of reindeer were very uncommon. Most Evenks had around 25 head of reindeer because they were generally bred for transportation purposes. Unlike several other neighboring tribes Evenk reindeer-breeding did not include “herding of reindeer by dogs nor any other specific features” (Vasilevich, 629). Very early in the spring season, the winter camps broke up and moved to places suitable for calving. Several households pastured their animals together throughout the summer, being careful to keep “[s]pecial areas…fenced off…to guard the newborn calves against being trampled on in a large herd” (629).

Clothing

The Evenks wore a characteristic costume “adapted to the cold but rather dry climate of Central Siberia and to a life of mobility…they wore brief garments of soft reindeer or elk skin around their hips, along with leggings and moccasins, or else long supple boots reaching to the thigh” (49). They also wore a deerskin coat that did not close in front but was instead covered with an apron-like cloth. Some Evenkis decorated their clothing with fringes or embroidery (50). The Evenki traditional costume always consisted of these elements: the loincloth made of animal hide, leggings, and boots of varying lengths (Vasilevich, 641). Facial tattooing was also very common.

Hunting

The traditional Evenki economy was a mix of pastoralism (of horses or reindeer), fishing, and hunting. The Evenki who lived near the Okhotsk Sea hunted seal, but for most of the taiga-dwellers, elk, wild reindeer, and fowl were the most important game animals. Other animals included “roe deer, bear, wolverine, lynx, wolf, Siberian marmot, fox, and sable” (Vasilevich, 626). Trapping did not become important until the imposition of the fur tax by the tsarist government. Before acquiring guns in the 18th century, Evenks used steel bows and arrows. Along with their main hunting implements, hunters always carried a “pike”—“which was a large knife on a long handle used instead of an axe when passing through the thick taiga or as a spear when hunting bear” (626). The Evenks have deep respects for animals and all elements of nature: "It is forbidden to torment an animal, bird, or insect, and a wounded animal must be finished off immediately…It is forbidden to spill the blood of a killed animal or defile it…It is forbidden to kill animals or birds that were saved from pursuit by predators or came to a person for help in a natural disaster" (Sirina, 24).

Evenks of Russia

**Evenks domicile** - Evenks home in ethnographic museum in Ulan Ude, Russia.

The Evenks were formerly known as tungus. This designation was spread by the Russians, who acquired it from the Yakuts and the Siberian Tatars (in the Yakut language tongus) in the 17th century. The Evenks have several self-designations, of which the best known is evenk. This became the official designation for the people in 1931. Some groups call themselves orochen ('an inhabitant of the River Oro'), orochon ('a rearer of reindeer'), ile ('a human being'), etc. At one time or another tribal designations and place names have also been used as self-designations, for instance manjagir, birachen, solon, etc. Several of these have even been taken for separate ethnic entities.

There is also a similarly named Siberian group called the Evens (formerly known as Lamuts). Although related to the Evenks, the Evens are now considered to be a separate ethnic group.

The Evenks are spread over a huge territory of the Siberian taiga from the River Ob in the west to the Okhotsk Sea in the east, and from the Arctic Ocean in the north to Manchuria and Sakhalin in the south. The total area of their habitat is about 2,500,000 km². In all of Russia only the Russians inhabit a larger territory. According to the administrative structure, the Evenks live, from west to east, in Tyumen and Tomsk Oblasts, Krasnoyarsk Krai with Evenk Autonomous Okrug, Irkutsk, Chita, and Amur Oblasts, the Buryat and the Sakha Republics, Khabarovsk Krai, and Sakhalin Oblast. However, the territory where they are a titular nation is confined solely to Evenk Autonomous Okrug, where 3,802 of the 35,527 Evenks live (according to the 2002 Census). More than 18,200 Evenks live in the Sakha Republic.

Anthropologically the Evenk belong to the Baikal or Paleo-Siberian group of the Mongolian type, originating from the ancient Paleo-Siberian people of the Yenisei River up to the Okhotsk Sea^{[citation needed]}.

The Evenki language is the largest of the northern group of the Manchu-Tungus languages, a group which also includes the Even and Negidal languages.

Evenks of China

According to the 2000 Census, there are 30,505 Evenks in China mainly made up of the Solons and the Khamnigans. 88.8% of China's Evenks live in the Hulunbuir region in the north of the Inner Mongolia Province, near the city of Hailar. The Evenk Autonomous Banner is also located near Hulunbuir. There are also around 3,000 Evenks in neighbouring Heilongjiang Province.

In 1763, the Qing government moved 500 Solon Evenk and 500 Daur families to the Tacheng and Kuldja areas of Xinjiang, in order to strengthen the empire's western border. 1020 Xibe families (some 4000 persons) followed the next year. Since then, however, the Solons of Xinjiang have assimilated into other ethnic groups, and are not identified as such anymore. ^[1] ^[2]

Bevölkerungszahlen, Verbreitungsgebiete

Russische Föderation

Laut Volkszählung lebten 2002 in Russland 35.527 Ewenken

Ewenken in Russland
Verwaltungseinheit	Ewenken laut Volkszählung 2002[1]
Republik Sacha (Jakutien)	18.232
Region Krasnojarsk	4.632
Autonomer Kreis der Ewenken	3.802
Region Chabarowsk	4.533
Oblast Amur	1.501
Oblast Sachalin	243
Burjatien	2.334
Oblast Irkutsk	1.431
Region Transbaikalien	1.492
Oblast Tomsk	103
Oblast Tjumen	109

Mongolei

Im Staat Mongolei gibt es einige tausend Ewenken.

China

In der Volksrepublik China leben laut letzter Volkszählung (2000) 30.505 Ewenken, davon etwa 200 Rentier-Ewenken. Die Mehrheit wird von den sogenannten "solonischen" und den Barag-Ewenken gestellt. Im Jahre 1990 waren 88,8% der Ewenken Chinas im Autonomen Gebiet Innere Mongolei und 9,77% in der Provinz Heilongjiang ansässig. Einige ewenkische Stämme wurden Anfang der 1950er Jahre auf eigenen Wunsch zu einer eigenständigen Nationalität, den Oroqen vereinigt. Ihre Zahl wird mit 8.196 (2000) angegeben.

Im Verwaltungsgebiet der bezirksfreien Stadt Hulun Buir (呼倫貝爾市), im äußersten Nordosten der Inneren Mongolei gibt es folgende administrative Gliederungen der Ewenken:

Autonomes Banner der Ewenken (鄂溫克族自治旗);
Ewenkische Nationalitätengemeinde Samagir (薩馬街鄂溫克民族鄉): 259 km², 8.722 Einwohner, davon 321 Ewenken; gehört zur kreisfreien Stadt Zalantun (扎蘭屯市),
Ewenkische Nationalitätengemeinde Olguya (敖魯古雅鄂溫克民族鄉): 1.096 km², 498 Einwohner, davon 219 Ewenken; gehört zur kreisfreien Stadt Genhe (根河市),
Daurische und Ewenkische Nationalitätengemeinde Yinhe (音河達斡爾鄂溫克民族鄉): 558 km², 12.575 Einwohner, davon 1.051 Daur und Ewenken; gehört zum Arun-Banner (阿榮旗),
Ewenkische Nationalitätengemeinde Chabaqi (查巴奇鄂溫克民族鄉): 726 km², 13.196 Einwohner, davon 687 Ewenken; gehört zum Arun-Banner,
Ewenkische Nationalitätengemeinde Deliqir (德力其爾鄂溫克民族鄉): 340 km², 12.474 Einwohner, davon 156 Ewenken; gehört zum Arun-Banner,
Ewenkischer Nationalitäten-Sum (鄂溫克民族蘇木): 6.037 km², 2.470 Einwohner, davon 1.589 Ewenken; gehört zum Alten Bargu-Banner (陳巴爾虎旗),
Ewenkische Nationalitätengemeinde Dular (杜拉爾鄂溫克民族鄉): 529 km², 7.039 Einwohner, davon 616 Ewenken; gehört zum Autonomen Banner Morin Dawa der Daur (莫力達瓦達斡爾族自治旗),
Ewenkische Nationalitätengemeinde Bayan (巴彥鄂溫克民族鄉): 1.500 km², 13.499 Einwohner, davon 1.260 Ewenken; gehört zum Autonomen Banner Morin Dawa der Daur.

Im Verwaltungsgebiet der Stadt (auf Bezirksebene) Qiqihar (齊齊哈爾市), im Nordwesten der Provinz Heilongjiang gibt es folgende administrative Gliederung der Ewenken:

Gemeinde Xingwang der Ewenken (興旺鄂溫克族鄉): 174,7 km², 12.618 Einwohner, davon 594 Ewenken; gehört zur kreisfreien Stadt Nehe (訥河市).

Verbreitungsgebiete der Ewenken Chinas auf Kreisebene (2000)

Es wurden nur Werte über 0,10% berücksichtigt.

übergeordnete Provinzebene	übergeordnete Bezirksebene	Banner, Stadt, Kreis, Stadtbezirk	Anzahl der Ewenken	% aller Ewenken Chinas
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Autonomes Banner der Ewenken	9.733	31,91%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Autonomes Banner Morin Dawa der Daur	5.126	16,8%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Oroqenisches Autonomes Banner	3.155	10,34%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Arun-Banner	2.144	7,03%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Altes Bargu-Banner	1.906	6,25%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Stadt Zalantun	1.201	3,94%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Stadtbezirk Hailar	971	3,18%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Qiqihar	Stadt Nehe	778	2,55%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Heihe	Kreis Nenjiang	678	2,22%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Stadt Yakeshi	405	1,33%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Stadt Genhe	369	1,21%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hohhot	Stadtbezirk Saihan	158	0,52%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Stadt Manjur	141	0,46%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Qiqihar	Stadtbezirk Meilisi der Daur	135	0,44%
Provinz Heilongjiang	RB Großes Hinggan-Gebirge	Jagdaqi	129	0,42%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hohhot	Stadtbezirk Xincheng	128	0,42%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Qiqihar	Kreis Fuyu	111	0,36%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Stadt Ergun	110	0,36%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Neues Linkes Bargu-Banner	103	0,34%
Stadt Beijing	keine	Stadtbezirk Haidian	68	0,22%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Qiqihar	Stadtbezirk Jianhua	65	0,21%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Qiqihar	Stadtbezirk Tiefeng	65	0,21%
AG Innere Mongolei	Hinggan-Bund	Stadt Ulanhot	60	0,2%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Qiqihar	Kreis Gannan	59	0,19%
Provinz Heilongjiang	RB Großes Hinggan-Gebirge	Kreis Mohe	55	0,18%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Qiqihar	Stadtbezirk Hulan Ergi	54	0,18%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hulun Buir	Neues Rechtes Bargu-Banner	54	0,18%
Provinz Heilongjiang	RB Großes Hinggan-Gebirge	Kreis Huma	52	0,17%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Hohhot	Stadtbezirk der Huimin	48	0,16%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Qiqihar	Kreis Longjiang	44	0,14%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Qiqihar	Stadtbezirk Longsha	36	0,12%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Baotou	Stadtbezirk Qingshan	35	0,11%
AG Innere Mongolei	Stadt Tongliao	Stadtbezirk Horqin	35	0,11%
AG Innere Mongolei	Hinggan-Bund	Jalaid-Banner	34	0,11%
Provinz Heilongjiang	Stadt Heihe	Stadt Wudalianchi	32	0,1%
		Rest Chinas	2.228	7,33%

Evenks of Mongolia

Khamnigan is the Buriat-Mongolian term for all Ewenkis. In the early 16th century, the Ewenkis of Transbaikalia or Khamnigans were tributary to the Khalkha. The Khamnigan are only ethnic group of Manchu-Tungus origin in Mongolia.[2] They who lived around Nerchinsk and the Aga steppe faced both Cossack demands for tribute and Khori-Buriats trying to occupy their pastures. Most of them came under the Cossack rule and enrolled the Cossack regiments in the Selenge valley. The Khori Buriats occupied most of the Aga steppe and forced the Ewenkis to flee to the Qing Dynasty.

After 1880 Russia's Khamnigan Ewenkis moved to semi nomadic herding of cattle, sheep, camels and horses. Some time after 1918 the Ewenkis, along with their Buriat neighbors, fled over the border into Mongolia and Hulun Buir, establishing the current Khamnigan communities there. The Khamnigan of Mongolia, numbering 300 households, are scattered among the Buriats and speak only the Khamnigan dialect of Buriat language. They live around the Yeruu Lake, Dornod and Khentii provinces as well as Möngönmorit of Töv Province.

Religion

Prior to contact with the Russians, the belief system of the Evenks was animistic. Many have adopted Tibetan Buddhism. ^{[citation needed]}^{[citation needed]}

The Evenki, like most nomadic, pastoral, and subsistence agrarian peoples, spend most of their lives in very close contact with nature. Because of this, they develop what A. A. Sirina call an “ecological ethic.” By this she means “a system of responsibility of people to nature and her spirit masters, and of nature to people” (9). Sirina interviewed many Evenks who until very recently spent much of their time as reindeer herders in the taiga, just like their ancestors. The Evenki people also spoke along the same lines: their respect for nature and their belief that nature is a living being.

This idea, “[t]he embodiment, animation, and personification of nature—what is still called the animistic worldview—is the key component of the traditional worldview of hunter-gatherers” (Sirina, 13). Although most of the Evenkis have been “sedentarized”—that is, made to live in settled communities instead of following their traditional nomadic way of life (Fondahl, 5)—“[m]any scholars think that the worldview characteristic of hunter-gatherer societies is preserved, even if they make the transition to new economic models (Sirina, 30 quoting Barnard 1998, Lee 1999, Peterson 1999). Although nominally Christianized in the 18th century, the Evenki people maintain many of their historical beliefs—especially shamanism (Vasilevich, 624). The Christian traditions were “confined to the formal performance of Orthodox rites which were usually timed for the arrival of the priest in the taiga (647).

The religious beliefs and practices of the Evenks are of great historical interest since these retain some extremely early archaic forms of belief. By the beginning of this century, the religion of the Evenks included the remnants of various stages of development of religious ideas. Among the most ancient ideas are spiritualization of all natural phenomena, personification of them, belief in an upper, middle, and lower world, belief in the soul (omi) and certain totemistic concepts. There were also various magical rituals associated with hunting and guarding herds. Later on these rituals were conducted by shamans. Shamanism brought about the development of views of spirit-masters (Vasilevich 647).

References

^ Herold J. Wiens "Change in the Ethnography and Land Use of the Ili Valley and Region, Chinese Turkestan", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 59, No. 4 (Dec., 1969), pp. 753-775 (JSTOR access required)
^ Tianshannet / Окно в Синьцзян / Народности, не относящиеся к тюркской группе (Win dow to Xinjiang / Non-Turkic peoples) Template:Ru icon

D. O. Chaoke (an Evenk), WANG Lizhen (2002). 鄂温克族宗教信仰与文化 (Zipped NLC (Modified JBIG)). Beijing: 中央民族大学. ISBN 9787810567008.
- (The online edition needs a Book Reader for NLC and a ZIP extractor)
"Altaic." Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. 6th ed. 2009. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 4 Nov. 2009.
Anderson, David G. "Is Siberian Reindeer Herding in Crisis? Living with Reindeer Fifteen Yearss after the End of State Socialism." Nomadic Peoples NS 10.2 (2006): 87-103. EBSCO. Web. 6 Nov. 2009.
Bulatova, Nadezhda, and Lenore Grenoble. Evenki. Munchen: LINCOM Europa, 1999. Print. Languages of the World.
"Evenki." Cassell's Peoples, Nations, and Cultures. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005. EBSCO. Web. 4 Nov. 2009.
"Evenki." Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth Edition. Ed. Paul M. Lewis. SIL International, 2009. Web. 8 Dec. 2009. <http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=evn>.
Fondahl, Gail. Gaining ground? Evenkis, land and reform in southeastern Siberia. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998. Print.
Forsyth, James. History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony, 1581-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1992. Print.
Georg, Stefan, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis M. Ramer, and Paul J. Sidwell. "Telling general linguists about Altaic." Journal of Linguistics 35.1 (1999): 65-98. JSTOR. Web. 8 Dec. 2009.
Hallen, Cynthia L. "A Brief Exploration of the Altaic Hypothesis." Department of Linguistics. Brigham Young University, 6 Sept. 1999. Web. 8 Dec. 2009. <http://linguistics.byu.edu/classes/ling450ch/reports/altaic.htm>.
Janhunen, Juha. "Evenki." Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. Ed. Christopher Moseley. UNESCO Culture Sector, 31 Mar. 2009. Web. 8 Dec. 2009. <http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?pg=00206>.
Nedjalkov, Igor. Evenki. London: Routledge, 1997. Print. Descriptive Grammars.
Sirina, Anna A. "People Who Feel the Land: The Ecological Ethic of the Evenki and Eveny." Trans. James E. Walker. Anthropology & Archaeology of Eurasia 3rd ser. 47.Winter 2008-9 (2009): 9-37. EBSCOHost. Web. 27 Nov. 2009.
Vasilevich, G. M., and A. V. Smolyak. "Evenki." The Peoples of Siberia. Ed. Stephen Dunn. Trans. Scripta Technica, Inc. Chicago: The University of Chicago, 1964. 620-54. Print.
Vitebsky, Piers. Reindeer people: Living with Animals and Spirits in Siberia. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. Print.
Wood, Alan, and R. A. French, eds. Development of Siberia: People and Resources. New York: St. Martin's, 1989. Print.

External links

[1] Herold J. Wiens "Change in the Ethnography and Land Use of the Ili Valley and Region, Chinese Turkestan", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 59, No. 4 (Dec., 1969), pp. 753-775 (JSTOR access required)

[2] Tianshannet / Окно в Синьцзян / Народности, не относящиеся к тюркской группе (Win dow to Xinjiang / Non-Turkic peoples) Template:Ru icon

[1]

[2]